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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency_and_fuel_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item 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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Nuclear waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_dioxide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_dioxide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Carbon dioxide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_dioxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fuel_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuel_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Fuel cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuel_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Passive safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proliferation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proliferation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Proliferation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proliferation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactor_design_and_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_design_and_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Reactor design and construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactor_design_and_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquid_metal_sodium_coolant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquid_metal_sodium_coolant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Liquid metal sodium coolant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liquid_metal_sodium_coolant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_II" title="Experimental Breeder Reactor II">Experimental Breeder Reactor II</a>, which served as the prototype for the integral fast reactor (IFR)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>integral fast reactor</b> (<b>IFR</b>), originally the <b>advanced</b> <b><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">liquid-metal reactor</a></b> (<b>ALMR</b>), is a design for a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> using <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutrons</a> and no <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">"fast" reactor</a>). IFRs can breed more fuel and are distinguished by a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">nuclear fuel cycle</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing#Pyroprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing</a> via <a href="/wiki/Electrorefining" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrorefining">electrorefining</a> at the reactor site. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a> (DOE) began designing an IFR in 1984 and built a prototype, the <a href="/wiki/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_II" title="Experimental Breeder Reactor II">Experimental Breeder Reactor II</a>. On April 3, 1986, two tests demonstrated the safety of the IFR concept. These tests simulated accidents involving loss of <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a> flow. Even with its normal shutdown devices disabled, the reactor shut itself down safely without overheating anywhere in the system. The IFR project was canceled by the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a> in 1994, three years before completion.<sup id="cite_ref-ANL_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANL-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proposed <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">sodium-cooled fast reactor</a> (SFR) is its closest surviving <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast breeder reactor</a> design. Other countries have also designed and operated <a href="/wiki/Fast_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast reactor">fast reactors</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/S-PRISM" class="mw-redirect" title="S-PRISM">S-PRISM</a> (from SuperPRISM), also called PRISM (power reactor innovative small module), is the name of a nuclear power plant design by <a href="/wiki/GE_Hitachi_Nuclear_Energy" title="GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy">GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy</a> based on the IFR.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy and <a href="/wiki/TerraPower" title="TerraPower">TerraPower</a> began exploring locating five <i>Natrium</i> SFR-based nuclear power plants in <a href="/wiki/Kemmerer,_Wyoming" title="Kemmerer, Wyoming">Kemmerer, Wyoming</a>; the design incorporates a PRISM reactor plus TerraPower's Traveling Wave design with a molten salt storage system.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research on IFR reactors began in 1984 at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a> in Argonne, Illinois, as a part of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a>'s national laboratory system, and currently operated on a contract by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EBRII_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/EBRII_1.jpg/330px-EBRII_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/EBRII_1.jpg/495px-EBRII_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/EBRII_1.jpg/660px-EBRII_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_II" title="Experimental Breeder Reactor II">Experimental Breeder Reactor II</a> (EBR II)</figcaption></figure> <p>Argonne previously had a branch campus named "Argonne West" in <a href="/wiki/Idaho_Falls,_Idaho" title="Idaho Falls, Idaho">Idaho Falls, Idaho</a>, that is now part of the <a href="/wiki/Idaho_National_Laboratory" title="Idaho National Laboratory">Idaho National Laboratory</a>. In the past, at the branch campus, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicists</a> from Argonne West built what was known as the <a href="/wiki/Experimental_Breeder_Reactor_II" title="Experimental Breeder Reactor II">Experimental Breeder Reactor II</a> (EBR-II). In the meantime, physicists at Argonne designed the IFR concept, and it was decided that the EBR-II would be converted to an IFR. Charles Till, a Canadian physicist from Argonne, was the head of the IFR project, and Yoon Chang was the deputy head. Till was positioned in Idaho, while Chang was in Illinois. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancellation">Cancellation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cancellation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the election of President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in 1992, and the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Hazel_O%27Leary" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazel O'Leary">Hazel O'Leary</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Energy">Secretary of Energy</a>, there was pressure from the top to cancel the IFR.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> (D-MA) and O'Leary led the opposition to the reactor, arguing that it would be a threat to non-proliferation efforts, and that it was a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Clinch_River_Breeder_Reactor_Project" title="Clinch River Breeder Reactor Project">Clinch River Breeder Reactor Project</a> that had been canceled by Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simultaneously, in 1994 Energy Secretary O'Leary awarded the lead IFR scientist with $10,000 and a gold medal, with the citation stating his work to develop IFR technology provided "improved safety, more efficient use of fuel and less <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>IFR opponents also presented a report<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the DOE's Office of Nuclear Safety regarding a former Argonne employee's allegations that Argonne had retaliated against him for raising concerns about safety, as well as about the quality of research done on the IFR program. The report received international attention, with a notable difference in the coverage it received from major scientific publications. The British journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> entitled its article "Report backs whistleblower", and also noted conflicts of interest on the part of a DOE panel that assessed IFR research.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the article that appeared in <i>Science</i> was entitled "Was Argonne Whistleblower Really Blowing Smoke?".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite support for the reactor by then-Rep. <a href="/wiki/Dick_Durbin" title="Dick Durbin">Dick Durbin</a> (D-IL) and U.S. Senators <a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a> (D-IL) and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Simon_(politician)" title="Paul Simon (politician)">Paul Simon</a> (D-IL), funding for the reactor was slashed, and it was ultimately canceled in 1994, at a greater cost than finishing it. When this was brought to President Clinton's attention, he said "I know; it's a symbol."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_2000">Since 2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Since 2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2001, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a> roadmap, the DOE tasked a 242-person team of scientists from DOE, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">UC Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), Stanford, ANL, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Company" title="Westinghouse Electric Company">Westinghouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_Power_Research_Institute" title="Electric Power Research Institute">EPRI</a>, and other institutions to evaluate 19 of the best reactor designs on 27 different criteria. The IFR ranked #1 in their study which was released April 9, 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-G4ES-2002_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-G4ES-2002-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At present, there are no integral fast reactors in commercial operation. However, the <a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800 reactor</a>, a very similar fast reactor operated as a burner of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> stockpiles, became commercially operational in 2014.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_overview">Technical overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Technical overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The IFR is cooled by liquid <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and fueled by an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. The fuel is contained in steel <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(construction)" title="Cladding (construction)">cladding</a> with liquid sodium filling in the space between the fuel and the cladding. A void above the fuel allows <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and radioactive <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> to be collected safely<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> without significantly increasing pressure inside the fuel element,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and also allows the fuel to expand without breaching the cladding, making metal rather than oxide fuel practical.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The advantages of liquid sodium coolant, as opposed to liquid metal <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, are that liquid sodium is far less dense and far less viscous (reduced pumping costs), is not <a href="/wiki/Corrosive_substance" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrosive substance">corrosive</a> (via dissolution) to common steels, and creates essentially no radioactive neutron activation byproducts. The disadvantage of sodium coolant, as opposed to lead coolant, is that sodium is chemically reactive, especially with water or air. Lead may be substituted for the eutectic alloy of lead and <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, as used as reactor coolant in Soviet <a href="/wiki/Alfa-class_submarine" title="Alfa-class submarine">Alfa-class submarines</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_design_decisions">Basic design decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Basic design decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This section has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Special:EditPage/Integral fast reactor">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Integral_fast_reactor" title="Talk:Integral fast reactor">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Special:EditPage/Integral fast reactor">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Undue_weight_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>. Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:STRUCTURE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:STRUCTURE">create a more balanced presentation</a>. Discuss and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution" title="Wikipedia:Dispute resolution">resolve</a> this issue before removing this message. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metallic_fuel">Metallic fuel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metallic fuel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Metal fuel with a sodium-filled void inside the cladding to allow fuel expansion has been demonstrated in EBR-II. Metallic fuel makes <a href="/wiki/Pyroprocessing" title="Pyroprocessing">pyroprocessing</a> the reprocessing technology of choice.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Fabrication of metallic fuel is easier and cheaper than ceramic (oxide) fuel, especially under remote handling conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Metallic fuel has better <a href="/wiki/Heat_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conductivity">heat conductivity</a> and lower <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> than oxide, which has safety advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sodium_coolant">Sodium coolant</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sodium coolant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of liquid metal coolant removes the need for a pressure vessel around the reactor. Sodium has excellent nuclear characteristics, a high heat capacity and heat transfer capacity, low density, low <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>, a reasonably low melting point and a high boiling point, and excellent compatibility with other materials including structural materials and fuel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The high heat capacity of the coolant and the elimination of water from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core" title="Nuclear reactor core">reactor core</a> increase the inherent safety of the core.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pool_design_rather_than_loop">Pool design rather than loop</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pool design rather than loop"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Containing all of the primary coolant in a pool produces several safety and reliability advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Onsite_reprocessing_using_pyroprocessing">Onsite reprocessing using pyroprocessing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Onsite reprocessing using pyroprocessing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reprocessing is essential to achieve most of the benefits of a fast reactor, improving fuel usage and reducing radioactive waste by several orders of magnitude.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Onsite processing is what makes the IFR "integral". This and the use of pyroprocessing both reduce proliferation risk.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pyroprocessing" title="Pyroprocessing">Pyroprocessing</a> (using an electrorefiner) has been demonstrated at EBR-II as practical on the scale required. Compared to the <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> aqueous process, it is economical in capital cost, and is unsuitable for the production of weapons material, again unlike PUREX which was developed for weapons programs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Pyroprocessing makes metallic fuel the fuel of choice. The two decisions are complementary.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Summary">Summary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The four basic decisions of metallic fuel, sodium coolant, pool design, and onsite reprocessing by <a href="/wiki/Electrorefining" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrorefining">electrorefining</a>, are complementary and produce a fuel cycle that is proliferation-resistant and efficient in fuel usage, and a reactor with a high level of inherent safety, while minimizing the production of high-level waste. The practicality of these decisions has been demonstrated over many years of operation of EBR-II.<sup id="cite_ref-PE_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PE-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">Breeder reactors</a> (such as the IFR) could in principle extract almost all of the energy contained in <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, decreasing fuel requirements by nearly two orders of magnitude compared to traditional once-through reactors, which extract less than 0.65% of the energy in mined uranium, and less than 5% of the enriched uranium with which they are fueled. This could greatly dampen concern about fuel supply or energy used in <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">mining</a>. </p><p>What is more important today is <i>why</i> fast reactors are fuel-efficient: because fast neutrons can <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> or "burn out" all the <a href="/wiki/Transuranic_waste" title="Transuranic waste">transuranic waste</a> components. Transuranic waste consists of <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a> – <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">reactor-grade plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minor_actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor actinides">minor actinides</a> – many of which last tens of thousands of years or longer and make conventional nuclear waste disposal so problematic. Most of the radioactive <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> produced by an IFR have much shorter <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-lives</a>: they are intensely radioactive in the short term but decay quickly. Through many cycles, the IFR ultimately causes 99.9% of the uranium and <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranium elements</a> to undergo fission and produce power; so, its only waste is the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">nuclear fission products</a>. These have much shorter half-lives; in 300 years, their radioactivity will fall below that of the original uranium ore.<sup id="cite_ref-SV/g_chart_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SV/g_chart-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (July 2012)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-https_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-https-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The fact that <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">4th generation reactors</a> are being designed to use the waste from <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">3rd generation plants</a> could change the nuclear story fundamentally—potentially making the combination of 3rd and 4th generation plants a more attractive energy option than 3rd generation by itself would have been, both from the perspective of waste management and energy security. </p><p>"Integral" refers to on-site <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing</a> by electrochemical <a href="/wiki/Pyroprocessing" title="Pyroprocessing">pyroprocessing</a>. This process separates spent fuel into 3 fractions: uranium, plutonium <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranium elements</a>, and nuclear fission products. The uranium and transuranium elements are recycled into new <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">fuel rods</a>, and the fission products are eventually converted to glass and metal blocks for safer disposal. Because the combined transuranium elements and the fission products are highly radioactive, fuel-rod transfer and reprocessing operations use robotic or remote-controlled equipment. An additional claimed benefit of this is that since fissile material never leaves the facility (and would be lethal to handle if it did), this greatly reduces the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">proliferation</a> potential of possible diversion of fissile material. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In traditional <a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">light-water reactors</a> (LWRs) the core must be maintained at a high pressure to keep the water liquid at high temperatures. In contrast, since the IFR is a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">liquid metal cooled reactor</a>, the core could operate at close to <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient pressure</a>, dramatically reducing the danger of a <a href="/wiki/Loss-of-coolant_accident" title="Loss-of-coolant accident">loss-of-coolant accident</a>. The entire reactor core, <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchangers</a>, and primary cooling pumps are immersed in a pool of liquid sodium or lead, making a loss of primary coolant extremely unlikely. The coolant loops are designed to allow for cooling through natural <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>, meaning that in the case of a power loss or unexpected reactor shutdown, the heat from the reactor core would be sufficient to keep the coolant circulating even if the primary cooling pumps were to fail. </p><p>The IFR also has <a href="/wiki/Passive_nuclear_safety" title="Passive nuclear safety">passive safety</a> advantages as compared with conventional LWRs. The fuel and <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(nuclear_fuel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladding (nuclear fuel)">cladding</a> are designed such that when they expand due to increased temperatures, more neutrons would be able to escape the core, thus reducing the rate of the fission chain reaction. In other words, an increase in the core temperature acts as a feedback mechanism that decreases the core power. This attribute is known as a negative <a href="/wiki/Temperature_coefficient_of_reactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature coefficient of reactivity">temperature coefficient of reactivity</a>. Most LWRs also have negative reactivity coefficients; however, in an IFR, this effect is strong enough to stop the reactor from reaching core damage without external action from operators or safety systems. This was demonstrated in a series of safety tests on the prototype. Pete Planchon, the engineer who conducted the tests for an international audience, quipped "Back in 1986, we actually gave a small [20 MWe] prototype advanced fast reactor a couple of chances to melt down. It politely refused both times."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Liquid sodium presents safety problems because it ignites spontaneously on contact with air and can cause explosions on contact with water. This was the case at the <a href="/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Monju Nuclear Power Plant">Monju Nuclear Power Plant</a> in a 1995 accident and fire. To reduce the risk of explosions following a leak of water from the <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a>, the IFR design (as with other <a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">sodium-cooled fast reactors</a>) includes an intermediate liquid-metal coolant loop between the reactor and the steam turbines. The purpose of this loop is to ensure that any explosion following the accidental mixing of sodium and turbine water would be limited to the secondary heat exchanger and not pose a risk to the reactor itself. Alternative designs use lead instead of sodium as the primary coolant. The disadvantages of lead are its higher density and viscosity, which increases pumping costs, and radioactive activation products resulting from neutron absorption. A lead-bismuth <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_system" title="Eutectic system">eutectate</a>, as used in some Russian submarine reactors, has lower viscosity and density, but the same activation product problems can occur. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency_and_fuel_cycle">Efficiency and fuel cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Efficiency and fuel cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="float:right; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0.5em; border:1px solid #CCCCCC; padding:0.2em; text-align:right;"> <caption style="background-color:orange; font-weight:bold;">Medium-lived <br /><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">fission products</a> </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Halflife" class="mw-redirect" title="Halflife"><i>t</i><sub>½</sub></a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">year</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Fission_product_yield" title="Fission product yield">Yield</a> <br />(<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Per 65 thermal-neutron fissions of U-235 and 35 of Pu-239">%</span>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy"><i>Q</i></a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Kiloelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay mode">βγ</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Europium-155" class="mw-redirect" title="Europium-155"><sup>155</sup>Eu</a> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"> </span>4.76 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, varies with later neutron capture">0.0803</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>252 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Krypton-85" title="Krypton-85"><sup>85</sup>Kr</a> </td> <td>10.76 </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Only 1/5 of mass-85 FP; rest go through short-lived isomer to Rb-85">0.2180</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>687 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium-113m" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadmium-113m"><sup>113m</sup>Cd</a> </td> <td>14.1<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, reduced by later neutron capture">0.0008</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>316 </td> <td>β </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90"><sup>90</sup>Sr</a> </td> <td>28.9<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>4.505<span class="nowrap">  </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sr-90 has decay energy 546 keV; its decay product Y-90 has decay energy 2.28 MeV">2826</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="High-energy beta"><b>β</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137"><sup>137</sup>Cs</a> </td> <td>30.23 </td> <td>6.337<span class="nowrap">  </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cs-137 has decay energy 514 keV; its decay product Ba-137m emits a 662 keV gamma">1176</span> </td> <td>β<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="High-energy gamma"><b>γ</b></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tin-121m" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin-121m"><sup>121m</sup>Sn</a> </td> <td>43.9<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>0.00005 </td> <td>390 </td> <td>βγ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samarium-151" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarium-151"><sup>151</sup>Sm</a> </td> <td>88.8<span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="In thermal reactor, reduced by later neutron capture">0.5314</span><span class="nowrap"> </span> </td> <td>77 </td> <td>β </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The goals of the IFR project were to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder">breeding</a> plutonium and to eliminate the need for <a href="/wiki/Transuranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic">transuranic</a> isotopes to ever leave the site. The reactor was an unmoderated design running on <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutrons</a>, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). </p><p>Compared to current light-water reactors with a once-through fuel cycle that induces fission (and derives energy) from less than 1% of the uranium found in nature, a breeder reactor like the IFR has a very efficient fuel cycle (99.5% of uranium undergoes fission<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic scheme uses <a href="/wiki/Pyroelectricity" title="Pyroelectricity">pyroelectric</a> separation, a common method in other <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgical</a> processes, to remove transuranics and actinides from the wastes and concentrate them. These concentrated fuels are then reformed, on-site, into new fuel elements. </p><p>The available fuel metals are never separated from the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium isotope">plutonium isotopes</a> nor from all the fission products,<sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and are therefore relatively difficult to use in nuclear weapons. Also, as plutonium never has to leave the site, it is far less open to unauthorized diversion.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important benefit of removing the long-<a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> transuranics from the waste cycle is that the remaining waste becomes a much shorter-term hazard. After the <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">reprocessed uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Minor_actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor actinides">minor actinides</a>) are recycled, the remaining <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> isotopes are <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> – with half-lives of 90 years (<a href="/wiki/Sm-151" class="mw-redirect" title="Sm-151">Sm-151</a>) and less, or 211,100 years (<a href="/wiki/Tc-99" class="mw-redirect" title="Tc-99">Tc-99</a>) and more – plus any <a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">activation products</a> from the non-fuel reactor components. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparisons_to_light-water_reactors">Comparisons to light-water reactors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Comparisons to light-water reactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasahara.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sasahara.svg/360px-Sasahara.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sasahara.svg/540px-Sasahara.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Sasahara.svg/720px-Sasahara.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Transmutation flow between <sup>238</sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">Pu</a> and <sup>244</sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-244" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-244">Cm</a> in a LWR.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current thermal-neutron fission reactors cannot fission actinide nuclides that have an even number of neutrons. Thus, these build up and are generally treated as <a href="/wiki/Transuranic_waste" title="Transuranic waste">transuranic waste</a> after conventional reprocessing. An argument for fast reactors is that they can fission all actinides.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_waste">Nuclear waste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nuclear waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Integral fast reactors (IFRs) can produce much less waste than <a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">light-water reactors</a> (LWRs), and can even utilize other waste as fuel. </p><p>The primary argument for pursuing IFR-style technology today is that it provides the best solution to the existing nuclear waste problem because fast reactors can be fueled from the waste products of existing reactors as well as from the plutonium used in weapons, as is the case in the operating <a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800 reactor</a>. <a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a> waste can also be used as fuel in fast reactors. </p><p>The waste products of IFR reactors either have a short half-life, which means that they decay quickly and become relatively safe, or a long half-life, which means that they are only slightly radioactive. Neither of the two forms of IFR waste produced contain plutonium or other <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a>. Due to pyroprocessing, the total volume of true waste/<a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> is 1/20th the volume of spent fuel produced by a light-water plant of the same power output, and is often considered to be all unusable waste. 70% of fission products are either stable or have half-lives under one year. <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99" title="Technetium-99">Technetium-99</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iodine-129" title="Iodine-129">iodine-129</a>, which constitute 6% of fission products, have very long half-lives but can be <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmuted</a> to isotopes with very short half-lives (15.46 seconds and 12.36 hours) by neutron absorption within a reactor, effectively destroying them (see more: <a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">long-lived fission products</a>). <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_zirconium" title="Isotopes of zirconium">Zirconium-93</a>, another 5% of fission products, could in principle be recycled into fuel-pin cladding, where it does not matter that it is radioactive. Excluding the contribution from <a href="/wiki/Transuranic_waste" title="Transuranic waste">transuranic waste</a> (TRU) – which are isotopes produced when <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> captures a slow <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutron</a> in an LWR but does not fission – all <a href="/wiki/High_level_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="High level waste">high level waste</a>/fission products remaining after reprocessing the TRU fuel is less radiotoxic (in <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sieverts</a>) than <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a> (in a gram-to-gram comparison) within 200–400 years, and continues to decline afterward.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pg_15_see_SV/g_chart_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pg_15_see_SV/g_chart-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (July 2012)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-https_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-https-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The on-site reprocessing of fuel means that the volume of high-level nuclear waste leaving the plant is tiny compared to LWR spent fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, in the U.S. most spent LWR fuel has remained in storage at the reactor site instead of being transported for reprocessing or placement in a <a href="/wiki/Geological_repository" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological repository">geological repository</a>. The smaller volumes of <a href="/wiki/High_level_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="High level waste">high level waste</a> from reprocessing could stay at reactor sites for some time, but are intensely radioactive from <a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission products">medium-lived fission products</a> (MLFPs) and need to be stored securely, like in <a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">dry cask storage</a> vessels. In its first few decades of use, before the MLFPs decay to lower levels of heat production, geological repository capacity is constrained not by volume but by heat generation. This limits early repository emplacement. <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">Decay heat</a> generation of MLFPs from IFRs is about the same per unit power as from any kind of fission reactor. </p><p> The potential complete removal of plutonium from the waste stream of the reactor reduces the concern that now exists with spent nuclear fuel from most other reactors, namely that a spent fuel repository could be used as a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Proliferation_concerns" title="Radioactive waste">plutonium mine</a> at some future date.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, despite the million-fold reduction in radiotoxicity offered by this scheme,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there remain concerns about radioactive longevity:</p><blockquote><p>[Some believe] that actinide removal would offer few if any significant advantages for disposal in a <a href="/wiki/Geologic_repository" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic repository">geologic repository</a> because some of the <i>fission product</i> [sic] <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclides</a> of greatest concern in scenarios such as <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemical_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaching (chemical science)">leaching</a> actually have longer half-lives than the radioactive actinides. The concern about a waste cannot end after hundreds of years even if all the actinides are removed when the remaining waste contains radioactive fission products such as technetium-99, iodine-129, and cesium-135 with the half-lives between 213,000 and 15.7 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>However, these concerns do not consider the plan to store such materials in insoluble <a href="/wiki/Synroc" title="Synroc">Synroc</a>, and do not measure hazards in proportion to those from natural sources such as medical <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, or naturally radioactive rocks (such as <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Furthermore, some of the radioactive fission products are being targeted for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a>, belaying even these comparatively low concerns. For example, the IFR's positive <a href="/wiki/Void_coefficient" title="Void coefficient">void coefficient</a> could be reduced to an acceptable level by adding technetium to the core, helping destroy the long-lived fission product <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99" title="Technetium-99">technetium-99</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-osti.gov_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osti.gov-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>IFRs use virtually all of the energy content in the uranium fuel whereas a traditional light-water reactor uses less than 0.65% of the energy in mined uranium and less than 5% of the energy in <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_dioxide">Carbon dioxide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Carbon dioxide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources">Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources</a></div> <p>Both IFRs and LWRs do not emit <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> during operation, although construction and fuel processing result in CO<sub>2</sub> emissions (if via energy sources which are not carbon neutral, such as fossil fuels) and CO<sub>2</sub>-emitting cements are used in the construction process. </p><p>A 2012 <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> review analyzing CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle assessment">life cycle assessment</a> (LCA) emissions from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> determined that:<sup id="cite_ref-Warner_+_Heath,_JoIE_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warner_+_Heath,_JoIE-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The collective LCA literature indicates that life cycle <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">GHG</a> [greenhouse gas] emissions from nuclear power are only a fraction of traditional fossil sources and comparable to renewable technologies.</p></blockquote> <p>Although the paper primarily dealt with data from <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">Generation II reactors</a>, and did not analyze the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> emissions by 2050 of the <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">Generation III reactors</a> presently under construction, it did summarize the LCA findings of in-development reactor technologies: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Theoretical FBRs [<a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast breeder reactors</a>] have been evaluated in the LCA literature. The limited literature that evaluates this potential future technology reports <a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">median</a> life cycle GHG emissions... similar to or lower than LWRs [<a href="/wiki/Light_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water reactor">light water reactors</a>] and purports to consume little or no <a href="/wiki/Uranium_market" title="Uranium market">uranium ore</a>.</p></blockquote> <table border="0" style="float:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin-left:10px; font-size:95%; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9" style="font-size:105%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045256916">.mw-parser-output .navbar-header{text-align:center;position:relative;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .navbar-header .navbar{position:absolute;right:0;top:0;margin:0 5px}</style><div class="navbar-header">Actinides and fission products by half-life <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Actinides_vs_fission_products" title="Template:Actinides vs fission products"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Actinides_vs_fission_products" title="Template talk:Actinides vs fission products"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Actinides_vs_fission_products" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Actinides vs fission products"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#d8d8d8;"> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinides</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> <br />range (<a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">a</a>) </th> <th colspan="4" style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">Fission products</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235"><sup>235</sup>U</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fission_product_yield" title="Fission product yield">yield</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#e8e8e8; font-size:80%;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Thorium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium series">4<i>n</i></a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Neptunium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium series">4<i>n</i> + 1</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uranium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium series">4<i>n</i> + 2</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Actinium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium series">4<i>n</i> + 3</a> </th> <th>4.5–7% </th> <th style="padding:3px 0;">0.04–1.25% </th> <th><0.001% </th></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 1-10 years" style="background:#ffff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Radium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-228">228</a></sup></small>Ra<sup>№</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission product">4–6 a</a> </th> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1-10 years" style="background:#ffff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Europium-155" class="mw-redirect" title="Europium-155">155</a></sup></small>Eu<sup>þ</sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 1-10 years" style="background:#ffff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Berkelium-248" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkelium-248">248</a></sup></small>Bk<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission product">> 9 a</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-244" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-244">244</a></sup></small>Cm<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241</a></sup></small>Pu<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Californium-250" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-250">250</a></sup></small>Cf </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Actinium-227" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-227">227</a></sup></small>Ac<sup>№</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission product">10–29 a</a> </th> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">90</a></sup></small>Sr </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Krypton-85" title="Krypton-85">85</a></sup></small>Kr </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Cadmium-113m" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadmium-113m">113m</a></sup></small>Cd<sup>þ</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-232" title="Uranium-232">232</a></sup></small>U<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">238</a></sup></small>Pu<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-243">243</a></sup></small>Cm<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission product">29–97 a</a> </th> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Cs-137" class="mw-redirect" title="Cs-137">137</a></sup></small>Cs </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Samarium-151" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarium-151">151</a></sup></small>Sm<sup>þ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10-100 years" style="background:#c0ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Tin-121m" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin-121m">121m</a></sup></small>Sn </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100-1k years" style="background:#70ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Californium-249" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-249">249</a></sup></small>Cf<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100-1k years" style="background:#70ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Americium-242m" class="mw-redirect" title="Americium-242m">242m</a></sup></small>Am<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">141–351 a </th> <td rowspan="7" colspan="3" style="width:0; background-color:#ffffdd; border:1px dashed; text-align:center;"> <p>No fission products have a <span class="nowrap">half-life</span><br />in the range of 100 a–210 ka ... </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100-1k years" style="background:#70ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">241</a></sup></small>Am<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100-1k years" style="background:#70ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Californium-251" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-251">251</a></sup></small>Cf<sup>ƒ</sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">430–900 a </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Radium-226" title="Radium-226">226</a></sup></small>Ra<sup>№</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Berkelium-247" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkelium-247">247</a></sup></small>Bk </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">1.3–1.6 ka </th></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">240</a></sup></small>Pu </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Thorium-229" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium-229">229</a></sup></small>Th </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-246" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-246">246</a></sup></small>Cm<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Americium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Americium-243">243</a></sup></small>Am<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">4.7–7.4 ka </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-245" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-245">245</a></sup></small>Cm<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1k-10k years" style="background:#00ff00;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-250" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-250">250</a></sup></small>Cm </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">8.3–8.5 ka </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10k-100k years" style="background:#00ffc0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239</a></sup></small>Pu<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">24.1 ka </th></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10k-100k years" style="background:#00ffc0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Thorium-230" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium-230">230</a></sup></small>Th<sup>№</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10k-100k years" style="background:#00ffc0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Protactinium-231" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-231">231</a></sup></small>Pa<sup>№</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">32–76 ka </th></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Neptunium-236" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-236">236</a></sup></small>Np<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">233</a></sup></small>U<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234</a></sup></small>U<sup>№</sup> </td> <td> </td> <th class="nowrap" style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">150–250 ka</a> </th> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Technetium-99" title="Technetium-99">99</a></sup></small>Tc<sup>₡</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Tin-126" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin-126">126</a></sup></small>Sn </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-248" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-248">248</a></sup></small>Cm </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">242</a></sup></small>Pu </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">327–375 ka</a> </th> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 100k-1M years" style="background:#00ffff;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Selenium-79" title="Selenium-79">79</a></sup></small>Se<sup>₡</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">1.33 Ma</a> </th> <td title="Half-life: 1M-10M years" style="background:#00b0ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Caesium-135" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesium-135"><span style="color:white;">135</span></a></sup></small>Cs<sup>₡</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 1M-10M years" style="background:#00b0ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Neptunium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-237"><span style="color:white;">237</span></a></sup></small>Np<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">1.61–6.5 Ma</a> </th> <td title="Half-life: 1M-10M years" style="background:#00b0ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Zirconium-93" class="mw-redirect" title="Zirconium-93"><span style="color:white;">93</span></a></sup></small>Zr </td> <td title="Half-life: 1M-10M years" style="background:#00b0ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Palladium-107" class="mw-redirect" title="Palladium-107"><span style="color:white;">107</span></a></sup></small>Pd </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 10M-103M years" style="background:#0080ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-236" title="Uranium-236"><span style="color:white;">236</span></a></sup></small>U </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10M-103M years" style="background:#0080ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Curium-247" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-247"><span style="color:white;">247</span></a></sup></small>Cm<sup>ƒ</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">15–24 Ma</a> </th> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 10M-103M years" style="background:#0080ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Iodine-129" title="Iodine-129"><span style="color:white;">129</span></a></sup></small>I<sup>₡</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 10M-103M years" style="background:#0080ff;color:white;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244"><span style="color:white;">244</span></a></sup></small>Pu </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">80 Ma </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="width:0; background-color:#ffffdd; border:1px dashed; text-align:center;"> <p>... nor beyond 15.7 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td title="Half-life: 700M-14G years" style="background:#b0b0e0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">232</a></sup></small>Th<sup>№</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td title="Half-life: 700M-14G years" style="background:#b0b0e0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238</a></sup></small>U<sup>№</sup> </td> <td title="Half-life: 700M-14G years" style="background:#b0b0e0;"><small><sup><a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">235</a></sup></small>U<sup>ƒ№</sup> </td> <th style="background:#e8e8e8; text-align:right;">0.7–14.1 Ga </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" style="table-layout:fixed; width:100%; border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:#ececec; padding-left:1em; font-size:90%; text-align:left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>₡,  has thermal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> cross section in the range of 8–50 barns</li><li>ƒ,  <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a></li><li>№,  primarily a <a href="/wiki/Naturally_occurring_radioactive_material" title="Naturally occurring radioactive material">naturally occurring radioactive material</a> (NORM)</li><li>þ,  <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poison</a> (thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns)</li></ul></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuel_cycle">Fuel cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Fuel cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Nuclear fuel cycle</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fast_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast reactor">Fast reactor</a> fuel must be at least 20% fissile, greater than the <a href="/wiki/Low_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Low enriched uranium">low-enriched uranium</a> used in LWRs. The <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> material can initially include <a href="/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Highly enriched uranium">highly enriched uranium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> from LWR <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent fuel">spent fuel</a>, decommissioned <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, or other sources. During operation, the reactor breeds more fissile material from <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile material</a> – at most about 5% more from uranium and 1% more from <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>. </p><p>The fertile material in fast reactor fuel can be <a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted uranium</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>), <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">reprocessed uranium</a> from <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent fuel">spent fuel</a> from traditional LWRs,<sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even include nonfissile <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Isotopes of plutonium">isotopes of plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">minor actinide</a> isotopes. Assuming no leakage of actinides to the waste stream during reprocessing, a 1 GWe IFR-style reactor would consume about 1 ton of fertile material per year and produce about 1 ton of <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing#PYRO-A_and_-B_for_IFR" title="Nuclear reprocessing">The IFR fuel cycle's reprocessing</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pyroprocessing" title="Pyroprocessing">pyroprocessing</a> (in this case, <a href="/wiki/Electrorefining" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrorefining">electrorefining</a>) does not need to produce pure plutonium, free of fission product radioactivity, as the <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> process is designed to do. The purpose of reprocessing in the IFR fuel cycle is simply to reduce the level of those fission products that are <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poisons</a>; even these need not be completely removed. The electrorefined spent fuel is highly radioactive, but because new fuel need not be precisely fabricated like LWR fuel pellets but can simply be cast, remote fabrication can be used, reducing exposure to workers. </p><p>Like any fast reactor, by changing the material used in the blankets, the IFR can be operated over a spectrum from breeder to self-sufficient to burner. In breeder mode (using U-238 blankets) the reactor produces more fissile material than it consumes. This is useful for providing fissile material for starting up other plants. Using steel reflectors instead of U-238 blankets, the reactor operates in pure burner mode and is not a net creator of fissile material; on balance, it will consume fissile and fertile material and, assuming loss-free reprocessing, output no <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a> but only <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> and <a href="/wiki/Activation_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Activation products">activation products</a>. The amount of fissile material needed could be a limiting factor to very widespread deployment of fast reactors if stocks of surplus weapons plutonium and LWR spent fuel plutonium are not sufficient. To maximize the rate at which fast reactors can be deployed, they can be operated in maximum breeding mode. </p><p>Because the current cost of <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> is low compared to the expected cost of large-scale pyroprocessing and electrorefining equipment and the cost of building a secondary coolant loop, the higher fuel costs of a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal reactor">thermal reactor</a> over the expected operating lifetime of the plant are offset by increased <a href="/wiki/Capital_cost" title="Capital cost">capital cost</a>. (Currently, in the United States, utilities pay a flat rate of 1/10 of a cent per kilowatt hour to the Government for disposal of high-level radioactive waste by law under the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Waste_Policy_Act" title="Nuclear Waste Policy Act">Nuclear Waste Policy Act</a>. If this charge were based on the longevity of the waste, closed fuel cycles might become more financially competitive. As the planned geological repository in the form of <a href="/wiki/Yucca_Mountain" title="Yucca Mountain">Yucca Mountain</a> is not going ahead, this fund has collected over the years and presently $25 billion has piled up on the Government's doorstep for something they have not delivered, that is, reducing the hazard posed by the waste.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>Reprocessing nuclear fuel using pyroprocessing and electrorefining has not yet been demonstrated on a commercial scale, so investing in a large IFR-style plant may be a higher <a href="/wiki/Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">financial risk</a> than a conventional LWR. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Passive_safety">Passive safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Passive safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ifr_concept.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Ifr_concept.jpg/330px-Ifr_concept.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Ifr_concept.jpg/495px-Ifr_concept.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Ifr_concept.jpg/660px-Ifr_concept.jpg 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>IFR concept (color); an animation of the pyroprocessing cycle is also available.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IFR_concept.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IFR_concept.png/330px-IFR_concept.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IFR_concept.png/495px-IFR_concept.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IFR_concept.png/660px-IFR_concept.png 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>IFR concept (black and white with clearer text)</figcaption></figure> <p>The IFR uses metal alloy fuel (uranium, plutonium, and/or zirconium), which is a good conductor of heat, unlike the <a href="/wiki/Uranium_oxide" title="Uranium oxide">uranium oxide</a> used by LWRs (and even some fast breeder reactors), which is a poor conductor of heat and reaches high temperatures at the center of fuel pellets. The IFR also has a smaller volume of fuel, since the fissile material is diluted with fertile material by a ratio of 5 or less, compared to about 30 for LWR fuel. The IFR core requires more heat removal per core volume during operation than the LWR core; but on the other hand, after a shutdown, there is far less trapped heat that is still diffusing out and needs to be removed. However, <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a> generation from short-lived fission products and actinides is comparable in both cases, starting at a high level and decreasing with time elapsed after shutdown. The high volume of liquid sodium primary coolant in the pool configuration is designed to absorb decay heat without reaching fuel melting temperature. The primary sodium pumps are designed with <a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">flywheels</a> so they will coast down slowly (90 seconds) if power is removed. This coast-down further aids core cooling upon shutdown. If the primary cooling loop were to be somehow suddenly stopped, or if the control rods were suddenly removed, the metal fuel can melt, as accidentally demonstrated in EBR-I; however, the melting fuel is then extruded up the steel fuel cladding tubes and out of the active core region leading to permanent reactor shutdown and no further fission heat generation or fuel melting.<sup id="cite_ref-TillAndYang_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TillAndYang-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With metal fuel, the cladding is not breached and no radioactivity is released even in extreme overpower transients. </p><p>Self-regulation of the IFR's power level depends mainly on thermal expansion of the fuel, which allows more neutrons to escape, damping the <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a>. LWRs have less effect from thermal expansion of fuel (since much of the core is the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>) but have strong <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> from <a href="/wiki/Doppler_broadening" title="Doppler broadening">Doppler broadening</a> (which acts on thermal and epithermal neutrons, not fast neutrons) and negative <a href="/wiki/Void_coefficient" title="Void coefficient">void coefficient</a> from boiling of the water moderator/coolant; the less dense steam returns fewer and less-thermalized neutrons to the fuel, which are more likely to be captured by U-238 than induce fissions. However, the IFR's positive void coefficient could be reduced to an acceptable level by adding technetium to the core, helping destroy the <a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">long-lived fission product</a> <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99" title="Technetium-99">technetium-99</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-osti.gov_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osti.gov-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>IFRs are able to withstand both a loss of flow without <a href="/wiki/SCRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="SCRAM">SCRAM</a> and loss of heat sink without SCRAM. In addition to the passive shutdown of the reactor, the convection current generated in the primary coolant system will prevent fuel damage (core meltdown). These capabilities were demonstrated in the <a href="/wiki/EBR-II" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-II">EBR-II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ANL_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANL-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate goal is that no radioactivity is released under any circumstance. </p><p>The flammability of sodium is a risk to operators. Sodium burns easily in air and will ignite spontaneously on contact with water. The use of an intermediate coolant loop between the reactor and the turbines minimizes the risk of a sodium fire in the reactor core. </p><p>Under neutron bombardment, <a href="/wiki/Sodium-24" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-24">sodium-24</a> is produced. This is highly radioactive, emitting an energetic <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> of 2.7 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a> followed by a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Magnesium-24" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium-24">magnesium-24</a>. Half-life is only 15 hours, so this isotope is not a long-term hazard. Nevertheless, the presence of sodium-24 further necessitates the use of the intermediate coolant loop between the reactor and the turbines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proliferation">Proliferation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Proliferation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reactor_grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor grade plutonium">reactor grade plutonium</a></div> <p>IFRs and <a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">light-water reactors</a> (LWRs) both produce <a href="/wiki/Reactor_grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor grade plutonium">reactor grade plutonium</a> – which even at high <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnups</a> remains weapons-usable<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – but the IFR fuel cycle has some design features that make proliferation more difficult than the current <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> recycling of spent LWR fuel. For one thing, it may operate at higher burnups and therefore increase the relative abundance of the non-fissile, but fertile, isotopes <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">plutonium-238</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">plutonium-240</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">plutonium-242</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike PUREX reprocessing, the IFR's electrolytic reprocessing of <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent fuel">spent fuel</a> does not separate out pure plutonium. Instead, it is left mixed with minor actinides and some rare earth fission products, which makes the theoretical ability to make a bomb directly out of it considerably dubious.<sup id="cite_ref-youtube.com_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-youtube.com-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Rather than being transported from a large centralized reprocessing plant to reactors at other locations – as is common now in France, from <a href="/wiki/La_Hague" title="La Hague">La Hague</a> to its dispersed nuclear fleet of LWRs – the IFR pyroprocessed fuel would be much more resistant to unauthorized diversion.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The material with the mix of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium isotopes">plutonium isotopes</a> in an IFR would stay at the reactor site and then be burnt up practically <i>in-situ</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> alternatively, if operated as a breeder reactor, some of the pyroprocessed fuel could be consumed by the reactor (or other reactors located elsewhere). However, as is the case with conventional aqueous reprocessing, it would remain possible to chemically extract all the plutonium isotopes from the pyroprocessed fuel. In fact, it would be much easier to do so from the recycled product than from the original spent fuel. However, doing so would still be more difficult when compared to another conventional recycled nuclear fuel, <a href="/wiki/MOX" class="mw-redirect" title="MOX">MOX</a>, as the IFR recycled fuel contains more fission products and, due to its higher <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a>, more proliferation-resistant <a href="/wiki/Pu-240" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-240">Pu-240</a> than MOX. </p><p>An advantage to the removal and burn up of actinides (include plutonium) from the IFR's spent fuel is the elimination of concerns about leaving spent fuel (or indeed conventional – and therefore comparatively lower <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a> – spent fuel, which can contain weapons-usable plutonium isotope concentrations) in a <a href="/wiki/Geological_repository" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological repository">geological repository</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">dry cask storage</a>, which could be mined in the future for the purpose of making weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because reactor-grade plutonium contains isotopes of plutonium with high <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> rates, and the ratios of these troublesome isotopes (from a weapons manufacturing point of view) only increases<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="How can an *increase* in the Pu isotope ratio make the spent fuel more difficult to use for weapons? This seems backwards. Wouldn't more burnup imply less usable Pu for weapons? (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> as the fuel is burnt up for longer and longer, it is considerably more difficult to produce fission nuclear weapons of substantial yield from highly burnt up spent fuel than from (conventional) moderately burnt up LWR spent fuel. </p><p>Therefore, proliferation risks are considerably reduced with the IFR system by many metrics, but not entirely eliminated. The plutonium from advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR) recycled fuel would have an isotopic composition similar to that obtained from other highly burnt up <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a> sources. Although this makes the material less attractive for weapons production, it could nonetheless be used in less sophisticated weapons or with <a href="/wiki/Fusion_boosting" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion boosting">fusion boosting</a>. </p><p>In 1962, the U.S. government detonated a nuclear device using then-defined "<a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">reactor-grade plutonium</a>", although in more recent categorizations it would instead be considered as <a href="/wiki/Reactor_grade_plutonium#Classification_by_isotopic_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor grade plutonium">fuel-grade plutonium</a>, typical of that produced by low burn up <a href="/wiki/Magnox_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnox reactor">Magnox reactors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199434_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199434-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plutonium produced in the fuel of a breeder reactor generally has a higher fraction of the isotope <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">plutonium-240</a> than that produced in other reactors, making it less attractive for weapons use, particularly in first-generation <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">nuclear weapon designs</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>. This offers an intrinsic degree of proliferation resistance. However, if a blanket of uranium is used to surround the core during breeding, the plutonium made in the blanket is usually of a high <a href="/wiki/Pu-239" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu-239">Pu-239</a> quality, containing very little Pu-240, making it highly attractive for weapons use.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> If operated as a breeder instead of a burner, the IFR has proliferation potential:</p><blockquote><p>Although some recent proposals for the future of the ALMR/IFR concept have focused more on its ability to transform and irreversibly use up plutonium, such as the conceptual <a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM (reactor)</a> and the in operation (2014) <a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800 reactor</a> in Russia, the developers of the IFR acknowledge that it is 'uncontested that the IFR can be configured as a net producer of plutonium'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199432_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199432-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If instead of processing spent fuel, the ALMR system were used to reprocess <i>irradiated <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile (breeding) material</a></i> [that is, if a blanket of breeding U-238 was used] in the electrorefiner, the resulting plutonium would be a superior material, with a nearly ideal isotope composition for nuclear weapons manufacture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199436_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199436-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactor_design_and_construction">Reactor design and construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reactor design and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A commercial version of the IFR, <a href="/wiki/S-PRISM" class="mw-redirect" title="S-PRISM">S-PRISM</a>, can be built in a factory and transported to the site. This <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactor" title="Small modular reactor">small modular</a> design (311 MWe modules) reduces costs and allows nuclear plants of various sizes (311 MWe and any integer multiple) to be economically constructed. </p><p>Cost assessments taking account of the complete life cycle show that fast reactors could be no more expensive than water-moderated water-cooled reactors, currently the most widely used reactors in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquid_metal_sodium_coolant">Liquid metal sodium coolant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Liquid metal sodium coolant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600 reactor</a></div> <p>Unlike reactors that use relatively slow low energy (thermal) neutrons, <a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron reactors</a> need <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">nuclear reactor coolant</a> that does not moderate or block neutrons (like water does in an LWR) so that they have sufficient energy to fission <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> isotopes that are <a href="/wiki/Fissionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable">fissionable</a> but not <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a>. The core must also be compact and contain the least amount of neutron-moderating material as possible. Metal sodium coolant in many ways has the most attractive combination of properties for this purpose. In addition to not being a neutron moderator, desirable physical characteristics include: </p> <ul><li>Low melting temperature</li> <li>Low vapor pressure</li> <li>High boiling temperature</li> <li>Excellent thermal conductivity</li> <li>Low viscosity</li> <li>Light weight</li> <li>Thermal and radiation stability</li></ul> <p>Additional benefits to using liquid sodium include: </p> <ul><li>Abundant and low-cost material</li> <li>Cleaning with chlorine produces non-toxic <a href="/wiki/NaCl" class="mw-redirect" title="NaCl">table salt</a></li> <li>Compatible with other materials used in the core (does not react or dissolve stainless steel), so no special corrosion protection measures are needed</li> <li>Low pumping power (from lightweight and low viscosity)</li> <li>Protects other components from corrosion by maintaining an oxygen- and water-free environment (sodium would react with any trace amounts to make sodium oxide or sodium hydroxide and hydrogen)</li> <li>Lightweight (low density) improves resistance to seismic inertia events (earthquakes)</li></ul> <p>Significant drawbacks to using sodium are its extreme fire hazardousness in the presence of any significant amounts of air (oxygen) and its spontaneous combustion with water, rendering sodium leaks and flooding dangerous. This was the case at the <a href="/wiki/Monju_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Monju Nuclear Power Plant">Monju Nuclear Power Plant</a> in a 1995 accident and fire. Reactions with water produce hydrogen which can be explosive. The sodium activation product (isotope) <sup>24</sup>Na releases dangerous energetic photons when it decays (albeit having only short half-life of 15 hours). The reactor design keeps <sup>24</sup>Na in the reactor pool and carries away heat for power production using a secondary sodium loop, but this adds costs to construction and maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Nuclear Technology">Nuclear Technology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Estimates from Argonne National Laboratory place the output of waste of a 1,000 <a href="/wiki/MWe" class="mw-redirect" title="MWe">MWe</a> plant operating at 70% capacity at 1,700 pounds/year.<sup id="cite_ref-berkeley_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berkeley-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radioactivity and its associated dangers are roughly divided by an isotope's half-life. For example, given the 213,000-year half-life of technetium-99, combined with the IFR's 1/20 volume reduction, produces about 1/4,000,000 of the radiotoxicity of light-water reactor waste. The small size (about 1.5 tonnes per gigawatt-year) permits expensive disposal methods such as insoluble synthetic rock. The hazards are far less than those from fossil fuel wastes or dam failures.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ANL-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ANL_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANL_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/integral-fast-reactor.shtml">The IFR</a> at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, <i>www.ne.anl.gov</i>, accessed 1 November 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015654/http://www.genewscenter.com/Press-Releases/GE-Hitachi-Nuclear-Energy-Encourages-Congress-to-Support-Development-of-Recycling-Technology-to-Turn-Used-Nuclear-Fuel-into-an-Asset-1b9f.aspx">"GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Encourages Congress to Support Development of Recycling Technology to Turn Used Nuclear Fuel into an Asset – GE Energy press release"</a>. Genewscenter.com. 2009-06-18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genewscenter.com/Press-Releases/GE-Hitachi-Nuclear-Energy-Encourages-Congress-to-Support-Development-of-Recycling-Technology-to-Turn-Used-Nuclear-Fuel-into-an-Asset-1b9f.aspx">the original</a> on 2013-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Stated at ~ 17:30"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 12 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Roger+Blomquist+of+ANL+%28Argonne+National+Lab%29+on+IFR+%28Integral+Fast+Reactor%29+%40+TEAC6+.+Stated+at+~+17%3A30&rft.date=2014-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DvuunX3Oc4n4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSasahara,_AkihiroMatsumuraNicolaouPapaioannou2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sasahara, Akihiro; Matsumura, Tetsuo; Nicolaou, Giorgos; Papaioannou, Dimitri (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3327%2Fjnst.41.448">"Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels"</a>. <i>Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology</i>. <b>41</b> (4): 448–456. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3327%2Fjnst.41.448">10.3327/jnst.41.448</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nuclear+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Neutron+and+Gamma+Ray+Source+Evaluation+of+LWR+High+Burn-up+UO2+and+MOX+Spent+Fuels&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=448-456&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3327%2Fjnst.41.448&rft.au=Sasahara%2C+Akihiro&rft.au=Matsumura%2C+Tetsuo&rft.au=Nicolaou%2C+Giorgos&rft.au=Papaioannou%2C+Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3327%252Fjnst.41.448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProfessor_David_Ruzic2019" class="citation web cs1">Professor David Ruzic (14 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA5sxV5b5b4">"Dealing with the Used Fuel (Reprocessing)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/UA5sxV5b5b4">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Dealing+with+the+Used+Fuel+%28Reprocessing%29&rft.date=2019-05-14&rft.au=Professor+David+Ruzic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DUA5sxV5b5b4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pg_15_see_SV/g_chart-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pg_15_see_SV/g_chart_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanne_Wallenius2007" class="citation journal cs1">Janne Wallenius (2007-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140519002715/http://www.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten.se/Global/Publikationer/Tidskrift/Nucleus/2007/Nucleus-4-2007.pdf">"Återanvändning av lång sluten bränslecykel möj"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nucleus</i>: 15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten.se/Global/Publikationer/Tidskrift/Nucleus/2007/Nucleus-4-2007.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2014-05-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nucleus&rft.atitle=%C3%85teranv%C3%A4ndning+av+l%C3%A5ng+sluten+br%C3%A4nslecykel+m%C3%B6j&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2007-04-01&rft.au=Janne+Wallenius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten.se%2FGlobal%2FPublikationer%2FTidskrift%2FNucleus%2F2007%2FNucleus-4-2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199430_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFU.S._Congress1994">U.S. Congress (1994)</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osti.gov-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-osti.gov_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-osti.gov_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10171782-o1Ys0R/10171782.pdf">Reduction of the Sodium-Void Coefficient of Reactivity by Using a Technetium Layer</a> page 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warner_+_Heath,_JoIE-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Warner_+_Heath,_JoIE_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Warner, Ethan S.; Heath, Garvin A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x/full">Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation: Systematic Review and Harmonization</a>, <i>Journal of Industrial Ecology</i>, <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, published online April 17, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1530-9290.2012.00472.x">10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> (84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is <a href="/wiki/Radon-222" title="Radon-222">radon-222</a> with a half life of less than four <i>days</i>). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">thermal neutron</a> fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilstedFriedmanStevens1965" class="citation journal cs1">Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248". <i>Nuclear Physics</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 299. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965NucPh..71..299M">1965NucPh..71..299M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0029-5582%2865%2990719-4">10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics&rft.atitle=The+alpha+half-life+of+berkelium-247%3B+a+new+long-lived+isomer+of+berkelium-248&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=299&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0029-5582%2865%2990719-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965NucPh..71..299M&rft.aulast=Milsted&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Stevens%2C+C.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span><br />"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk<sup>248</sup> with a half-life greater than 9 [years]. No growth of Cf<sup>248</sup> was detected, and a lower limit for the β<sup>−</sup> half-life can be set at about 10<sup>4</sup> [years]. No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 [years]."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "<a href="/wiki/Sea_of_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea of instability">sea of instability</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Excluding those "<a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">classically stable</a>" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of <sup>232</sup>Th; e.g., while <sup>113m</sup>Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of <sup>113</sup>Cd is eight <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1015" title="Orders of magnitude (numbers)">quadrillion</a> years.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew L. Wald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/20/us/energy-dept-is-told-to-stop-collecting-fee-for-nuclear-waste-disposal.html">Energy Dept. Told to Stop Collecting Nuclear Waste Fee</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, November 20, 2013, p. A20 (retrieved April 2, 2014)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBThTwFhRlA">"Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept. Uploaded by – Nuclear Engineering at Argonne"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 3 March 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/cBThTwFhRlA">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-12-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Historical+video+about+the+Integral+Fast+Reactor+%28IFR%29+concept.+Uploaded+by+%E2%80%93+Nuclear+Engineering+at+Argonne&rft.date=2014-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DcBThTwFhRlA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TillAndYang-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TillAndYang_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTill_and_Chang2011" class="citation book cs1">Till and Chang, Charles E. and Yoon Il (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605030654/http://www.sustainablenuclear.org/PADs/pad0509till.html"><i>Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor</i></a>. CreateSpace. pp. 157–158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1466384606" title="Special:BookSources/978-1466384606"><bdi>978-1466384606</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sustainablenuclear.org/PADs/pad0509till.html">the original</a> on 2011-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plentiful+Energy%3A+The+Story+of+the+Integral+Fast+Reactor&rft.pages=157-158&rft.pub=CreateSpace&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1466384606&rft.aulast=Till+and+Chang&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.+and+Yoon+Il&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sustainablenuclear.org%2FPADs%2Fpad0509till.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/mmup.pdf">Managing Military Uranium and Plutonium in the United States and the Former Soviet Union</a>, Matthew Bunn and John P. Holdren, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 1997. 22:403–86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/Files/Pub37993.pdf">Categorization of Used Nuclear Fuel Inventory in Support of a Comprehensive National Nuclear Fuel Cycle Strategy</a>. page 35 figure 21. Discharge isotopic composition of a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> fuel assembly with initial U-235 enrichment of 4.5 wt % that has accumulated 45 GWd/MTU burnup. Isotopic composition of used nuclear fuel as a function of burnup for a generic PWR fuel assembly.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWNA2009" class="citation web cs1">WNA (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100330221426/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf15.html">"Plutonium"</a>. World Nuclear Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf15.html">the original</a> on 2010-03-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plutonium&rft.pub=World+Nuclear+Association&rft.date=2009-03&rft.au=WNA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-nuclear.org%2Finfo%2Finf15.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199434-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199434_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFU.S._Congress1994">U.S. Congress (1994)</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/plutonium.htmBreeder">https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/plutonium.htmBreeder</a> reactors <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130701133701/http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/plutonium.htm">Archived</a> 2013-07-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199432-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199432_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFU.S._Congress1994">U.S. Congress (1994)</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199436-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEU.S._Congress199436_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFU.S._Congress1994">U.S. Congress (1994)</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoplavskiiChebeskovMatveev2004" class="citation journal cs1">Poplavskii, V. M.; Chebeskov, A. N.; Matveev, V. I. (2004-06-01). "BN-800 as a New Stage in the Development of Fast Sodium-Cooled Reactors". <i>Atomic Energy</i>. <b>96</b> (6): 386–390. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AATEN.0000041204.70134.20">10.1023/B:ATEN.0000041204.70134.20</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96585192">96585192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atomic+Energy&rft.atitle=BN-800+as+a+New+Stage+in+the+Development+of+Fast+Sodium-Cooled+Reactors&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=386-390&rft.date=2004-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3AATEN.0000041204.70134.20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96585192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Poplavskii&rft.aufirst=V.+M.&rft.au=Chebeskov%2C+A.+N.&rft.au=Matveev%2C+V.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFanning2007" class="citation web cs1">Fanning, Thomas H. (May 3, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130113134710/http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/SodiumCoolant_NRCpresentation.pdf">"Sodium as a Fast Reactor Coolant"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ne.doe.gov</i>. Office of Nuclear Energy | Department of Energy | University of Chicago, <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/SodiumCoolant_NRCpresentation.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-01-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ne.doe.gov&rft.atitle=Sodium+as+a+Fast+Reactor+Coolant&rft.date=2007-05-03&rft.aulast=Fanning&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ne.doe.gov%2FpdfFiles%2FSodiumCoolant_NRCpresentation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTom_Blees2008" class="citation book cs1">Tom Blees (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781419655821"><i>Prescription For The Planet: The Painless Remedy for Our Energy & Environmental Crises</i></a></span>. BookSurge Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4196-5582-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4196-5582-1"><bdi>978-1-4196-5582-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prescription+For+The+Planet%3A+The+Painless+Remedy+for+Our+Energy+%26+Environmental+Crises&rft.pub=BookSurge+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4196-5582-1&rft.au=Tom+Blees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781419655821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Congress1994" class="citation book cs1">U.S. Congress, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Technology_Assessment" title="Office of Technology Assessment">Office of Technology Assessment</a> (May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1994/9434/9434.PDF"><i>Technical Options for the Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. U.S. Government Printing Office. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4289-2068-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4289-2068-2"><bdi>978-1-4289-2068-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technical+Options+for+the+Advanced+Liquid+Metal+Reactor&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1994-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4289-2068-2&rft.au=U.S.+Congress%2C+Office+of+Technology+Assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~ota%2Fdisk1%2F1994%2F9434%2F9434.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_E._TillYoon_Il_Chang2011" class="citation book cs1">Charles E. Till; Yoon Il Chang (2011). <i>Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor: The complex history of a simple reactor technology, with emphasis on its scientific bases for non-specialists</i>. CreateSpace. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4663-8460-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4663-8460-6"><bdi>978-1-4663-8460-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plentiful+Energy%3A+The+Story+of+the+Integral+Fast+Reactor%3A+The+complex+history+of+a+simple+reactor+technology%2C+with+emphasis+on+its+scientific+bases+for+non-specialists&rft.pub=CreateSpace&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4663-8460-6&rft.au=Charles+E.+Till&rft.au=Yoon+Il+Chang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_E._HannumGerald_E._MarshGeorge_S._Stanford2005" class="citation news cs1">William E. Hannum; Gerald E. Marsh; George S. Stanford (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=smarter-use-of-nuclear-waste">"Smarter Use of Nuclear Waste"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Smarter+Use+of+Nuclear+Waste&rft.date=2005-12&rft.au=William+E.+Hannum&rft.au=Gerald+E.+Marsh&rft.au=George+S.+Stanford&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dsmarter-use-of-nuclear-waste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntegral+fast+reactor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Restoration of the Earth</i>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_B._Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore B. Taylor">Theodore B. Taylor</a> and Charles C. Humpstone, 166 pages, Harper & Row (1973) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060142315" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060142315">978-0060142315</a></li> <li><i>Sustainable energy – Without the Hot Air</i>, <a href="/wiki/David_J.C._MacKay" class="mw-redirect" title="David J.C. MacKay">David J.C. MacKay</a>, 384 pages, UIT Cambridge (2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0954452933" title="Special:BookSources/978-0954452933">978-0954452933</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/2081:_A_Hopeful_View_of_the_Human_Future" title="2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future">2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Gerard_K._O%27Neill" title="Gerard K. O'Neill">Gerard K. O'Neill</a>, 284 pages, Simon & Schuster (1981) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671242572" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671242572">978-0671242572</a></li> <li><i>The Second Nuclear Era: A New Start for Nuclear Power</i>, <a href="/wiki/Alvin_M._Weinberg" title="Alvin M. Weinberg">Alvin M. Weinberg</a> et al., 460 pages, Praeger Publishers (1985) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275901837" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275901837">978-0275901837</a></li> <li><i>Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges</i>, IAEA, 105 pages (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9201034052" title="Special:BookSources/978-9201034052">978-9201034052</a></li> <li><i>The Nuclear Imperative: A Critical Look at the Approaching Energy Crisis (More Physics for Presidents)</i>, Jeff Eerkens, 212 pages, Springer (2010) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9048186662" title="Special:BookSources/978-9048186662">978-9048186662</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Integral_fast_reactor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/integral-fast-reactor.shtml">The Integral Fast Reactor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a></li> <li>Archived material from a site about the IFR formerly hosted by UC Berkeley: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080111153440/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/">(archived) page index</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071009064447/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/anlw.html">(archived) Introduction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080111153448/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/ifr1.html">(archived) Integral Fast Reactor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045815/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/ifr2.html">(archived) IFR Metallic Fuel</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045850/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/ifr3.html">(archived) Safety Characteristics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045826/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/fcf1.html">(archived) Fuel Cycle Facility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045921/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/fmf.html">(archived) Fuel Manufacturing Facility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610045844/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/ifrvision.html">(archived) The IFR Vision</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080119002512/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/designs/ifr/wastes.html">(archived) Reactor Burns Waste as Fuel in Nuclear Recycling Experiment </a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160125131513/http://www.nationalcenter.org/NPA378.html">Integral Fast Reactors: Source of Safe, Abundant, Non-Polluting Power</a> by George S. Stanford, Ph.D.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/reaction/interviews/till.html">Frontline interview with Dr. Till</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skirsch.com/politics/globalwarming/ifrQandA.htm">IFR Q&A with Tom Blees and George Stanford</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J36rTD18RLA">Integral Fast Reactors by Tom Blees, part 2 of 3</a> – Interview with author <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tom_Blees&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tom Blees (page does not exist)">Tom Blees</a> about IFR</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skirsch.com/politics/globalwarming/ifr.htm">The IFR's role in global warming</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_nuclear_fission_reactor" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_fission_reactors" title="Template:Nuclear fission reactors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_fission_reactors" title="Template talk:Nuclear fission reactors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_fission_reactors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear fission reactors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_nuclear_fission_reactor" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear fission reactor</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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