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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rise in IQ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rise_in_IQ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rise in IQ subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rise_in_IQ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precursors_to_Flynn's_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors_to_Flynn's_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Precursors to Flynn's publications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors_to_Flynn's_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul 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<span>Infectious diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Heterosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_of_lead_in_gasoline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_of_lead_in_gasoline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Reduction of lead in gasoline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_of_lead_in_gasoline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_end_of_progression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_end_of_progression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Possible end of progression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_end_of_progression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IQ_group_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IQ_group_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>IQ group differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IQ_group_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Flynn effect</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86" title="تأثير فلين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تأثير فلين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efeutu_Flynn" title="Efeutu Flynn – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Efeutu Flynn" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecte_Flynn" title="Efecte Flynn – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Efecte Flynn" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn-effekten" title="Flynn-effekten – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Flynn-effekten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn-Effekt" title="Flynn-Effekt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Flynn-Effekt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynni_efekt" title="Flynni efekt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Flynni efekt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_Flynn" title="Efecto Flynn – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Efecto Flynn" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اثر فلین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر فلین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effet_Flynn" title="Effet Flynn – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Effet Flynn" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%8C%EB%A6%B0_%ED%9A%A8%EA%B3%BC" title="플린 효과 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="플린 효과" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efek_Flynn" title="Efek Flynn – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Efek Flynn" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effetto_Flynn" title="Effetto Flynn – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Effetto Flynn" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%98_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="אפקט פלין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפקט פלין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn-effektus" title="Flynn-effektus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Flynn-effektus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynneffect" title="Flynneffect – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Flynneffect" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5" title="फ्लाइन प्रभाव – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फ्लाइन प्रभाव" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E5%8A%B9%E6%9E%9C" title="フリン効果 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フリン効果" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynneffekten" title="Flynneffekten – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Flynneffekten" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efekt_Flynna" title="Efekt Flynna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Efekt Flynna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efeito_Flynn" title="Efeito Flynn – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Efeito Flynn" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Эффект Флинна – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эффект Флинна" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Flynn effect" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynnin_ilmi%C3%B6" title="Flynnin ilmiö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Flynnin ilmiö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynneffekten" title="Flynneffekten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Flynneffekten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flynn_etkisi" title="Flynn etkisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Flynn etkisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ефект Флінна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ефект Флінна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efet_da_Flynn" title="Efet da Flynn – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Efet da Flynn" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9E%97%E6%95%88%E6%87%89" title="弗林效應 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="弗林效應" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9E%97%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="弗林效应 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="弗林效应" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q508736#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">20th-century rise in intelligence test scores</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png/220px-Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png/330px-Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png/440px-Ourworldindata_wisc-iq-gains-over-time-flynn-2007.png 2x" data-file-width="1163" data-file-height="878" /></a><figcaption>Composition of IQ Gains</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Flynn effect</b> is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both <a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">fluid and crystallized intelligence</a> test scores that were measured in many parts of the world over the 20th century, named after researcher <a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">James Flynn</a> (1934–2020).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-baker_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baker-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> (IQ) tests are initially <a href="/wiki/Standard_score#Standardizing_in_mathematical_statistics" title="Standard score">standardized</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">sample</a> of test-takers, by convention the average of the test results is set to 100 and their <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> is set to 15 or 16 IQ points. When IQ tests are revised, they are again standardized using a new sample of test-takers, usually born more recently than the first; the average result is set to 100. When the new test subjects take the older tests, in almost every case their average scores are significantly above 100. </p><p>Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present. For example, a study published in the year 2009 found that British children's average scores on the <a href="/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices" title="Raven's Progressive Matrices">Raven's Progressive Matrices</a> test rose by 14 IQ points from 1942 to 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar gains have been observed in many other countries in which IQ testing has long been widely used, including other Western European countries, as well as Japan and South Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-baker_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baker-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Improvements have also been reported for <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rönnlund_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rönnlund-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, such as the rise in efficiency of education, along with skepticism concerning its implications. Some researchers have suggested the possibility of a mild reversal in the Flynn effect (i.e., a decline in IQ scores) in developed countries, beginning in the 1990s,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas2018_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas2018-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes referred to as <b>reverse Flynn effect</b>. In certain cases, this apparent reversal may be due to cultural changes rendering parts of intelligence tests obsolete.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, meta-analyses indicate that, overall, the Flynn effect continues, either at the same rate,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or at a slower rate in developed countries.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_term">Origin of term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg/250px-Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg/330px-Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg/500px-Jim_Flynn_U_of_Otago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vpqilhW9uI">James Flynn: Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents'</a>, (18:41), <a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED talks</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Flynn effect is named for <a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">James Robert Flynn</a>, who did much to document it and promote awareness of its implications. The term was coined by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Herrnstein" title="Richard Herrnstein">Richard Herrnstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Charles Murray</a> in their 1994 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bell_Curve" title="The Bell Curve">The Bell Curve</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Flynn_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flynn-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flynn stated that, if asked, he would have named the effect after Read D. Tuddenham<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who "was the first to present convincing evidence of massive gains on mental tests using a nationwide sample"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a 1948 article.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the general term for the phenomenon—referring to no researcher in particular—continues to be "<a href="/wiki/Saeculum" title="Saeculum">secular</a> rise in IQ scores", many textbooks on psychology and IQ testing have now followed the lead of Herrnstein and Murray in calling the phenomenon the Flynn effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FlynnEffectTerm_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FlynnEffectTerm-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_in_IQ">Rise in IQ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rise in IQ"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>IQ tests are updated periodically. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children" title="Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children">Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children</a> (WISC), originally developed in 1949, was updated in 1974, 1991, 2003, and again in 2014. The revised versions are <a href="/wiki/Standardized" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardized">standardized</a> based on the performance of test-takers in standardization samples. A standard score of IQ 100 is defined as the mean performance of the standardization sample. Thus one way to see changes in norms over time is to conduct a study in which the same test-takers take both an old and new version of the same test. Doing so confirms IQ gains over time. Some IQ tests—for example, tests used for military draftees in <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> countries in Europe—report raw scores, and those also confirm a trend of rising scores over time. The average rate of increase seems to be about three IQ points per decade in the United States, as scaled by the Wechsler tests. The increasing test performance over time appears on every major test, in every age range, at every ability level, and in every modern industrialized country, although not necessarily at the same rate as in the United States. The increase was continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the mid-1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (November 2017)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Though the effect is most associated with IQ increases, a similar effect has been found with increases in attention and of <a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">semantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rönnlund_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rönnlund-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a> estimated that using the IQ values of 1997, the average IQ of the United States in 1932, according to the first <a href="/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales" title="Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales">Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales</a> standardization sample, was 80. Neisser states that "Hardly any of them would have scored 'very superior', but nearly one-quarter would have appeared to be 'deficient.'" He also wrote that "Test scores are certainly going up all over the world, but whether intelligence itself has risen remains controversial."<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantitative psychologist, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lee_Rodgers" title="Joseph Lee Rodgers">Joseph Lee Rodgers</a> argues that the effect occurs outside of families in any case.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trahan et al. (2014) found that the effect was about 2.93 points per decade,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Over what time interval? (March 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> based on both Stanford–Binet and Wechsler tests; they also found no evidence the effect was diminishing.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Pietschnig and Voracek (2015) reported, in their meta-analysis of studies involving nearly 4 million participants, that the Flynn effect had decreased in recent decades. They also reported that the magnitude of the effect was different for different types of intelligence ("0.41, 0.30, 0.28, and 0.21 IQ points annually for fluid, spatial, full-scale, and crystallized IQ test performance, respectively"), and that the effect was stronger for adults than for children.<sup id="cite_ref-Pietschnig_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pietschnig-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Raven (2000) found that, as Flynn suggested, data interpreted as showing a decrease in many abilities with increasing age must be re-interpreted as showing that there has been a dramatic increase of these abilities with the date of birth. On many tests this occurs at all levels of ability.<sup id="cite_ref-R2000_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some studies have found the gains of the Flynn effect to be particularly concentrated at the lower end of the distribution. Teasdale and Owen (1989), for example, found the effect primarily reduced the number of low-end scores, resulting in an increased number of moderately high scores, with no increase in very high scores.<sup id="cite_ref-TO1987_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TO1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another study, two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap. Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that the mean IQ scores on the test had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and the gains gradually decreased as the IQ of the individuals increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Colom2005_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colom2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies have found a reverse Flynn effect with declining scores for those with high IQ.<sup id="cite_ref-Pietschnig_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pietschnig-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1987, Flynn took the position that the very large increase indicates that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but only a minor sort of "abstract problem-solving ability" with little practical significance. He argued that if IQ gains did reflect intelligence increases, there would have been consequent changes of our society that have not been observed (a presumed non-occurrence of a "cultural renaissance").<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2012 Flynn no longer endorsed this view of intelligence, having elaborated and refined his view of what rising IQ scores meant.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors_to_Flynn's_publications"><span id="Precursors_to_Flynn.27s_publications"></span>Precursors to Flynn's publications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Precursors to Flynn's publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earlier investigators had discovered rises in raw IQ test scores in some study populations, but had not published general investigations of that issue in particular. Historian Daniel C. Calhoun cited earlier psychology literature on IQ score trends in his book <i>The Intelligence of a People</i> (1973).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Thorndike" title="Robert L. Thorndike">Robert L. Thorndike</a> – not to be confused with his famous father <i><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward</a></i> – drew attention to rises in Stanford-Binet scores in a 1975 review of the history of intelligence testing.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lynn" title="Richard Lynn">Richard Lynn</a> recorded an increase in average IQ among the population of Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence">Intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">g factor (psychometrics)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(trait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence (trait)">Intelligence (trait)</a></div> <p>There is debate about whether the rise in IQ scores also corresponds to a rise in general intelligence, or only a rise in special skills related to taking IQ tests. Because children attend school longer now and have become much more familiar with the testing of school-related material, one might expect the greatest gains to occur on such school content-related tests as <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> or general information. Just the opposite is the case: abilities such as these have experienced relatively small gains and even occasional decreases over the years. Meta-analytic findings indicate that Flynn effects occur for tests assessing both fluid and crystallized abilities. For example, Dutch conscripts gained 21 points during only 30 years, or 7 points per decade, between 1952 and 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This rise in IQ test scores is not wholly explained by an increase in general intelligence. Studies have shown that while test scores have improved over time, the improvement is not fully correlated with latent factors related to intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other researchers argue that the IQ gains described by the Flynn effect are due in part to increasing intelligence, and in part to increases in test-specific skills.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nijenhuis04_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nijenhuis04-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study suggested that the IQ gains reflected changes in modes of thinking that better reflected cognitive skills assessed by IQ tests rather than raw intelligence itself.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_explanations">Proposed explanations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Proposed explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">Impact of health on intelligence</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schooling_and_test_familiarity">Schooling and test familiarity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Schooling and test familiarity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The duration of average schooling has increased steadily. However, a criticism of this explanation is that if (in the United States) older and younger subjects, with similar educational levels, are compared together, then the IQ gains appear almost undiminished in each group compared to when they are considered individually.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many studies find that children who do not attend school score drastically lower on the tests than their regularly attending peers. During the 1960s, when some <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> counties <a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">closed their public schools to avoid racial integration</a>, compensatory private schooling was available only for White children. On average, the scores of African-American children who received no formal education during that period decreased at a rate of about six IQ points per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another explanation is an increased familiarity of the general population with tests and testing. For example, children who take the very same IQ test a second time usually gain five or six points. However, this seems to set an upper limit on the effects of test sophistication. One problem with this explanation and others related to schooling is that in the US, the groups with greater test familiarity show smaller IQ increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Early_intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="Early intervention">Early intervention</a> programs have shown mixed results. Some preschool (ages 3–4) intervention programs like "<a href="/wiki/Head_Start_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Head Start Program">Head Start</a>" do not produce lasting changes of IQ, although they may confer other benefits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2014)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Abecedarian_Early_Intervention_Project" title="Abecedarian Early Intervention Project">Abecedarian Early Intervention Project</a>", an all-day program that provided various forms of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_enrichment_(neural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental enrichment (neural)">environmental enrichment</a> to children from infancy onward, showed IQ gains that did not diminish over time. The IQ gains in the experimental group compared to the control group was 4.4 points. These gains persisted until at least age 21.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Citing a high correlation between rising literacy rates and gains in IQ, <a href="/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)" title="David Marks (psychologist)">David Marks</a> has argued that the Flynn effect is caused by changes in literacy rates.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency#Deficient_populations" title="Iodine deficiency">Iodine deficiency § Deficient populations</a></div> <p>Improved nutrition is another possible explanation. Today's average adult from an industrialized nation is taller than a comparable adult of a century ago. That increase of stature, likely the result of general improvements in nutrition and health, has been at a rate of more than a centimeter per decade. Available data suggest that these gains have been accompanied by analogous increases in head size, and by an increase in the average size of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This argument had been thought to suffer the difficulty that groups who tend to be of smaller overall body size (e.g. women, or people of Asian ancestry) do not have lower average IQs.<sup id="cite_ref-TO1987_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TO1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2005 study presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains will occur predominantly at the low end of the IQ distribution, where nutritional deprivation is probably most severe.<sup id="cite_ref-Colom2005_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colom2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Skewed" class="mw-redirect" title="Skewed">skewed</a> IQ gains could be that improved education has been particularly important for this group.<sup id="cite_ref-TO1987_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TO1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A century ago, <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">nutritional</a> deficiencies may have limited body and organ functionality, including skull volume. The first two years of life are a critical time for nutrition. The consequences of malnutrition can be irreversible and may include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Flynn has pointed to 20-point gains on Dutch military (<a href="/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices" title="Raven's Progressive Matrices">Raven's</a> type) IQ tests between 1952, 1962, 1972, and 1982. In 1962 he observed that Dutch 18-year-olds had a major nutritional handicap. They were either in the womb or were recently born, during the great <a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch famine of 1944">Dutch famine of 1944</a>—when German troops monopolized food and 18,000 people died of starvation.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, concludes Flynn, "they do not show up even as a blip in the pattern of Dutch IQ gains. It is as if the famine had never occurred."<sup id="cite_ref-PB101-171_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PB101-171-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears that the effects of diet are gradual, taking effect over decades (affecting mother as well as the child) rather than a few months.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Reliable source needed for the whole sentence (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In support of the nutritional hypothesis, it is known that, in the United States, the average height before 1900 was about 10 cm (~4 inches) shorter than it is today.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possibly related to the Flynn effect is a similar change of <a href="/wiki/Cranial_vault" title="Cranial vault">skull</a> size and shape during the last 150 years. A Norwegian study found that height gains were strongly correlated with intelligence gains until the cessation of height gains in military conscript cohorts towards the end of the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-doi10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.004_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.004-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both height and skull size increases probably result from a combination of <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a> and genetic <a href="/wiki/Selection_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection (biology)">selection</a> over this period.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With only five or six human generations in 150 years, time for <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> has been very limited, suggesting that increased skeletal size resulting from changes in population <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> is more likely than recent genetic evolution. </p><p>It is well known that <a href="/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrient</a> deficiencies change the development of intelligence. For instance, one study has found that <a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">iodine deficiency</a> causes a fall, on average, of 12 IQ points in China.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientists James Feyrer, Dimitra Politi, and David N. Weil have found in the U.S. that the proliferation of iodized salt increased IQ by 15 points in some areas. Journalist Max Nisen has stated that with this type of salt becoming popular, that "the aggregate effect has been extremely positive."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Daley et al. (2003) found a significant Flynn effect among children in rural <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, and concluded that nutrition was one of the hypothesized explanations that best explained their results (the others were parental literacy and family structure).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generally_more_stimulating_environment">Generally more stimulating environment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Generally more stimulating environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Still another theory is that the general environment today is much more complex and stimulating. One of the most striking 20th-century changes in the human intellectual environment has come from the increase of exposure to many types of <a href="/wiki/Visual_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual media">visual media</a>. From pictures on the wall to movies to television to video games to computers, each successive generation has been exposed to richer optical displays than the one before and may have become more adept at visual analysis. This would explain why visual tests like the Raven's have shown the greatest increases. An increase only of particular forms of intelligence would explain why the Flynn effect has not caused a "cultural renaissance too great to be overlooked."<sup id="cite_ref-Neisser97_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neisser97-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2001, <a href="/wiki/William_Dickens" title="William Dickens">William Dickens</a> and James Flynn presented a model for resolving several contradictory findings regarding IQ. They argue that the measure "<a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a>" includes both a direct effect of the <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> on IQ and also indirect effects such that the genotype changes the <a href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environment</a>, thereby affecting IQ. That is, those with a greater IQ tend to seek stimulating environments that further increase IQ. These reciprocal effects result in <a href="/wiki/Gene_environment_correlation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene environment correlation">gene environment correlation</a>. The direct effect could initially have been very small, but <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> can create large differences in IQ. In their model, an environmental stimulus can have a very great effect on IQ, even for adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues (the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition during early childhood, that may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that any program designed to increase IQ may produce long-term IQ gains if that program teaches children how to replicate the types of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains outside the program. To maximize lifetime IQ, the programs should also motivate them to continue searching for cognitively demanding experiences after they have left the program.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickens01_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickens01-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flynn, in his 2007 book <i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_Intelligence%3F" title="What Is Intelligence?">What Is Intelligence?</a></i>, further expanded on this theory. Environmental changes resulting from modernization—such as more intellectually demanding work, greater use of technology, and smaller families—have meant that a much larger proportion of people are more accustomed to manipulating abstract concepts such as hypotheses and categories than a century ago. Substantial portions of IQ tests deal with these abilities. Flynn gives, as an example, the question 'What do a dog and a rabbit have in common?' A modern respondent might say they are both mammals (an abstract, or <i>a priori</i> answer, which depends only on the meanings of the words <i>dog</i> and <i>rabbit</i>), whereas someone a century ago might have said that humans catch rabbits with dogs (a concrete, or <i>a posteriori</i> answer, which depended on what happened to be the case at that time).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infectious_diseases">Infectious diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Infectious diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Parasite_load#Host_stress" title="Parasite load">Parasite load § Host stress</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">Impact of health on intelligence</a></div> <p>Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2011) conducted a study looking at different US states found that states with a higher prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious diseases</a> had lower average IQ. The effect remained after controlling for the effects of wealth and educational variation.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atheendar Venkataramani (2010) studied the effect of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> on IQ in a sample of Mexicans. Malaria eradication during the birth year was associated with increases in IQ. It also increased the probability of employment in a skilled occupation. The author suggests that this may be one explanation for the Flynn effect and that this may be an important explanation for the link between national malaria burden and economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A literature review of 44 papers states that cognitive abilities and school performance were shown to be impaired in sub-groups of patients (with either cerebral malaria or uncomplicated malaria) when compared with healthy controls. Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for acute malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery. Malaria <a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylaxis">prophylaxis</a> was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heterosis">Heterosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Heterosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression#In_humans" title="Inbreeding depression">Inbreeding depression § In humans</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Heterosis" title="Heterosis">Heterosis</a>, or <i>hybrid vigor</i>, associated with historical reductions of the levels of <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a>, has been proposed by Michael Mingroni as an alternative explanation of the Flynn effect.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, James Flynn has pointed out that even if everyone mated with a sibling in 1900, subsequent increases in heterosis would not be a sufficient explanation of the observed IQ gains.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduction_of_lead_in_gasoline">Reduction of lead in gasoline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reduction of lead in gasoline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead_abatement" title="Lead abatement">Lead abatement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></div> <p>One study found the drop in blood lead levels in the United States from the 1970s to 2007 correlated with a 4–5 point increase in IQ.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_end_of_progression">Possible end of progression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Possible end of progression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg/250px-Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg/330px-Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg/500px-Sundet_et_al_2004_fig_3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>Mean standing height and mean GA (both in z scores units+5) by year of testing, from Sundet et al. 2004 (figure 3)</figcaption></figure> <p>Jon Martin Sundet and colleagues (2004) examined scores on intelligence tests given to <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Armed_Forces#Conscription" title="Norwegian Armed Forces">conscripts</a> between the 1950s and 2002. They found that the increase of scores of general intelligence stopped after the mid-1990s and declined in numerical reasoning sub-tests.<sup id="cite_ref-doi10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.004_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.004-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Teasdale and Owen (2005) examined the results of IQ tests given to <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a> male conscripts. Between 1959 and 1979 the gains were 3 points per decade. Between 1979 and 1989 the increase approached 2 IQ points. Between 1989 and 1998 the gain was about 1.3 points. Between 1998 and 2004 IQ declined by about the same amount as it gained between 1989 and 1998. They speculate that "a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18-year-olds."<sup id="cite_ref-Teasdale2005_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teasdale2005-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same authors in a more comprehensive 2008 study, again on Danish male conscripts, found that there was a 1.5-point increase between 1988 and 1998, but a 1.5-point decrease between 1998 and 2003/2004.<sup id="cite_ref-reversal_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reversal-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, the IQ of 6–12-year-olds (as measured by <a href="/wiki/Raven%27s_Progressive_Matrices" title="Raven's Progressive Matrices">colored progressive matrices</a>) has shown no increase from 1975 to 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, a study by Flynn (2009) himself found that tests carried out in 1980 and again in 2008 show that the IQ score of an average 14-year-old dropped by more than two points over the period. For the upper half of the results, the performance was even worse. Average IQ scores declined by six points. However, children aged between five and 10 saw their IQs increase by up to half a point a year over the three decades. Flynn argues that the abnormal drop in British teenage IQ could be due to youth culture having "stagnated" or even dumbed down.<sup id="cite_ref-requiem_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-requiem-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bratsberg & Rogeberg (2018) present evidence that the Flynn effect in Norway has reversed between the years 1962–1991, and that both the original rise in mean IQ scores and their subsequent decline within this period can be observed within families consisting of native-born parents and their children, indicating that environmental factors were the likely cause for these changes. Because IQ data was only available for male Norwegians, who were subject to military conscription, years of schooling were used as an approximation for female IQ to support this conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-pnas2018_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas2018-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One possible explanation of a worldwide decline in intelligence is an increase in air pollution; coal burning emits mercury, and intelligence has continued to climb in areas, like the southern United States, where coal burning has declined.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Winter et al. (2024) when comparing two <a href="/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale" title="Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale">WAIS-5</a> validity studies found a reduced Flynn effect of an increase of 1.2 IQ points per decade rather than the expected 3 IQ point increase per decade. The authors identified various novel factors including <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> dependency and the <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_COVID-19_on_neurological,_psychological_and_other_mental_health_outcomes" title="Impact of COVID-19 on neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes">COVID-19 pandemic</a> which may have contributed to a reduced Flynn effect.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="IQ_group_differences">IQ group differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: IQ group differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png/250px-Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png/330px-Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png/500px-Flynn-%E2%80%93-World-Regions.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Gains in IQ that different world regions have made since the first year for which data is available for a particular region.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nations_and_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Nations and intelligence">Nations and intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">Race and intelligence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Sex differences in intelligence</a></div> <p>If the Flynn effect has ended in developed nations but continues in less developed ones, this would tend to diminish <a href="/wiki/Nations_and_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Nations and intelligence">national differences in IQ scores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-reversal_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reversal-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, if the Flynn effect has ended for the majority in developed nations, it may still continue for minorities, especially for groups like immigrants where many may have received poor nutrition during early childhood or have had other disadvantages. A study in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> found that children of non-Western immigrants had improvements for <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">g</a>, educational achievements, and work proficiency compared to their parents, although there were still remaining differences compared to ethnic Dutch.<sup id="cite_ref-Nijenhuis04_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nijenhuis04-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the IQ gap between black and white people was gradually closing over the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers. For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickensFlynn2006_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickensFlynn2006-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a reduction of about one-third. In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reviews by Flynn and Dickens,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mackintosh" title="Nicholas Mackintosh">Nicholas Mackintosh</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Nisbett et al.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all concluded that the gradual closing of the gap was a real phenomenon. </p><p>Flynn has commented that he never claimed that the Flynn effect has the same causes as observed differences in average IQ test performance between blacks and whites, but that it shows that environmental factors can create IQ differences of a magnitude similar to that gap.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wicherts <i>et al</i>. had previously suggested a similar interpretation in a 2004 paper.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flynn also argued that his findings undermine the so-called <a href="/wiki/Spearman%27s_hypothesis" title="Spearman's hypothesis">Spearman's hypothesis</a>, which hypothesized that differences in g factor are the major driver of the blacks-whites IQ gap.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTrahanStuebingFletcherHiscock2014" class="citation journal cs1">Trahan, Lisa H.; Stuebing, Karla K.; Fletcher, Jack M.; Hiscock, Merrill (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152423">"The Flynn effect: A meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>140</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1332–</span>1360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0037173">10.1037/a0037173</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1455">1939-1455</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152423">4152423</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24979188">24979188</a>.</cite><span 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"A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis of Raven's Progressive Matrices: Age groups and developing versus developed countries". <i>Intelligence</i>. <b>49</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2014.11.008">10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence&rft.atitle=A+Cross-Temporal+Meta-Analysis+of+Raven%27s+Progressive+Matrices%3A+Age+groups+and+developing+versus+developed+countries&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2015-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.intell.2014.11.008&rft.aulast=Wongupparaj&rft.aufirst=Peera&rft.au=Kumari%2C+Veena&rft.au=Morris%2C+Robin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Flynn-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Flynn_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.2009" class="citation book cs1">Flynn, James R. (2009). <i>What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect</i> (expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-74147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-74147-7"><bdi>978-0-521-74147-7</bdi></a>. <q>The 'Flynn effect' is the name that has become attached to an exciting development, namely, that the twentieth century saw massive IQ gains from one generation to another. To forestall a diagnosis of megalomania, the label was coined by Herrnstein and Murray, the authors of <i>The Bell Curve</i>, and not by myself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Intelligence%3A+Beyond+the+Flynn+Effect&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.edition=expanded+paperback&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-74147-7&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShalizi2009" class="citation web cs1">Shalizi, Cosma (April 27, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120719062416/http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/reviews/flynn-beyond/">"The Domestication of the Savage Mind"</a>. <i>University of Michigan</i> (Review). 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(July 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/ajp/article/126/2/135/258002/Detecting-Psychological-Phenomena-Taking-Bottom-Up">"Detecting Psychological Phenomena: Taking Bottom-Up Research Seriously"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>126</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">135–</span>153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5406%2Famerjpsyc.126.2.0135">10.5406/amerjpsyc.126.2.0135</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9556">0002-9556</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23858950">23858950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Detecting+Psychological+Phenomena%3A+Taking+Bottom-Up+Research+Seriously&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E153&rft.date=2013-07-01&rft.issn=0002-9556&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23858950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5406%2Famerjpsyc.126.2.0135&rft.aulast=Haig&rft.aufirst=Brian+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlypublishingcollective.org%2Fajp%2Farticle%2F126%2F2%2F135%2F258002%2FDetecting-Psychological-Phenomena-Taking-Bottom-Up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2011" class="citation cs2">Flynn, James R. (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://james-flynn.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/The-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Intelligence.pdf">"Secular Changes in Intelligence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence</i>, pp. <span class="nowrap">647–</span>665, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511977244.033">10.1017/cbo9780511977244.033</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97724-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-97724-4"><bdi>978-0-511-97724-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Secular+Changes+in+Intelligence&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E647-%3C%2Fspan%3E665&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511977244.033&rft.isbn=978-0-511-97724-4&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjames-flynn.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F12%2FThe-Cambridge-Handbook-of-Intelligence.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTuddenham1948" class="citation journal cs1">Tuddenham, R. D. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18911933/">"Soldier intelligence in World Wars I and II"</a>. <i>The American Psychologist</i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">54–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0054962">10.1037/h0054962</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-066X">0003-066X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18911933">18911933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Soldier+intelligence+in+World+Wars+I+and+II&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1948&rft.issn=0003-066X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18911933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0054962&rft.aulast=Tuddenham&rft.aufirst=R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F18911933%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FlynnEffectTerm-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FlynnEffectTerm_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFletcherHattie2011" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Richard B.; Hattie, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8pzDawey6akC"><i>Intelligence and Intelligence Testing</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82321-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-82321-3"><bdi>978-1-136-82321-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2013</span>. <q>Indeed, this effect, now called the 'Flynn effect', is well established. Nations, almost without exception, have shown gains of about 20 IQ points per generation (30 years). These gains are highest for IQ tests that are most related to reasoning and the capacity to figure out novel problems (this is often called 'fluid intelligence', see Chapter 5); and least related to knowledge, which arises from better educational opportunity, a history of persistence and good motivation for learning (this is often called 'crystallized intelligence', see Chapter 5).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+and+Intelligence+Testing&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-82321-3&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft.au=Hattie%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8pzDawey6akC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2010" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Joan (2010). <i>Gifted Lives: What Happens when Gifted Children Grow Up</i>. London: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">290–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47009-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47009-4"><bdi>978-0-415-47009-4</bdi></a>. <q>A strange new phenomenon has been growing since about 1950, called the 'Flynn Effect' after Professor James Flynn of the University of Otago, New Zealand. In his book <i>What is Intelligence ?</i>, Flynn describes a year-on-year rise in measured intelligence, about three IQ points a decade.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gifted+Lives%3A+What+Happens+when+Gifted+Children+Grow+Up&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E290-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-47009-4&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarbieri2010" class="citation news cs1">Barbieri, Annalisa (October 8, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/oct/09/gifted-children-joan-freeman-psychologist">"Young, gifted and likely to suffer for it"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215132/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/oct/09/gifted-children-joan-freeman-psychologist">Archived</a> from the original on November 11, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Young%2C+gifted+and+likely+to+suffer+for+it&rft.date=2010-10-08&rft.aulast=Barbieri&rft.aufirst=Annalisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2010%2Foct%2F09%2Fgifted-children-joan-freeman-psychologist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUrbina2004" class="citation book cs1">Urbina, Susana (2004). <i>Essentials of Psychological Testing</i>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41978-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41978-5"><bdi>978-0-471-41978-5</bdi></a>. <q>A puzzling longitudinal trend in the opposite direction, known as the 'Flynn effect', has been well documented in successive revisions of major intelligence tests (like the S-B and the Wechsler scales) that invariably involve the administration of both the old and new versions to a segment of the newer standardization sample, for comparative purposes. Data from revisions of various intelligence tests in the United States as well as in other countries—extensively analyzed by J.R. Flynn (1984, 1987)—show a pronounced, long-term upward trend in the level of performance required to obtain any given IQ score. The Flynn effect presumably reflects population gains over time in the kinds of cognitive performance that intelligence tests sample.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Psychological+Testing&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-41978-5&rft.aulast=Urbina&rft.aufirst=Susana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWasserman2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wasserman, John D. (2012). "Chapter 18: Assessment of Intellectual Functioning". In Weiner, Irving B.; Graham, John R.; Naglieri, Jack A. (eds.). <i>Handbook of Psychology</i>. Vol. 10: Assessment Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 486. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-89127-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-89127-8"><bdi>978-0-470-89127-8</bdi></a>. <q>Both definitions also specify that the intellectual functioning criterion for a diagnosis of intellectual disability is approximately 2 <i>SD</i>s or more below the normative mean, but factors such as test score statistical error (standard error of measurement), test fairness, normative expectations for the population of interest, the Flynn effect, and practice effects from previous testing need to be considered before arriving at any diagnosis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+18%3A+Assessment+of+Intellectual+Functioning&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Psychology&rft.pages=486&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-470-89127-8&rft.aulast=Wasserman&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChamorro-Premuzic2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tomas_Chamorro-Premuzic" title="Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic">Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas</a> (2011). <i>Personality and Individual Differences</i>. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958559-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958559-5"><bdi>978-0-19-958559-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IQ+and+Human+Intelligence&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958559-5&rft.aulast=Mackintosh&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNisbettAronsonBlairDickens2012a" class="citation journal cs1">Nisbett, Richard E.; Aronson, Joshua; Blair, Clancy; Dickens, William; Flynn, James; Halpern, Diane F.; Turkheimer, Eric (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108132004/http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/nisbett2012int.pdf">"Intelligence: new findings and theoretical developments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>67</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">130–</span>159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0026699">10.1037/a0026699</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-066X">0003-066X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22233090">22233090</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/nisbett2012int.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 8, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 22,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Intelligence%3A+new+findings+and+theoretical+developments&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E130-%3C%2Fspan%3E159&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=0003-066X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22233090&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0026699&rft.aulast=Nisbett&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Aronson%2C+Joshua&rft.au=Blair%2C+Clancy&rft.au=Dickens%2C+William&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James&rft.au=Halpern%2C+Diane+F.&rft.au=Turkheimer%2C+Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.virginia.edu%2F~ent3c%2Fpapers2%2Fnisbett2012int.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWillingham2012" class="citation web cs1">Willingham, Dan (May 10, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.danielwillingham.com/1/post/2012/05/the-latest-on-intelligence.html">"The latest on intelligence"</a>. <i>Daniel Willingham—Science & Education</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daniel+Willingham%E2%80%94Science+%26+Education&rft.atitle=The+latest+on+intelligence&rft.date=2012-05-10&rft.aulast=Willingham&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.danielwillingham.com%2F1%2Fpost%2F2012%2F05%2Fthe-latest-on-intelligence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2010" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, J.R. (2010). "The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate". <i>Intelligence</i>. <b>38</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">363–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2010.05.001">10.1016/j.intell.2010.05.001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence&rft.atitle=The+spectacles+through+which+I+see+the+race+and+IQ+debate&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E363-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.intell.2010.05.001&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWichertsDolanHessenOosterveld2004" class="citation journal cs1">Wicherts, Jelte M.; Dolan, Conor V.; Hessen, David J.; Oosterveld, Paul; van Baal, G. Caroline M.; Boomsma, Dorret I.; Span, Mark M. (2004). "Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect". <i>Intelligence</i>. <b>32</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">509–</span>537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2004.07.002">10.1016/j.intell.2004.07.002</a>. <q>It appears therefore that the nature of the Flynn effect is qualitatively different from the nature of B–W differences in the United States. Each comparison of groups should be investigated separately. IQ gaps between cohorts do not teach us anything about IQ gaps between contemporary groups, except that each IQ gap should not be confused with real (i.e., latent) differences in intelligence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence&rft.atitle=Are+intelligence+tests+measurement+invariant+over+time%3F+Investigating+the+nature+of+the+Flynn+effect&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E509-%3C%2Fspan%3E537&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.intell.2004.07.002&rft.aulast=Wicherts&rft.aufirst=Jelte+M.&rft.au=Dolan%2C+Conor+V.&rft.au=Hessen%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Oosterveld%2C+Paul&rft.au=van+Baal%2C+G.+Caroline+M.&rft.au=Boomsma%2C+Dorret+I.&rft.au=Span%2C+Mark+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn1999" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, J.R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/stuff_for_blog/flynn.pdf">"Searching for justice: the discovery of IQ gains over time"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Psychologist</i>. <b>54</b>: <span class="nowrap">5–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.1.5">10.1037/0003-066X.54.1.5</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100625085640/http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/stuff_for_blog/flynn.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on June 25, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Searching+for+justice%3A+the+discovery+of+IQ+gains+over+time&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.1.5&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stat.columbia.edu%2F~gelman%2Fstuff_for_blog%2Fflynn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Te_Nijenhuis,_Jan" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Nijenhuis, Jan">te Nijenhuis, Jan</a>, & van der Flier, H. (2013). "Is the Flynn effect on g?: A meta-analysis." <i>Intelligence</i>, 41(6), 802–807. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodgers,_Joseph_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodgers, Joseph Lee">Rodgers, Joseph Lee</a> (1998). "A critique of the Flynn Effect: Massive IQ gains, methodological artifacts, or both?" <i>Intelligence</i>, 26(4), 337–356. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00004-5</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.1984" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, James R. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn1984b.pdf">"The Mean IQ of Americans: Massive Gains 1932 to 1978"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Bulletin" title="Psychological Bulletin">Psychological Bulletin</a></i>. <b>95</b>: <span class="nowrap">29–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.95.1.29">10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.29</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120310210720/http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn1984b.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 10, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 16,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+Mean+IQ+of+Americans%3A+Massive+Gains+1932+to+1978&rft.volume=95&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.95.1.29&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iapsych.com%2Fiqmr%2Ffe%2FLinkedDocuments%2Fflynn1984b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.1987" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, James R. (March 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn1987.pdf">"Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Bulletin" title="Psychological Bulletin">Psychological Bulletin</a></i>. <b>101</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">171–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.101.2.171">10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.171</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110124091833/http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn1987.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 24, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Massive+IQ+Gains+in+14+Nations%3A+What+IQ+Tests+Really+Measure&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E171-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=1987-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.101.2.171&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iapsych.com%2Fiqmr%2Ffe%2FLinkedDocuments%2Fflynn1987.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.2012" class="citation book cs1">Flynn, James R. (2012). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arewegettingsmar0000flyn"><i>Are We Getting Smarter? Rising IQ in the Twenty-first century</i></a></span>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60917-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60917-4"><bdi>978-1-107-60917-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+We+Getting+Smarter%3F+Rising+IQ+in+the+Twenty-first+century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-60917-4&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farewegettingsmar0000flyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinerman2013" class="citation journal cs1">Winerman, Lea (March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/03/smarter.aspx">"Smarter than ever?"</a>. <i>Monitor on Psychology</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monitor+on+Psychology&rft.atitle=Smarter+than+ever%3F&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2013-03&rft.aulast=Winerman&rft.aufirst=Lea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apa.org%2Fmonitor%2F2013%2F03%2Fsmarter.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUlric_NeisserJames_R._FlynnCarmi_SchoolerPatricia_M._Greenfield1998" class="citation book cs1">Ulric Neisser; James R. Flynn; Carmi Schooler; Patricia M. Greenfield; Wendy M. Williams; Marian Sigman; Shannon E. Whaley; Reynaldo Martorell; Richard Lynn; Robert M. Hauser; David W. Grissmer; Stephanie Williamson; Sheila Nataraj Kirby; Mark Berends; Stephen J. Ceci; Tina B. Rosenblum; Matthew Kumpf; Min-Hsiung Huang; Irwin D. Waldman; Samuel H. Preston; John C. Loehlin (1998). Neisser, Ulric (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risingcurvelongt00neis"><i>The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures</i></a></span>. APA Science Volume Series. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-503-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-503-3"><bdi>978-1-55798-503-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rising+Curve%3A+Long-Term+Gains+in+IQ+and+Related+Measures&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.series=APA+Science+Volume+Series&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-55798-503-3&rft.au=Ulric+Neisser&rft.au=James+R.+Flynn&rft.au=Carmi+Schooler&rft.au=Patricia+M.+Greenfield&rft.au=Wendy+M.+Williams&rft.au=Marian+Sigman&rft.au=Shannon+E.+Whaley&rft.au=Reynaldo+Martorell&rft.au=Richard+Lynn&rft.au=Robert+M.+Hauser&rft.au=David+W.+Grissmer&rft.au=Stephanie+Williamson&rft.au=Sheila+Nataraj+Kirby&rft.au=Mark+Berends&rft.au=Stephen+J.+Ceci&rft.au=Tina+B.+Rosenblum&rft.au=Matthew+Kumpf&rft.au=Min-Hsiung+Huang&rft.au=Irwin+D.+Waldman&rft.au=Samuel+H.+Preston&rft.au=John+C.+Loehlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisingcurvelongt00neis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTuddenham1948" class="citation cs2">Tuddenham, Read D. (1948), "Soldier intelligence in World Wars I and II", <i>American Psychologist</i>, <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">54–</span>56, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0054962">10.1037/h0054962</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18911933">18911933</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Soldier+intelligence+in+World+Wars+I+and+II&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0054962&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18911933&rft.aulast=Tuddenham&rft.aufirst=Read+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flynn_effect&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">Flynn, James Robert</a> (December 15, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychometrics.cam.ac.uk/about-us/directory/beyond-the-flynn-effect">"Beyond the Flynn Effect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011193938/https://www.psychometrics.cam.ac.uk/about-us/directory/beyond-the-flynn-effect">Archived</a> from the original on October 11, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Cambridge&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Flynn+Effect&rft.date=2006-12-15&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=James+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychometrics.cam.ac.uk%2Fabout-us%2Fdirectory%2Fbeyond-the-flynn-effect&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGraham2001" class="citation web cs1">Graham, Charles (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025230525/http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/flynneffect.shtml">"The Flynn Effect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/flynneffect.shtml">the original</a> on October 25, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 30,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indiana+University&rft.atitle=The+Flynn+Effect&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F%257Eintell%2Fflynneffect.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolloway1999" class="citation journal cs1">Holloway, Marguerite (January 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050910211047/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00037F65-D9C0-1C6A-84A9809EC588EF21">"Flynn's Effect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <b>280</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999SciAm.280a..37H">1999SciAm.280a..37H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0199-37">10.1038/scientificamerican0199-37</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00037F65-D9C0-1C6A-84A9809EC588EF21">the original</a> on September 10, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Flynn%27s+Effect&rft.volume=280&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1999-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0199-37&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999SciAm.280a..37H&rft.aulast=Holloway&rft.aufirst=Marguerite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Farticle.cfm%3FarticleID%3D00037F65-D9C0-1C6A-84A9809EC588EF21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDickensFlynn2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Dickens" title="William Dickens">Dickens, William Theodore</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">Flynn, James Robert</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.108.2.346">"Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a></i>. <b>108</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">346–</span>369. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.108.2.346">10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.346</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1471">1939-1471</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-295X">0033-295X</a> – via <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Heritability+Estimates+Versus+Large+Environmental+Effects%3A+The+IQ+Paradox+Resolved&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E346-%3C%2Fspan%3E369&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0033-295X&rft.eissn=1939-1471&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.108.2.346&rft.aulast=Dickens&rft.aufirst=William+Theodore&rft.au=Flynn%2C+James+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2FdoiLanding%3Fdoi%3D10.1037%252F0033-295X.108.2.346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Johnson, Steven (May 1, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2005/05/flynn-2/">"Dome Improvement"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1078-3148">1078-3148</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028">1059-1028</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019222711/https://www.wired.com/2005/05/flynn-2/">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Dome+Improvement&rft.date=2005-05-01&rft.eissn=1078-3148&rft.issn=1059-1028&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2005%2F05%2Fflynn-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlynn+effect" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeylighen2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Heylighen" title="Francis Heylighen">Heylighen, Francis Paul</a> (August 22, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/FLYNNEFF.html">"Increasing intelligence: the Flynn effect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704094614/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/FLYNNEFF.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 4, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abilities">Abilities</a>, traits,<br />and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/40px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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[\"CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn,_James_R.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynnTe_NijenhuisMetzen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn_J.R.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladwell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonthierGrégoireBesançon2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaig2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrnsteinMurray1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeylighen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolloway1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakob_PietschnigMartin_Voracek2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJantzMeadows_Jantz2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJantz_RL2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanZhouReynoldsKaufman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLynn1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackintosh2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarks2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMustMustRaudik2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeisser_U1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNisbettAronsonBlairDickens2012a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNisen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPesovskiKulakovTrajkovikj2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPietschnigGittler2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPietschnigVoracek2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlomin_R.DeFries_J.C.Craig_I.W.McGuffin_P.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian_MWang_DWatkins_WEGebski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaven_John2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRönnlundNilsson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamarasElrick2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShalizi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSundetBarlaugTorjussen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTe_NijenhuisDe_JongEversVan_Der_Flier2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeasdale1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeasdaleOwen2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTeasdaleOwen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorndike1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrahanStuebingFletcherHiscock2014\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuddenham1948\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFUlric_NeisserJames_R._FlynnCarmi_SchoolerPatricia_M._Greenfield1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrbina2004\"] = 1,\n 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