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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Denial and deception</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Framework in military intelligence theory</div> <p> <b>Denial and deception</b> (<b>D&D</b>) is a Western theoretical framework<sup id="cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for conceiving and analyzing <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military intelligence</a> techniques pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Secrecy" title="Secrecy">secrecy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originating in the 1980s, it is roughly based on the more pragmatic Soviet practices of <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_military_deception" title="Russian military deception">maskirovka</a></i> (which preceded the D&D conceptualization by decades) but it has a more theoretical approach compared to the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the D&D framework, denial and deception are seen as distinct but complementary endeavors.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Denial most often involves <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concealment" class="extiw" title="wikt:concealment">concealment</a> to prevent foreign agents, photographic <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic monitoring">electronic monitoring</a>, or even the media from revealing secretive diplomatic or military matters. Deception is the construction of a <a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">false reality</a> for the adversary through intentionally "<a href="/wiki/Leaked" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaked">leaked</a>" false information, false stories implanted in the media, dummy or decoy structures or military formations, or numerous other measures.<sup id="cite_ref-Shulsky_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shulsky-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the Japanese information warfare campaign that preceded the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, the D&D approach identifies as a denial measure the twice-repeated change in naval <a href="/wiki/Call_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Call signs">call signs</a> effected by the Imperial Navy between 1 November and 1 December, but identifies as a deception measure the Japanese Foreign Office announcement that a large Japanese liner would sail to California on 2 December to evacuate Japanese citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruce2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruce2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coordinated_plan">Coordinated plan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Coordinated plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A denial and deception campaign is most effective when numerous denial and deceptive efforts are coherently coordinated to advance a specific plan; however, the most effective such operations are very complex, involving numerous persons or organizations, and this can prove exceedingly difficult. A single failed denial measure or deception can easily jeopardize an entire operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Shulsky_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shulsky-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg/200px-Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg/300px-Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg/400px-Dummy_aircraft_-_Oct._1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Dummy aircraft, like the one pictured (modelled after the <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc" title="Douglas A-20 Havoc">Douglas A-20 Havoc</a>) were used in the deception tactics of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fortitude" title="Operation Fortitude">Operation Fortitude</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mearsheimer">Mearsheimer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mearsheimer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to political scientist <a href="/wiki/John_J._Mearsheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="John J. Mearsheimer">John J. Mearsheimer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Why_Leaders_Lie" title="Why Leaders Lie">Why Leaders Lie</a></i>), during peaceful times, inter-state deceptions have little traction as the level of trust between states is usually already very low and therefore being caught in a lie would be ruinous. According to Mearsheimer, freely elected officials are often more likely to use such strategies than authoritarian dictators, who tend to rely more on intimidation and threats. Freely elected leaders who move up the ranks by employing political deception are not only familiar with deceiving the public for personal gain but also have considerable <a href="/wiki/Political_capital" title="Political capital">political capital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trust_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (emotion)">public trust</a> following their election. With this comparatively high level of trust, political leaders are the most likely to successfully target the public with deceptions, particularly with <a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">fearmongering</a>. According to Mearsheimer, in the weeks leading up to the Iraq War, "the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush"> [George W.] Bush</a> administration engaged in a deception campaign to inflate the threat posed by <a href="/wiki/Saddam" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam">Saddam</a>.” Following this successful deception, the administration was able to launch the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> with little opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shulsky">Shulsky</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Shulsky"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Abram Shulsky, <a href="/wiki/Democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Democracies">democracies</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, had difficulty employing denial and deception campaigns. This is largely due to the open media of most such societies which frequently expose any major operations undertaken militarily or diplomatically. Also, legal restrictions tend to hamper governments and particularly intelligence services in democratic societies. The exception to these restrictions occurs in wartime, when some measure of <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> is imposed and legal impediments are relaxed. <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarian</a> systems of government, however, frequently employ denial and deception campaigns both domestically and abroad to manipulate domestic opposition and foreign governments. These operations are unhampered by legal restrictions or an open media. Non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations, frequently use denial and deception to influence governments and the public opinion of target societies.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other authors illustrate the D&D topic with <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fortitude" title="Operation Fortitude">Operation Fortitude</a> and consider it one of the most successful such examples in history.<sup id="cite_ref-Gooch2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gooch2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hastedt2011_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastedt2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RothsteinWhaley2013_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RothsteinWhaley2013-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Donald C.F. Daniel, democratic societies have more qualms with deception than they have with denial (in the technical sense used in this article); Daniel contrasts the little public controversy that surrounded the secretive way in which <a href="/wiki/1972_Nixon_visit_to_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1972 Nixon visit to China">Nixon's rapprochement with China</a> was negotiated (as example of secrecy/denial that did not cause a public outrage) with the uproar caused by the 2001 announcement of the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Influence" title="Office of Strategic Influence">Office of Strategic Influence</a> (an institution that had among its stated goals the planting of false stories in the foreign press).<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States_Department_of_Defense">United States Department of Defense</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: United States Department of Defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> definitions, <a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">military deception</a> includes both denial and deception (as defined in the D&D framework).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canadian <a href="/wiki/OPSEC" class="mw-redirect" title="OPSEC">OPSEC</a> officer John M. Roach notes that "Deception used as a broad, general term includes the elements of both denial and deception, each having distinct actions that are either active or passive."<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D&D is not the only terminology used to make this distinction; according to Roach "passive deception" is another technical term for denial.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western writers see the Soviet (and post-Soviet) maskirovka practices as not drawing a sharp or significant distinction between the two components of denial and deception.<sup id="cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roach_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Islamic concepts of <a href="/wiki/Kitman" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitman">kitman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taqiyya" title="Taqiyya">taqiyya</a>, or at least the <a href="/wiki/Jihadist" class="mw-redirect" title="Jihadist">jihadist</a> interpretations thereof, have been seen by Westerners as the equivalents of the two components of denial and (respectively) deception.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roach-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Springer2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since taqiyya is a word with <a href="/wiki/Shiite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiite">Shiite</a> connotations, <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> militants sometimes prefer to use the word <a href="/wiki/Iham" class="mw-redirect" title="Iham">iham</a> instead, roughly with the meaning "deception of unbelievers".<sup id="cite_ref-Tibi2008_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tibi2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Chinese deception theory literature is vast and uses rather different terminology (relative to Western works), some recent surveys have identified that "<a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">seduction</a>"—understood as convincing the enemy to make fatal mistakes—is considered the highest form of deception while confusing or denying information to the enemy are considered lesser forms.<sup id="cite_ref-RothsteinWhaley2013b_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RothsteinWhaley2013b-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_in_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense in depth">Defense in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plausible_deniability" title="Plausible deniability">Plausible deniability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_military_deception" title="Russian military deception">Russian military deception</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denial_and_deception&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hutchinson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hutchinson_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hutchinson, William. (2004) "The Influence of Maskirovka on Contemporary Western Deception Theory and Practice." Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference on Information Warfare and Security. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9547096-2-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9547096-2-4">0-9547096-2-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daniel2005_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_C.F._Daniel2005" class="citation book cs1">Donald C.F. Daniel (2005). "Denial and Deception". In Jennifer E. Sims; Burton L. Gerber (eds.). <i>Transforming U. S. Intelligence</i>. Georgetown University Press. pp. 134–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58901-477-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-58901-477-4"><bdi>1-58901-477-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Denial+and+Deception&rft.btitle=Transforming+U.+S.+Intelligence&rft.pages=134-141&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-58901-477-4&rft.au=Donald+C.F.+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shulsky-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shulsky_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shulsky_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abram Shulsky, "Elements of Strategic Denial and Deception," in <i>Strategic Denial and Deception: The Twenty-First Century Challenge</i>, ed. <a href="/wiki/Roy_Godson" title="Roy Godson">Roy Godson</a> and James J. Wirtz (Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 15-17; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Godson" title="Roy Godson">Roy Godson</a> and James J. Wirtz, "Strategic Denial and Deception," <i>International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence</i> 13 (2000): 425-426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bruce2008-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bruce2008_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_B._BruceMichael_Bennett2008" class="citation book cs1">James B. Bruce & Michael Bennett (2008). "Foreign Denial and Deception". In Roger Z. George & James B. Bruce (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/analyzingintelli00geor"><i>Analyzing Intelligence</i></a></span>. Georgetown University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/analyzingintelli00geor/page/n136">124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-239-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-239-4"><bdi>978-1-58901-239-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreign+Denial+and+Deception&rft.btitle=Analyzing+Intelligence&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58901-239-4&rft.au=James+B.+Bruce&rft.au=Michael+Bennett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanalyzingintelli00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLozada2011" class="citation news cs1">Lozada, Carlos (15 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/john-j-mearsheimers-why-leaders-lie/2011/03/09/AFqk88jD_story.html">"John J. Mearsheimer's "Why Leaders Lie"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=John+J.+Mearsheimer%27s+%22Why+Leaders+Lie%22&rft.date=2011-04-15&rft.aulast=Lozada&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fentertainment%2Fbooks%2Fjohn-j-mearsheimers-why-leaders-lie%2F2011%2F03%2F09%2FAFqk88jD_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ibid</i>., 427-428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gooch2012-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gooch2012_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_I._Handel2012" class="citation book cs1">Michael I. Handel (2012). "Intelligence and Deception". In John Gooch (ed.). <i>Military Deception and Strategic Surprise!</i>. Routledge. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-28202-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-28202-7"><bdi>978-1-136-28202-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intelligence+and+Deception&rft.btitle=Military+Deception+and+Strategic+Surprise%21&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-28202-7&rft.au=Michael+I.+Handel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hastedt2011-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hastedt2011_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenn_P._Hastedt2011" class="citation book cs1">Glenn P. Hastedt, ed. (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spieswiretapssec00hast"><i>Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: A-J</i></a></span>. ABC-CLIO. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spieswiretapssec00hast/page/n325">305</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-807-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-807-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-807-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spies%2C+Wiretaps%2C+and+Secret+Operations%3A+A-J&rft.pages=305&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-807-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspieswiretapssec00hast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RothsteinWhaley2013-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RothsteinWhaley2013_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._Wentworth_Eldredge2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._Wentworth_Eldredge" title="H. Wentworth Eldredge">H. Wentworth Eldredge</a> (2013). "Biggest Hoax of the War. Operation FORTITUDE: The Allied deception plan that fooled the Germans about Normandy". In Hy Rothstein; Barton Whaley (eds.). <i>The Art and Science of Military Deception</i>. Artech House. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60807-551-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60807-551-5"><bdi>978-1-60807-551-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biggest+Hoax+of+the+War.+Operation+FORTITUDE%3A+The+Allied+deception+plan+that+fooled+the+Germans+about+Normandy&rft.btitle=The+Art+and+Science+of+Military+Deception&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-60807-551-5&rft.au=H.+Wentworth+Eldredge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span> Article previously published in <i>Air Power History</i>, vol. 37, no. 3, Fall 1990, pp. 15-22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, Mark, and Jessica Meyeraan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150130223214/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA421609">Military deception: Hiding the real-showing the fake</a>". Joint Forces Staff College, Joint and Combined Warfighting School, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roach-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roach_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Roach, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opsecsociety.org/July_2012.pdf">DECEPTION: Can information superiority be achieved with or without it?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000347/http://www.opsecsociety.org/July_2012.pdf">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Newsletter of the OPSEC Professionals Society, July 2012, Volume 3, Issue 2, p. 7. Also published in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/forces/D12-11-10-3E.pdf">The Canadian Army Journal Vol. 10.3 Fall 2007</a>, p. 117-120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Springer2009-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Springer2009_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevin_R._SpringerJames_L._RegensDavid_N._Edger2009" class="citation book cs1">Devin R. Springer; James L. Regens; David N. Edger (2009). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicradicalis00spri"><i>Islamic Radicalism and Global Jihad</i></a></span>. Georgetown University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicradicalis00spri/page/n67">51</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-578-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58901-578-4"><bdi>978-1-58901-578-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Radicalism+and+Global+Jihad&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-58901-578-4&rft.au=Devin+R.+Springer&rft.au=James+L.+Regens&rft.au=David+N.+Edger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamicradicalis00spri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tibi2008-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tibi2008_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassam_Tibi2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bassam_Tibi" title="Bassam Tibi">Bassam Tibi</a> (2008). <i>Political Islam, World Politics and Europe: Democratic Peace and Euro-Islam Versus Global Jihad</i>. Routledge. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-07263-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-07263-7"><bdi>978-1-134-07263-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Islam%2C+World+Politics+and+Europe%3A+Democratic+Peace+and+Euro-Islam+Versus+Global+Jihad&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-134-07263-7&rft.au=Bassam+Tibi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RothsteinWhaley2013b-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RothsteinWhaley2013b_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Pillsbury2013" class="citation book cs1">Michael Pillsbury (2013). "Chinese Deception Doctrine: A View from Open Sources". In Hy Rothstein; Barton Whaley (eds.). <i>The Art and Science of Military Deception</i>. Artech House. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60807-551-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60807-551-5"><bdi>978-1-60807-551-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+Deception+Doctrine%3A+A+View+from+Open+Sources&rft.btitle=The+Art+and+Science+of+Military+Deception&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-60807-551-5&rft.au=Michael+Pillsbury&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenial+and+deception" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Template:Intelligence cycle management"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Template talk:Intelligence cycle management"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intelligence cycle management"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intelligence_management" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence management</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_collection_management" title="Intelligence collection management">Collection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)">Human (HUMINT)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_reconnaissance" title="Special reconnaissance">Special reconnaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Special_Reconnaissance_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Special Reconnaissance organizations">organizations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_human_intelligence" title="Clandestine human intelligence">Clandestine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_of_spies" title="Recruitment of spies">Asset recruiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_cell_system" title="Clandestine cell system">Cell system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_HUMINT_and_covert_action" title="Clandestine HUMINT and covert action">Covert action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action_(military)" title="Direct action (military)">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_HUMINT_operational_techniques" title="Clandestine HUMINT operational techniques">Operational techniques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espionage#Agents_in_espionage" title="Espionage">Agents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_agent" title="Field agent">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_handling" title="Agent handling">handling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asset_(intelligence)" title="Asset (intelligence)">Asset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Black operation">Black operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_bag_operation" title="Black bag operation">black bag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealment_device" title="Concealment device">Concealment device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Cover (intelligence gathering)">Cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutout_(espionage)" title="Cutout (espionage)">Cutout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_drop" title="Dead drop">Dead drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">Defection</a> / <a href="/wiki/Turncoat" title="Turncoat">Turncoat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Denial and deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">Industrial espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogation" title="Interrogation">Interrogation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_station" title="Numbers station">Numbers station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_voice_link" title="One-way voice link">One-way voice link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resident_spy" title="Resident spy">Resident spy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steganography" title="Steganography">Steganography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">Surveillance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">Signals (SIGINT)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence_by_alliances,_nations_and_industries" title="Signals intelligence by alliances, nations and industries">By alliances, nations and industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence_in_modern_history" title="Signals intelligence in modern history">In modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence_operational_platforms_by_nation" title="Signals intelligence operational platforms by nation">Operational platforms by nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direction_finding" title="Direction finding">Direction finding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_analysis" title="Traffic analysis">Traffic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempest_(codename)" title="Tempest (codename)">TEMPEST</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Measurement_and_signature_intelligence" title="Measurement and signature intelligence">Measurement and<br />signature (MASINT)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-optical_MASINT" title="Electro-optical MASINT">Electro-optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_MASINT" title="Geophysical MASINT">Geophysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_MASINT" title="Nuclear MASINT">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_MASINT" title="Radar MASINT">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiofrequency_MASINT" title="Radiofrequency MASINT">Radiofrequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_MASINT" title="Materials MASINT">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casualty_estimation" title="Casualty estimation">Casualty estimation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Earthquake_casualty_estimation" title="Earthquake casualty estimation">earthquake</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_intelligence" title="Financial intelligence">Financial (FININT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geospatial_intelligence" title="Geospatial intelligence">Geospatial (GEOINT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagery_intelligence" title="Imagery intelligence">Imagery (IMINT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">Open-source (OSINT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_intelligence" title="Technical intelligence">Technical (TECHINT)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_analysis_management" title="Intelligence analysis management">Analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_competing_hypotheses" title="Analysis of competing hypotheses">Competing hypotheses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_cycle_(target-centric_approach)" title="Intelligence cycle (target-centric approach)">Target-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_of_estimative_probability" title="Words of estimative probability">Words of estimative probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-source_intelligence" title="All-source intelligence">All-source intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_intelligence" title="Basic intelligence">Basic intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_assessment" title="Intelligence assessment">Intelligence assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_intelligence" title="Medical intelligence">Medical intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_intelligence" title="Technical intelligence">Scientific & Technical intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_dissemination_management" title="Intelligence dissemination management">Dissemination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_cycle_security" title="Intelligence cycle security">Intelligence cycle security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">Counterintelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_counterintelligence_organizations" title="List of counterintelligence organizations">organizations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-intelligence_and_counter-terrorism_organizations" title="Counter-intelligence and counter-terrorism organizations">Counterintelligence and counter-terrorism organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_deception" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar 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href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information warfare</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Russian_military_deception" title="Russian military deception">Maskirovka</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Military camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">Ruse de guerre</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_dummy" title="Military dummy">Military dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoy" title="Decoy">Decoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-ship" title="Q-ship">Q-ship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bertram" title="Operation Bertram">Bertram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodyguard" title="Operation Bodyguard">Bodyguard</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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