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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spacetime curvature schematic"><img alt="Spacetime curvature schematic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg/220px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg/330px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg/440px-Spacetime_lattice_analogy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="469" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding:0.5em 0.2em 0.6em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa; display:block;margin-bottom:0.1em;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>G</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Λ</mi> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>κ</mi> </mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/124ab80fcb17e2733cc17ff6f93da5e52f355c77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:19.468ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}"></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_general_relativity" title="Introduction to general relativity">Introduction</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">History</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Timeline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Tests</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_general_relativity" title="Mathematics of general relativity">Mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Fundamental concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">Equivalence principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_line" title="World line">World line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold" title="Pseudo-Riemannian manifold">Pseudo-Riemannian manifold</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Phenomena</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two-body_problem_in_general_relativity" title="Two-body problem in general relativity">Kepler problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">Gravitational lensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift" title="Gravitational redshift">Gravitational redshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation" title="Gravitational time dilation">Gravitational time dilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame-dragging" title="Frame-dragging">Frame-dragging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_effect" title="Geodetic effect">Geodetic effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">Event horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black hole</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ececff; font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime_diagram" title="Spacetime diagram">Spacetime diagrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">Einstein–Rosen bridge</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Equations</li><li>Formalisms</li></ul></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;padding-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> Equations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linearized_gravity" title="Linearized gravity">Linearized gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_field_equations" title="Einstein field equations">Einstein field equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesics_in_general_relativity" title="Geodesics in general relativity">Geodesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathisson%E2%80%93Papapetrou%E2%80%93Dixon_equations" title="Mathisson–Papapetrou–Dixon equations">Mathisson–Papapetrou–Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi%E2%80%93Einstein_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation">Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> Formalisms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADM_formalism" title="ADM formalism">ADM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSSN_formalism" title="BSSN formalism">BSSN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameterized_post-Newtonian_formalism" title="Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism">Post-Newtonian</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> Advanced theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">Kaluza–Klein theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Exact_solutions_in_general_relativity" title="Exact solutions in general relativity">Solutions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild</a> (<a href="/wiki/Interior_Schwarzschild_metric" title="Interior Schwarzschild metric">interior</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric" title="Reissner–Nordström metric">Reissner–Nordström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Rosen_metric" title="Einstein–Rosen metric">Einstein–Rosen waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">Wormhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric" title="Gödel metric">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerr_metric" title="Kerr metric">Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman_metric" title="Kerr–Newman metric">Kerr–Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman%E2%80%93de%E2%80%93Sitter_metric" title="Kerr–Newman–de–Sitter metric">Kerr–Newman–de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasner_metric" title="Kasner metric">Kasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Tolman_metric" title="Lemaître–Tolman metric">Lemaître–Tolman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taub%E2%80%93NUT_space" title="Taub–NUT space">Taub–NUT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milne_model" title="Milne model">Milne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric" title="Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric">Robertson–Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Snyder_model" title="Oppenheimer–Snyder model">Oppenheimer–Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pp-wave_spacetime" title="Pp-wave spacetime">pp-wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Stockum_dust" title="Van Stockum dust">van Stockum dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weyl%E2%80%93Lewis%E2%80%93Papapetrou_coordinates" title="Weyl–Lewis–Papapetrou coordinates">Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartle%E2%80%93Thorne_metric" title="Hartle–Thorne metric">Hartle–Thorne</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Scientists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Schwarzschild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">de Sitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reissner" title="Hans Reissner">Reissner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Nordstr%C3%B6m" title="Gunnar Nordström">Nordström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Weyl" title="Hermann Weyl">Weyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Friedmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Arthur_Milne" title="Edward Arthur Milne">Milne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Zwicky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Lemaître</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_P._Robertson" title="Howard P. Robertson">Robertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Bardeen" title="James M. Bardeen">Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Geoffrey_Walker" title="Arthur Geoffrey Walker">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Kerr" title="Roy Kerr">Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Ehlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amal_Kumar_Raychaudhuri" title="Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri">Raychaudhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Jacob_van_Stockum" title="Willem Jacob van Stockum">van Stockum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_H._Taub" title="Abraham H. Taub">Taub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_T._Newman" title="Ezra T. Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Yau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity" title="List of contributors to general relativity">others</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:General_relativity_sidebar" title="Template:General relativity sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:General_relativity_sidebar" title="Template talk:General relativity sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:General_relativity_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:General relativity sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The following is a <a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">timeline</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational physics">gravitational physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_1500">Before 1500</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Before 1500">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>3rd century B.C. – <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> proposes the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-1">[1]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1500s">1500s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1500s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1543 – <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> publishes <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-1">[1]</a></li> <li>1583 – <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> deduces the period relationship of a <a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">pendulum</a> from observations (according to later biographer).</li> <li>1586 – <a href="/wiki/Simon_Stevin" title="Simon Stevin">Simon Stevin</a> demonstrates that two objects of different mass accelerate at the same rate when dropped.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></li> <li>1589 – Galileo Galilei describes a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic balance">hydrostatic balance</a> for measuring <a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">specific gravity</a>.</li> <li>1590 – Galileo Galilei formulates modified <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelean</a> theory of motion (later retracted) based on <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> rather than weight of objects.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1600s">1600s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1600s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Principia1846-105.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Principia1846-105.png/220px-Principia1846-105.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Principia1846-105.png/330px-Principia1846-105.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Principia1846-105.png/440px-Principia1846-105.png 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>Geometric diagram for Newton's proof of Kepler's second law.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1602-1608 – Galileo Galilei experiments with pendulum motion and <a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">inclined planes</a>; deduces his law of <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a>; and discovers that <a href="/wiki/Projectile" title="Projectile">projectiles</a> travel along <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabolic</a> trajectories.<a href="#cite_note-:11-3">[3]</a></li> <li>1609 – <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> announces his first two <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">laws of planetary motion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-4">[4]</a></li> <li>1610 – Johannes Kepler states the <a href="/wiki/Olbers%27s_paradox" title="Olbers's paradox">dark night paradox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li> <li>1610 – Galileo Galilei publishes <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">The Sidereal Messenger</a>, detailing his astronomical discoveries made with a telescope.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li> <li>1619 – Johannes Kepler unveils his third law of planetary motion.<a href="#cite_note-:8-4">[4]</a></li> <li>1665-66 – <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> introduces an inverse-square <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">law of universal gravitation</a> uniting terrestrial and celestial theories of motion and uses it to predict the orbit of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and the parabolic arc of projectiles (the latter using his <a href="/wiki/Binomial_series" title="Binomial series">generalization of the binomial theorem</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:10-7">[7]</a></li> <li>1676-9 – <a href="/wiki/Ole_R%C3%B8mer" title="Ole Rømer">Ole Rømer</a> makes the first scientific determination of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>1684 – Isaac Newton proves that <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> moving under an inverse-square force law will obey <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">Kepler's laws</a> in <a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">a letter</a> to Edmond Halley.<a href="#cite_note-:10-7">[7]</a></li> <li>1686 – Isaac Newton uses a fixed length pendulum with weights of varying composition to test the <a href="/wiki/Weak_equivalence_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak equivalence principle">weak equivalence principle</a> to 1 part in 1000.<a href="#cite_note-:7-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></li> <li>1686 – Isaac Newton publishes his <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</a>, where he develops his <a href="/wiki/Fluxion" title="Fluxion">calculus</a>, states his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and gravitation, proves the <a href="/wiki/Shell_theorem" title="Shell theorem">shell theorem</a>, describes his <a href="/wiki/Bucket_argument" title="Bucket argument">rotating bucket</a> thought experiment, explains the <a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">tides</a>, and calculates the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">figure of the Earth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-9">[9]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1700s">1700s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1700s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lagrange_very_massive.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lagrange_very_massive.svg/220px-Lagrange_very_massive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lagrange_very_massive.svg/330px-Lagrange_very_massive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Lagrange_very_massive.svg/440px-Lagrange_very_massive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Lagrange points</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1705 – <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a> predicts the return of <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet" title="Halley's Comet">Halley's comet</a> in 1758,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> the first use of Newton's laws by someone other than Newton himself.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li> <li>1728 – Isaac Newton posthumously publishes his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_cannonball" title="Newton's cannonball">cannonball</a> thought experiment.<a href="#cite_note-treatiselat-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-cohen2004-14">[14]</a></li> <li>1742 – <a href="/wiki/Colin_Maclaurin" title="Colin Maclaurin">Colin Maclaurin</a> studies a self-gravitating uniform liquid drop at <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">equilibrium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maclaurin_spheroid" title="Maclaurin spheroid">Maclaurin spheroid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li> <li>1755 – <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> advances <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>'s nebular hypothesis on the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Woolfson1993-17">[17]</a></li> <li>1765 – Leonhard Euler discovers the first three Lagrange points.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-E327-19">[19]</a></li> <li>1767 – <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> solves Euler's <a href="/wiki/Euler%27s_three-body_problem" title="Euler's three-body problem">restricted three-body problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-euler_1760-20">[20]</a></li> <li>1772 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a> discovers the two remaining <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Lagrange points</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gallica.bnf.fr2-21">[21]</a></li> <li>1796 – <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon de Laplace</a> independently introduces the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">nebular hypothesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Woolfson1993-17">[17]</a></li> <li>1798 – <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a> tests Newton's law of universal gravitation using a <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_experiment" title="Cavendish experiment">torsion balance</a>, leading to the first accurate value for the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_constant" title="Gravitational constant">gravitational constant</a> and the mean density of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1800s">1800s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1800s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1846 – <a href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Urbain Le Verrier</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Couch_Adams" title="John Couch Adams">John Couch Adams</a>, studying <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a>' orbit, independently prove that another, farther planet must exist. <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> was found at the predicted moment and position.</li> <li>1855 – Le Verrier observes a 35 arcsecond per century excess <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> and attributes it to another planet, inside Mercury's orbit. The planet was never found. See <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(planet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulcan (planet)">Vulcan</a>.</li> <li>1876 – <a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">William Kingdon Clifford</a> suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li>1882 – <a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a> observes a 43 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit.</li> <li>1884 – William Thomson (<a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>) lectures on the issues with the wave theory of light with regards to the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous ether</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1887 – <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Morley" title="Edward W. Morley">Edward W. Morley</a> in <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment" title="Michelson–Morley experiment">their famous experiment</a> do not detect the ether drift.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li> <li>1889 – <a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> uses a <a href="/wiki/Torsion_spring#Torsion_balance" title="Torsion spring">torsion balance</a> to test the <a href="/wiki/Weak_equivalence_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak equivalence principle">weak equivalence principle</a> to 1 part in one billion.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li> <li>1887 – <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_FitzGerald" title="George Francis FitzGerald">George Francis FitzGerald</a> explains his hypothesis that the Michelson-Morley interferometer <a href="/wiki/Fitzgerald-Lorentz_contraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction">contracts</a> in the direction of motion through the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous ether</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1893 – <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a> states <a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_principle" title="Mach's principle">Mach's principle</a>, the first constructive critique of the idea of Newtonian absolute space.</li> <li>1897 – <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a> questions whether absolute space, absolute time, and <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a> are applicable to physics.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1900s">1900s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1900s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Enterprise_(CVAN-65),_USS_Long_Beach_(CGN-9)_and_USS_Bainbridge_(DLGN-25)_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit,_in_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/220px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/330px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg/440px-USS_Enterprise_%28CVAN-65%29%2C_USS_Long_Beach_%28CGN-9%29_and_USS_Bainbridge_%28DLGN-25%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_during_Operation_Sea_Orbit%2C_in_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>The U.S. Navy's nuclear-powered Task Force 1 underway for <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Orbit" title="Operation Sea Orbit">Operation Sea Orbit</a> in the Mediterranean, 1964.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1902 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gerber" title="Paul Gerber">Paul Gerber</a> explains the movement of the perihelion of Mercury using finite speed of gravity.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> His formula, at least approximately, matches the later model from Einstein's general relativity, but Gerber's theory was incorrect.</li> <li>1902 – Henri Poincaré questions the concept of <a href="/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity" title="Relativity of simultaneity">simultaneity</a> in his book, <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Hypothesis" title="Science and Hypothesis">Science and Hypothesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li> <li>1904 – <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Antoon Lorentz">Hendrik Antoon Lorentz</a> publishes the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> so named by Henri Poincaré.<a href="#cite_note-:15-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1902 – Henri Poincaré shows that the Lorentz transformations form a <a href="/wiki/Group_(mathematics)" title="Group (mathematics)">mathematical group</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_group" title="Lorentz group">Lorentz group</a>, and derives the <a href="/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula" title="Velocity-addition formula">relativistic formula for adding velocities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1905 – <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> completes his <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special theory of relativity</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-:82-35">[35]</a> and examines <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_aberration" title="Relativistic aberration">relativistic aberration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Transverse_Doppler_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse Doppler effect">transverse Doppler effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-25">[25]</a></li> <li>1905 – Albert Einstein discovers the <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">equivalence of mass and energy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f73dbd37a0cac34406ee89057fa1b36a1e6a18e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.976ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}"> in modern form.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-31">[31]</a></li> <li>1906 – <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> coins the term Relativtheorie. Albert Einstein later uses the term Relativitätstheorie in a conversation with Paul Ehrenfest. He originally prefers calling it Invariance Theory.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>1906 – Max Planck formulates a <a href="/wiki/Variational_principle" title="Variational principle">variational principle</a> for special relativity.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li> <li>1907 – Albert Einstein introduces the <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">principle of equivalence</a> of gravitational and inertial mass and uses it to predict gravitational lensing and <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift" title="Gravitational redshift">gravitational redshift</a>,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a> historically known as the Einstein shift.<a href="#cite_note-:4-43">[43]</a></li> <li>1907-8 – <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski" title="Hermann Minkowski">Hermann Minkowski</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_spacetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski spacetime">Minkowski spacetime</a> and the notion of <a href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensors</a> to relativity. His paper was published posthumously.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li> <li>1909 – <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> proposes <a href="/wiki/Born_rigidity" title="Born rigidity">his notion of rigidity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> <li>1909 – <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a> states the <a href="/wiki/Ehrenfest_paradox" title="Ehrenfest paradox">Ehrenfest paradox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1910s">1910s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1910s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg/220px-Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg/330px-Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg/440px-Einstein%27s_argument_that_falling_light_acquires_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Einstein's 1911 argument for gravitational redshift</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1911 – <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a> publishes the first textbook on special relativity.<a href="#cite_note-:14-51">[51]</a></li> <li>1911 – Albert Einstein explains the need to replace both special relativity and Newton's theory of gravity; he realizes that the principle of equivalence only holds locally, not globally.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li> <li>1912 – <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kottler" title="Friedrich Kottler">Friedrich Kottler</a> applies the notion of tensors to curved spacetime.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-51">[51]</a></li> <li>1915-16 – Albert Einstein completes his <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general theory of relativity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-55">[55]</a> He explains the <a href="/wiki/Perihelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion">perihelion</a> of Mercury and calculates <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lensing</a> correctly and introduces the <a href="/wiki/Post-Newtonian_expansion" title="Post-Newtonian expansion">post-Newtonian approximation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li> <li>1915 – <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">David Hilbert</a> independently introduces the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Hilbert_action" title="Einstein–Hilbert action">Einstein-Hilbert action</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-55">[55]</a> Hilbert also recognizes the connection between the Einstein equations and the <a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Bonnet_theorem" title="Gauss–Bonnet theorem">Gauss-Bonnet theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li>1916 – <a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Karl Schwarzschild</a> publishes the <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild metric</a> about a month after Einstein published his general theory of relativity.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> This was the first solution to the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution.<a href="#cite_note-Levy-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eisenstaedt,_1989-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></li> <li>1916 – Albert Einstein predicts <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li> <li>1916 – <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Sitter" title="Willem de Sitter">Willem de Sitter</a> predicts the <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_effect" title="Geodetic effect">geodetic effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></li> <li>1917 – Albert Einstein applies his field equations to the entire Universe.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a> is born.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1916-20 – <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> studies the internal constitution of the stars.<a href="#cite_note-eddington-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-eddington2-69">[69]</a></li> <li>1918 – Albert Einstein derives the <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_formula" title="Quadrupole formula">quadrupole formula</a> for gravitational radiation.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li> <li>1918 – <a href="/wiki/Josef_Lense" title="Josef Lense">Josef Lense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Thirring" title="Hans Thirring">Hans Thirring</a> find the <a href="/wiki/Gravitoelectromagnetism" title="Gravitoelectromagnetism">gravitomagnetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Frame-dragging" title="Frame-dragging">frame-dragging</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscopes</a> in the equations of general relativity.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></li> <li>1919 – Arthur Eddington leads a <a href="/wiki/Eddington_experiment" title="Eddington experiment">solar eclipse expedition</a> which detects gravitational deflection of light by the Sun,<a href="#cite_note-Eddington1920-75">[75]</a> which, despite opinion to the contrary, survives modern scrutiny.<a href="#cite_note-PhysToday-76">[76]</a> Other teams fail for reasons of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">war</a> and politics.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1920s">1920s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1920s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1921 – <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Kaluza" title="Theodor Kaluza">Theodor Kaluza</a> demonstrates that a <a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">five-dimensional version of Einstein's equations</a> unifies <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kal-78">[78]</a> This idea is later extended by <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Klein" title="Oskar Klein">Oskar Klein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li>1922 – <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Friedmann" title="Alexander Friedmann">Alexander Friedmann</a> derives the <a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-af1922-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1922 – <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_coordinates" title="Fermi coordinates">Fermi coordinates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> This is developed further in 1932 by Arthur Walker into the <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Walker_transport" title="Fermi–Walker transport">Fermi-Walker transport</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-83">[83]</a></li> <li>1923 – George David Birkhoff proves <a href="/wiki/Birkhoff%27s_theorem_(relativity)" title="Birkhoff's theorem (relativity)">Birkhoff's theorem</a> on the uniqueness of the Schwarzschild solution.</li> <li>1924 – Arthur Eddington calculates the <a href="/wiki/Eddington_luminosity" title="Eddington luminosity">Eddington limit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eddington3-84">[84]</a></li> <li>1924 – <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Lanczos" title="Cornelius Lanczos">Cornelius Lanczos</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Van_Stockum_dust" title="Van Stockum dust">van Stockum dust</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> later rediscovered by <a href="/wiki/Willem_Jacob_van_Stockum" title="Willem Jacob van Stockum">Willem Jacob van Stockum</a> in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li> <li>1925 – <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sydney_Adams" title="Walter Sydney Adams">Walter Adams</a> measures the gravitational redshift of the light emitted by the companion of Sirius B, a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li>1927 – <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a> publishes his hypothesis of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">primeval atom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1929 – <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble's Law">law later named for him</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hubble-89">[89]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s">1930s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1930s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_cross_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Einstein_cross_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Cross" title="Einstein Cross">Einstein Cross</a> is an example of gravitational lensing at work. This one was discovered in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1931 – <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> studies the <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit">stability</a> of <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarfs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-chandra3-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-chandra4-92">[92]</a></li> <li>1931 – Georges Lemaître and Arthur Eddington predict the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the Universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li> <li>1931 – Albert Einstein introduces his <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li> <li>1932 – Albert Einstein and Willem de Sitter propose the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93de_Sitter_universe" title="Einstein–de Sitter universe">Einstein-de Sitter cosmological model</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li> <li>1932 – <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a> verify Einstein's mass-energy equation by an experiment artificially <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmuting</a> lithium into helium.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li>1934 – <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Blokhintsev" title="Dmitry Blokhintsev">Dmitry Blokhintsev</a> and F. M. Gal'perin coin the term '<a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> reintroduces it in 1959.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Debnath-101">[101]</a></li> <li>1934 – <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Walter Baade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a> predict the existence of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Although their details are wrong, their basic idea is now accepted.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li>1935 – Albert Einstein and <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rosen" title="Nathan Rosen">Nathan Rosen</a> derive the <a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">Einstein-Rosen bridge</a>, the first wormhole solution.<a href="#cite_note-ER-104">[104]</a></li> <li>1935 – <a href="/wiki/Howard_P._Robertson" title="Howard P. Robertson">Howard Robertson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Geoffrey_Walker" title="Arthur Geoffrey Walker">Arthur Walker</a> obtain the <a href="/wiki/Robertson-Walker_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Robertson-Walker metric">Robertson-Walker metric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-83">[83]</a></li> <li>1936 – Albert Einstein predicts that a gravitational lens brightens the light coming from a distant object to the observer.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></li> <li>1937 – Fritz Zwicky states that <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> could act as <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">gravitational lenses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>1937 – Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen obtain the <a href="/wiki/Einstein-Rosen_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein-Rosen metric">Einstein-Rosen metric</a>, the first exact solution describing gravitational waves.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></li> <li>1938 – Albert Einstein, Leopold Infeld, and Banesh Hoffmann obtain the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Infeld%E2%80%93Hoffmann_equations" title="Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations">Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann equations</a> of motion.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> shows that nuclear fusion is responsible for energy production inside stars,<a href="#cite_note-frs-109">[109]</a> building upon the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a>.</li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard Tolman</a> solves the Einstein field equations in the case of a spherical fluid drop.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-111">[111]</a></li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Volkoff" title="George Volkoff">George Volkoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman" title="Richard C. Tolman">Richard Tolman</a>, and J. Robert Oppenheimer study the stability of neutron stars, obtaining the <a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-111">[111]</a></li> <li>1939 – <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hartland_Snyder" title="Hartland Snyder">Hartland Snyder</a> publish the <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Snyder_model" title="Oppenheimer–Snyder model">Oppenheimer-Snyder model</a> for the continued gravitational contraction of a star.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1940s">1940s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1940s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1948 – <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a> predict the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li> <li>1949 – <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Lanczos" title="Cornelius Lanczos">Cornelius Lanczos</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Lanczos_tensor" title="Lanczos tensor">Lanczos potential</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Weyl_tensor" title="Weyl tensor">Weyl tensor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lanczos1949-118">[118]</a></li> <li>1949 – <a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del_metric" title="Gödel metric">Gödel's solution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1950s">1950s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1950s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1953 – <a href="/wiki/P._C._Vaidya" class="mw-redirect" title="P. C. Vaidya">P. C. Vaidya</a> Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.</li> <li>1954 – <a href="/wiki/Suraj_N._Gupta" title="Suraj N. Gupta">Suraj Gupta</a> sketches how to derive the equations of general relativity from quantum field theory for a massless spin-2 particle (the <a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a>).<a href="#cite_note-PPS-120">[120]</a> His procedure was later carried out by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Deser" title="Stanley Deser">Stanley Deser</a> in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Preskill-122">[122]</a></li> <li>1955-56 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kraichnan" title="Robert Kraichnan">Robert Kraichnan</a> shows that under the appropriate assumptions, Einstein's field equations of gravitation arise from the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> of a massless spin-2 particle coupled to the stress-energy tensor.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> This follows from his unpublished work as an undergraduate in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Preskill-122">[122]</a></li> <li>1956 – <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Bertotti" title="Bruno Bertotti">Bruno Berlotti</a> develops the <a href="/wiki/Post-Minkowskian_expansion" title="Post-Minkowskian expansion">post-Minkowskian expansion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li> <li>1956 – <a href="/wiki/John_Lighton_Synge" title="John Lighton Synge">John Lighton Synge</a> publishes the first relativity text emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Minkowski diagram">spacetime diagrams</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geometrical_methods&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geometrical methods (page does not exist)">geometrical methods</a>.</li> <li>1957 – <a href="/wiki/Felix_A._E._Pirani" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix A. E. Pirani">Felix A. E. Pirani</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Petrov_classification" title="Petrov classification">Petrov classification</a> to understand <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">gravitational radiation</a>.</li> <li>1957 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> introduces his <a href="/wiki/Sticky_bead_argument" title="Sticky bead argument">sticky bead argument</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Preskill-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feynman-126">[126]</a> He later derives the quadrupole formula in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1961).<a href="#cite_note-Preskill-122">[122]</a></li> <li>1957-8 – <a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a> discusses the breakdown of classical general relativity near <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">singularities</a> and the need for <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1958 – <a href="/wiki/David_Finkelstein" title="David Finkelstein">David Finkelstein</a> presents <a href="/wiki/Eddington-Finkelstein_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates">a new coordinate system</a> that eliminates the Schwarzschild radius as a singularity.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></li> <li>1959 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glen_Rebka" title="Glen Rebka">Glen Rebka</a> propose the <a href="/wiki/Pound%E2%80%93Rebka_experiment" title="Pound–Rebka experiment">Pound–Rebka experiment</a>, first precision test of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_redshift" title="Gravitational redshift">gravitational redshift</a>. The experiment relies on the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_effect" title="Mössbauer effect">Mössbauer effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li> <li>1959 – Lluís Bel introduces <a href="/wiki/Bel%E2%80%93Robinson_tensor" title="Bel–Robinson tensor">Bel–Robinson tensor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bel_decomposition" title="Bel decomposition">Bel decomposition</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Riemann_tensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Riemann tensor">Riemann tensor</a>.</li> <li>1959 – <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Komar" title="Arthur Komar">Arthur Komar</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Komar_mass" title="Komar mass">Komar mass</a>.</li> <li>1959 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arnowitt" title="Richard Arnowitt">Richard Arnowitt</a>, Stanley Deser and <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Misner" title="Charles W. Misner">Charles W. Misner</a> developed <a href="/wiki/ADM_formalism" title="ADM formalism">ADM formalism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960s">1960s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1960s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1960 – <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kruskal" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Kruskal">Martin Kruskal</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Szekeres" title="George Szekeres">George Szekeres</a> independently introduce the <a href="/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Szekeres_coordinates" title="Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates">Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_vacuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwarzschild vacuum">Schwarzschild vacuum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-rsbm-130">[130]</a></li> <li>1960 – John Graves and Dieter Brill study the causal structure of <a href="/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric" title="Reissner–Nordström metric">an electrically charged black hole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li>1960 – Thomas Matthews and <a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a> associate <a href="/wiki/3C_48" title="3C 48">3C 48</a> with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,</li> <li>1960 – <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Robinson_(physicist)" title="Ivor Robinson (physicist)">Ivor M. Robinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Trautman" title="Andrzej Trautman">Andrzej Trautman</a> discover the Robinson-Trautman <a href="/wiki/Null_dust_solution" title="Null dust solution">null dust solution</a><a href="#cite_note-RobTrautmanPhysRevL1960_fixthis-132">[132]</a></li> <li>1960 – Robert Pound and Glen Rebka test the gravitational redshift predicted by the equivalence principle to approximately 1%.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li>1961 –<a href="/wiki/Tullio_Regge" title="Tullio Regge">Tullio Regge</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Regge_calculus" title="Regge calculus">Regge calculus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></li> <li>1961 – <a href="/wiki/Carl_H._Brans" title="Carl H. Brans">Carl H. Brans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a> introduce <a href="/wiki/Brans%E2%80%93Dicke_theory" title="Brans–Dicke theory">Brans–Dicke theory</a>, the first viable alternative theory with a clear physical motivation.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li> <li>1961 – <a href="/wiki/Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Pascual Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Ehlers" title="Jürgen Ehlers">Jürgen Ehlers</a> develop the kinematic decomposition of a <a href="/wiki/Timelike_congruence" class="mw-redirect" title="Timelike congruence">timelike congruence</a>,</li> <li>1961 – Robert Dicke, Peter Roll, and R. Krotkov refine the <a href="/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s_experiment" title="Eötvös experiment">Eötvös experiment</a> to an accuracy of 10−11.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li> <li>1962 – John Wheeler and Robert Fuller show that the Einstein-Rosen bridge is unstable.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></li> <li>1962 – <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ezra_T._Newman" title="Ezra T. Newman">Ezra T. Newman</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Newman%E2%80%93Penrose_formalism" title="Newman–Penrose formalism">Newman–Penrose formalism</a>.</li> <li>1962 – Ehlers and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Kundt" title="Wolfgang Kundt">Wolfgang Kundt</a> classify the symmetries of <a href="/wiki/Pp-wave_spacetimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pp-wave spacetimes">Pp-wave spacetimes</a>.</li> <li>1962 –<a href="/wiki/Joshua_N._Goldberg" title="Joshua N. Goldberg">Joshua Goldberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rainer_K._Sachs" title="Rainer K. Sachs">Rainer K. Sachs</a> prove the <a href="/wiki/Goldberg%E2%80%93Sachs_theorem" title="Goldberg–Sachs theorem">Goldberg–Sachs theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-original_paper-139">[139]</a></li> <li>1962 – Ehlers introduces <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ehlers_transformation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ehlers transformation (page does not exist)">Ehlers transformations</a>, a new <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solution_generating_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solution generating method (page does not exist)">solution generating method</a>,</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arnowitt" title="Richard Arnowitt">Richard Arnowitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Deser" title="Stanley Deser">Stanley Deser</a>, and Charles W. Misner introduce the <a href="/wiki/ADM_formalism" title="ADM formalism">ADM reformulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_hyperbolicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Global hyperbolicity">global hyperbolicity</a>,</li> <li>1962 – Istvan Ozsvath and <a href="/wiki/Englbert_Sch%C3%BCcking" class="mw-redirect" title="Englbert Schücking">Englbert Schücking</a> rediscover the <a href="/wiki/Ozv%C3%A1th-Sch%C3%BCcking_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozváth-Schücking metric">circularly polarized monochromomatic gravitational wave</a>.</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/wiki/Hans_Adolph_Buchdahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Adolph Buchdahl">Hans Adolph Buchdahl</a> discovers <a href="/wiki/Buchdahl%27s_theorem" title="Buchdahl's theorem">Buchdahl's theorem</a>.</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Bondi" title="Hermann Bondi">Hermann Bondi</a> introduces <a href="/wiki/Bondi_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Bondi mass">Bondi mass</a>.</li> <li>1962 – <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Bondi" title="Hermann Bondi">Hermann Bondi</a>, M. G. van der Burg, A. W. Metzner, and <a href="/wiki/Rainer_K._Sachs" title="Rainer K. Sachs">Rainer K. Sachs</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Bondi%E2%80%93Metzner%E2%80%93Sachs_group" title="Bondi–Metzner–Sachs group">asymptotic symmetry group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asymptotically_flat_spacetime" title="Asymptotically flat spacetime">asymptotically flat</a>, Lorentzian spacetimes at null (i.e., light-like) infinity.</li> <li>1963 – <a href="/wiki/Roy_Kerr" title="Roy Kerr">Roy Kerr</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Kerr_metric" title="Kerr metric">Kerr vacuum solution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein's field equations">Einstein's field equations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-kerr_1963-140">[140]</a></li> <li>1963 – Redshifts of <a href="/wiki/3C_273" title="3C 273">3C 273</a> and other quasars show they are very distant; hence very luminous,</li> <li>1963 – Newman, T. Unti and L.A. Tamburino introduce the <a href="/w/index.php?title=NUT_vacuum_solution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NUT vacuum solution (page does not exist)">NUT vacuum solution</a>,</li> <li>1963 – <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> introduces <a href="/wiki/Penrose_diagram" title="Penrose diagram">Penrose diagrams</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penrose_limit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penrose limit (page does not exist)">Penrose limits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li>1963 – <a href="/wiki/Maarten_Schmidt" title="Maarten Schmidt">Maarten Schmidt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesse_L._Greenstein" title="Jesse L. Greenstein">Jesse Greenstein</a> discover quasi-stellar objects, later shown to be moving away from Earth due to the expansion of the Universe.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1963 – First <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Robinson_(physicist)#Texas_Symposium_on_Relativistic_Astrophysics" title="Ivor Robinson (physicist)">Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics</a> held in Dallas, 16–18 December.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a> shows that a quantum field theory of interacting massless spin-2 particles is Lorentz invariant only if it satisfies the principle of equivalence.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Preskill-122">[122]</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> determines a stability criterion.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li> <li>1964 – R. W. Sharp and Charles Misner introduce the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Misner%E2%80%93Sharp_mass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Misner–Sharp mass (page does not exist)">Misner–Sharp mass</a>.</li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/Hong-Yee_Chiu" title="Hong-Yee Chiu">Hong-Yee Chiu</a> coins the term "'<a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasar</a>" for quasi-stellar radio sources.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/Sjur_Refsdal" title="Sjur Refsdal">Sjur Refsdal</a> suggests that the Hubble constant could be determined using gravitational lensing.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li>1964 – <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Shapiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Irwin Shapiro">Irwin Shapiro</a> predicts a <a href="/wiki/Shapiro_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shapiro effect">gravitational time delay</a> of radiation travel as a test of general relativity.<a href="#cite_note-Shapiro1964-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li>1965 – Roger Penrose proves the first <a href="/wiki/Penrose%E2%80%93Hawking_singularity_theorems" title="Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems">singularity theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1965 – Penrose discovers the structure of the light cones in <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_plane_wave" title="Gravitational plane wave">gravitational plane wave</a> spacetimes.</li> <li>1965 – <a href="/wiki/Ezra_T._Newman" title="Ezra T. Newman">Ezra Newman</a> and others introduce <a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman_metric" title="Kerr–Newman metric">Kerr-Newman metric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></li> <li>1965 – <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a> accidentally discover the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> This rules out the <a href="/wiki/Steady-state_model" title="Steady-state model">steady-state model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jayant_Narlikar" title="Jayant Narlikar">Jayant Narlikar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1965 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Weber" title="Joseph Weber">Joseph Weber</a> puts the first Weber bar <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational wave</a> detector into operation.</li> <li>1966 – Sachs and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Kantowski" title="Ronald Kantowski">Ronald Kantowski</a> discover the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kantowski-Sachs_dust_solution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kantowski-Sachs dust solution (page does not exist)">Kantowski-Sachs dust solution</a>.</li> <li>1967 – John Archibald Wheeler popularizes "black hole" at a conference.<a href="#cite_note-:6-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Jocelyn Bell">Jocelyn Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Antony Hewish</a> discover <a href="/wiki/Pulsars" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsars">pulsars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-154">[154]</a></li> <li>1967 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Boyer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert H. Boyer (page does not exist)">Robert H. Boyer</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._W._Lindquist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. W. Lindquist (page does not exist)">R. W. Lindquist</a> introduce <a href="/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Lindquist_coordinates" title="Boyer–Lindquist coordinates">Boyer–Lindquist coordinates</a> for the Kerr vacuum.</li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Bryce_DeWitt" title="Bryce DeWitt">Bryce DeWitt</a> publishes on canonical quantum gravity.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Werner_Israel" title="Werner Israel">Werner Israel</a> proves a special case of the <a href="/wiki/No-hair_theorem" title="No-hair theorem">no-hair theorem</a> and the converse of Birkhoff's theorem.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nordtvedt" title="Kenneth Nordtvedt">Kenneth Nordtvedt</a> develops <a href="/wiki/PPN_formalism" class="mw-redirect" title="PPN formalism">PPN formalism</a>.</li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Mendel_Sachs" title="Mendel Sachs">Mendel Sachs</a> publishes factorization of Einstein's field equations.</li> <li>1967 – <a href="/wiki/Hans_Stephani" title="Hans Stephani">Hans Stephani</a> discovers the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephani_dust_solution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephani dust solution (page does not exist)">Stephani dust solution</a>.</li> <li>1968 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=F._J._Ernst&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="F. J. Ernst (page does not exist)">F. J. Ernst</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Ernst_equation" title="Ernst equation">Ernst equation</a>.</li> <li>1968 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=B._Kent_Harrison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B. Kent Harrison (page does not exist)">B. Kent Harrison</a> discovers the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harrison_transformation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harrison transformation (page does not exist)">Harrison transformation</a>, a solution-generating method.</li> <li>1968 – <a href="/wiki/Brandon_Carter" title="Brandon Carter">Brandon Carter</a> solves the geodesic equations for Kerr–Newmann electrovacuum with <a href="/wiki/Carter_constant" title="Carter constant">Carter's constant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-carter_1968-157">[157]</a></li> <li>1968 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugo_D._Wahlquist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugo D. Wahlquist (page does not exist)">Hugo D. Wahlquist</a> discovers the <a href="/wiki/Wahlquist_fluid" title="Wahlquist fluid">Wahlquist fluid</a>.</li> <li>1968 – <a href="/wiki/James_Hartle" title="James Hartle">James Hartle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a> obtain the <a href="/wiki/Hartle%E2%80%93Thorne_metric" title="Hartle–Thorne metric">Hartle–Thorne metric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li> <li>1968 – Irwin Shapiro and his colleagues present the first detection of the Shapiro delay.<a href="#cite_note-Shapiro1968-159">[159]</a></li> <li>1968 – <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nordtvedt" title="Kenneth Nordtvedt">Kenneth Nordtvedt</a> studies <a href="/wiki/Nordtvedt_effect" title="Nordtvedt effect">a possible violation of the weak equivalence principle</a> for self-gravitating bodies and proposes a new test of the weak equivalence principle based on observing the relative motion of the Earth and Moon in the Sun's gravitational field.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></li> <li>1969 – <a href="/wiki/William_B._Bonnor" title="William B. Bonnor">William B. Bonnor</a> introduces the <a href="/wiki/Bonnor_beam" title="Bonnor beam">Bonnor beam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></li> <li>1969 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Weber" title="Joseph Weber">Joseph Weber</a> reports observation of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> a claim now generally discounted.<a href="#cite_note-Science_Magazine-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li> <li>1969 – Penrose proposes the (weak) <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis" title="Cosmic censorship hypothesis">cosmic censorship hypothesis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Penrose_process" title="Penrose process">Penrose process</a>,<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></li> <li>1969 – Misner introduces the <a href="/wiki/Mixmaster_universe" title="Mixmaster universe">mixmaster universe</a>.</li> <li>1969 – <a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Choquet-Bruhat" title="Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat">Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Geroch" title="Robert Geroch">Robert Geroch</a> discuss global aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Cauchy_problem" title="Cauchy problem">Cauchy problem</a> in general relativity.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></li> <li>1965-70 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and colleagues develops the <a href="/wiki/Post-Newtonian_expansion" title="Post-Newtonian expansion">post-Newtonian expansions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></li> <li>1968-70 – Roger Penrose, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_F._R._Ellis" title="George F. R. Ellis">George Ellis</a> prove that singularities must arise in the Big Bang models.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s">1970s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1970s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1970 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_A._Belinski%C7%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vladimir A. Belinskiǐ (page does not exist)">Vladimir A. Belinskiǐ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaak_Markovich_Khalatnikov" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov">Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Lifshitz" title="Evgeny Lifshitz">Evgeny Lifshitz</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/BKL_conjecture" class="mw-redirect" title="BKL conjecture">BKL conjecture</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/220px--Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="161" data-durationhint="48" data-mwtitle="Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="654" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="196" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="328" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e8/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv/Apollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="490" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AApollo_15_feather_and_hammer_drop.ogv&lang=tok&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tok" label="toki pona ‪(tok)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Using a hammer and a feather, Scott validates <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>'s claim that objects in a vacuum will fall at the same rate.</figcaption></figure></li> <li>1970 – Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose prove trapped surfaces must arise in black holes.</li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/David_Scott" title="David Scott">David Scott</a> demonstrates that a hammer and a feather fall at the same rate on the Moon.<a href="#cite_note-:11-3">[3]</a></li> <li>1971 – Alfred Goldhaber and Michael Nieto give stringent limits on the photon mass.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> The strictest one is <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\leq 4\times 10^{-51}{\text{kg}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>51</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>kg</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\leq 4\times 10^{-51}{\text{kg}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e9f659db7c0aeaa685717bf67c98a5c98f0cc0dc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:18.136ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\leq 4\times 10^{-51}{\text{kg}}}">.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></li> <li>1971 – Stephen Hawking proves that the area of a black hole can never decrease.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Aichelburg" title="Peter C. Aichelburg">Peter C. Aichelburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_U._Sexl" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman U. Sexl">Roman U. Sexl</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Aichelburg%E2%80%93Sexl_ultraboost" title="Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost">Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost</a>.</li> <li>1971 – Introduction of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khan%E2%80%93Penrose_vacuum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khan–Penrose vacuum (page does not exist)">Khan–Penrose vacuum</a>, a simple explicit colliding plane wave spacetime.</li> <li>1971 – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Gowdy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert H. Gowdy (page does not exist)">Robert H. Gowdy</a> introduces the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gowdy_vacuum_solutions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gowdy vacuum solutions (page does not exist)">Gowdy vacuum solutions</a> (cosmological models containing circulating gravitational waves).<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg/220px-Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg/330px-Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg/440px-Chandra_image_of_Cygnus_X-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Image of Cygnus X-1 by the <a href="/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> (2009)</figcaption></figure></li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/Cygnus_X-1" title="Cygnus X-1">Cygnus X-1</a>, the first solid black hole candidate, discovered by <a href="/wiki/Uhuru_(satellite)" title="Uhuru (satellite)">Uhuru satellite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/William_H._Press" title="William H. Press">William H. Press</a> discovers black hole <a href="/wiki/Ringing_(signal)" title="Ringing (signal)">ringing</a> by <a href="/wiki/Numerical_relativity" title="Numerical relativity">numerical simulation</a>.</li> <li>1971 – Harrison and Estabrook algorithm for solving systems of PDEs.</li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/James_W._York" title="James W. York">James W. York</a> introduces <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conformal_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conformal method (page does not exist)">conformal method</a> generating initial data for ADM initial value formulation.</li> <li>1971 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Geroch" title="Robert Geroch">Robert Geroch</a> introduces <a href="/wiki/Geroch_group" title="Geroch group">Geroch group</a> and a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solution_generating_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solution generating method (page does not exist)">solution generating method</a>.</li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bekenstein" title="Jacob Bekenstein">Jacob Bekenstein</a> proposes that black holes have a non-decreasing <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> which can be identified with the area.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1972 – Sachs introduces <a href="/wiki/Optical_scalars" title="Optical scalars">optical scalars</a> and proves <a href="/wiki/Peeling_theorem" title="Peeling theorem">peeling theorem</a>.</li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Rainer Weiss</a> proposes concept of interferometric gravitational wave detector in an unpublished manuscript.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._Hafele" title="Joseph C. Hafele">Joseph Hafele</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Keating" title="Richard E. Keating">Richard Keating</a> perform the <a href="/wiki/Hafele%E2%80%93Keating_experiment" title="Hafele–Keating experiment">Hafele–Keating experiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-paper1-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-paper2-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-New_Scientist_1972-181">[181]</a></li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Price" title="Richard H. Price">Richard H. Price</a> studies <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> with numerical simulations.</li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Saul_Teukolsky" title="Saul Teukolsky">Saul Teukolsky</a> derives the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teukolsky_equation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teukolsky equation (page does not exist)">Teukolsky equation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></li> <li>1972 – <a href="/wiki/Yakov_B._Zel%27dovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakov B. Zel'dovich">Yakov B. Zel'dovich</a> predicts the transmutation of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation.</li> <li>1972 – Brandon Carter, Stephen Hawking, and <a href="/wiki/James_M._Bardeen" title="James M. Bardeen">James M. Bardeen</a> propose the four <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_black_hole_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws of black hole mechanics">laws of black hole mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1972 – James Bardeen calculates the <a href="/wiki/Shadow" title="Shadow">shadow</a> of a black hole.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> This was later verified by the Event Horizon Telescope.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></li> <li>1973 – <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Misner" title="Charles W. Misner">Charles W. Misner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kip_S._Thorne" class="mw-redirect" title="Kip S. Thorne">Kip S. Thorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a> publish the treatise <a href="/wiki/Gravitation_(book)" title="Gravitation (book)">Gravitation</a>, a textbook that remains in use in the twenty-first century.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></li> <li>1973 – <a href="/wiki/Stephen_W._Hawking" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen W. Hawking">Stephen W. Hawking</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_Rayner_Ellis" class="mw-redirect" title="George Francis Rayner Ellis">George Ellis</a> publish the monograph <a href="/wiki/The_Large_Scale_Structure_of_Space-Time" class="mw-redirect" title="The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time">The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1973 – Robert Geroch introduces the <a href="/wiki/GHP_formalism" title="GHP formalism">GHP formalism</a>.</li> <li>1973 – Homer Ellis obtains the <a href="/wiki/Ellis_drainhole" title="Ellis drainhole">Ellis drainhole</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ellis12-188">[188]</a> the first traversable wormhole.</li> <li>1974 – <a href="/wiki/Russell_Hulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell Hulse">Russell Hulse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.">Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.</a> discover the <a href="/wiki/PSR_1913%2B16" class="mw-redirect" title="PSR 1913+16">Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar</a>,</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Computer simulation of a black hole accretion disk published in 1979 by Jean-Pierre Luminet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg/220px-BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg/330px-BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg/440px-BH-JPL-A%26A1979.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>Computer simulation of a black hole accretion disk published in 1979 by Jean-Pierre Luminet</figcaption></figure>1974 – <a href="/wiki/James_W._York" title="James W. York">James W. York</a> and Niall Ó Murchadha present the analysis of the initial value formulation and examine the stability of its solutions.</li> <li>1974 – R. O. Hansen introduces <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hansen%E2%80%93Geroch_multipole_moment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hansen–Geroch multipole moment (page does not exist)">Hansen–Geroch multipole moments</a>.</li> <li>1974 – Stephen Hawking discovers <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></li> <li>1975 – Stephen Hawking shows that <a href="/wiki/Bekenstein-Hawking_entropy_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bekenstein-Hawking entropy equation">the area of a black hole is proportional to its entropy</a>, as previously conjectured by Jacob Bekenstein.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></li> <li>1975 – Roberto Colella, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a>, and Samuel Werner observe the quantum-mechanical phase shift of neutrons due to gravity.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neutron_interferometer" title="Neutron interferometer">Neutron interferometry</a> was later used to test the principle of equivalence.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a></li> <li>1975 – Chandrasekhar and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Detweiler" title="Steven Detweiler">Steven Detweiler</a> compute the effects of perturbations on a Schwarzschild black hole.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></li> <li>1975 – Szekeres and D. A. Szafron discover the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Szekeres%E2%80%93Szafron_dust_solutions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Szekeres–Szafron dust solutions (page does not exist)">Szekeres–Szafron dust solutions</a>.</li> <li>1976 – Penrose introduces <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penrose_limit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penrose limit (page does not exist)">Penrose limits</a> (every null geodesic in a Lorentzian spacetime behaves like a plane wave),</li> <li>1978 – Penrose introduces the notion of a thunderbolt,</li> <li>1978 – Belinskiǐ and Zakharov show how to solve <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein's field equations">Einstein's field equations</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Inverse_scattering_transform" title="Inverse scattering transform">inverse scattering transform</a>; the first <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_soliton" title="Gravitational soliton">gravitational solitons</a>,</li> <li>1979 – <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Walsh" title="Dennis Walsh">Dennis Walsh</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Carswell_(scientist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Carswell (scientist) (page does not exist)">Robert Carswell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ray_Weymann" title="Ray Weymann">Ray Weymann</a> discover the gravitationally lensed <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasar</a> <a href="/wiki/Q0957%2B561" class="mw-redirect" title="Q0957+561">Q0957+561</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></li> <li>1979 – <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Luminet" title="Jean-Pierre Luminet">Jean-Pierre Luminet</a> creates an image of a black hole with an <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">accretion disk</a> using computer simulation.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></li> <li>1979 – Steven Detweiler proposes using <a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">pulsar timing arrays</a> to detect gravitational waves.<a href="#cite_note-DetweilerPulsarTiming-200">[200]</a></li> <li>1979-81 – <a href="/wiki/Richard_Schoen" title="Richard Schoen">Richard Schoen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a> prove the <a href="/wiki/Positive_energy_theorem" title="Positive energy theorem">positive mass theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a> independently proves the same thing.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s">1980s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1980s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Variations in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background measured by the COBE satellite." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png/220px-COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png/330px-COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png/440px-COBE_cmb_fluctuations.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Variations in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background measured by the COBE satellite. The plane of the Milky Way Galaxy is horizontal across the middle of each picture.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1980 – <a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a> and colleagues study the rotational properties of <a href="/wiki/UGC_2885" title="UGC 2885">UGC 2885</a>, demonstrating the prevalence of dark matter.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></li> <li>1980 – <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Probe_A" title="Gravity Probe A">Gravity Probe A</a> verifies gravitational redshift to approximately 0.007% using a space-born <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_maser" title="Hydrogen maser">hydrogen maser</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></li> <li>1980 – James Bardeen explains structure in the Universe using <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_perturbation_theory" title="Cosmological perturbation theory">cosmological perturbation theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></li> <li>1981 – <a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Alan Guth</a> proposes <a href="/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (cosmology)">cosmic inflation</a> in order to solve the <a href="/wiki/Flatness_problem" title="Flatness problem">flatness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horizon_problem" title="Horizon problem">horizon problems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a></li> <li>1982 – <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.">Joseph Taylor</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joel_Weisberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joel Weisberg (page does not exist)">Joel Weisberg</a> show that the rate of energy loss from the binary <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsar</a> <a href="/wiki/PSR_B1913%2B16" class="mw-redirect" title="PSR B1913+16">PSR B1913+16</a> agrees with that predicted by the general relativistic <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_formula" title="Quadrupole formula">quadrupole formula</a> to within 5%.<a href="#cite_note-tw82-209">[209]</a></li> <li>1983 – James Hartle and Stephen Hawking propose the <a href="/wiki/Hartle%E2%80%93Hawking_state" title="Hartle–Hawking state">no-boundary wave function</a> for the Universe.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1983-84 – <a href="/wiki/RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a> observes the cosmic microwave background.</li> <li>1986 – Helmut Friedrich proves that the <a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_space" title="De Sitter space">de Sitter spacetime</a> is stable.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-212">[212]</a></li> <li>1986 – <a href="/wiki/Bernard_F._Schutz" title="Bernard F. Schutz">Bernard Schutz</a> shows that cosmic distances can be determined using sources of gravitational waves without references to the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">cosmic distance ladder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Standard-siren astronomy is born.</li> <li>1988 – <a href="/wiki/Mike_Morris_(physicist)" title="Mike Morris (physicist)">Mike Morris</a>, Kip Thorne, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yurtsever_Ulvi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yurtsever Ulvi (page does not exist)">Yurtsever Ulvi</a> obtain the <a href="/wiki/Morris-Thorne_wormhole" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris-Thorne wormhole">Morris-Thorne wormhole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Morris and Thorne argue for its pedagogical value.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a></li> <li>1989 – <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a> discusses the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant_problem" title="Cosmological constant problem">cosmological constant problem</a>, the discrepancy between the measured value and those predicted by modern theories of elementary particles.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a></li> <li>1989-93 – The <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">Cosmic Background Explorer</a> (COBE) identifies anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s">1990s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1990s">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GR2bodyparameterspace.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GR2bodyparameterspace.png/280px-GR2bodyparameterspace.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GR2bodyparameterspace.png/420px-GR2bodyparameterspace.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/GR2bodyparameterspace.png/560px-GR2bodyparameterspace.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>Parameter space of various approximation techniques in general relativity</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1992 – Stephen Hawking states his <a href="/wiki/Chronology_protection_conjecture" title="Chronology protection conjecture">chronology protection conjecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a></li> <li>1993 – <a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Christodoulou" title="Demetrios Christodoulou">Demetrios Christodoulou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sergiu_Klainerman" title="Sergiu Klainerman">Sergiu Klainerman</a> prove the non-linear stability of the <a href="/wiki/Minkowski_space" title="Minkowski space">Minkowski spacetime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-212">[212]</a></li> <li>1995 – John F. Donoghue show that general relativity is a quantum <a href="/wiki/Effective_field_theory" title="Effective field theory">effective field theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> This framework could be used to analyze binary systems observed by gravitational-wave observatories.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a></li> <li>1995 – <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Deep_Field" title="Hubble Deep Field">Hubble Deep Field</a> image taken.<a href="#cite_note-Hubble_image-223">[223]</a> It is a landmark in the study of cosmology.</li> <li>1998 – The first complete <a href="/wiki/Einstein_ring" title="Einstein ring">Einstein ring</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=B1938%2B666&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B1938+666 (page does not exist)">B1938+666</a>, discovered using the Hubble Space Telescope and <a href="/wiki/MERLIN" title="MERLIN">MERLIN</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bullseye-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a></li> <li>1998-99 – Scientists discover that the expansion of the Universe is <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe" title="Accelerating expansion of the universe">accelerating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a></li> <li>1999 – <a href="/wiki/Alessandra_Buonanno" title="Alessandra Buonanno">Alessandra Buonanno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thibault_Damour" title="Thibault Damour">Thibault Damour</a> introduce the <a href="/wiki/Effective_one-body_formalism" title="Effective one-body formalism">effective one-body formalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> This was later used to analyze data collected by gravitational-wave observatories.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2000s">2000s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 2000s">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>2003 – Arvind Borde, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Guth" title="Alan Guth">Alan Guth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vilenkin" title="Alexander Vilenkin">Alexander Vilenkin</a> prove the <a href="/wiki/Borde%E2%80%93Guth%E2%80%93Vilenkin_theorem" title="Borde–Guth–Vilenkin theorem">Borde–Guth–Vilenkin theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cosmocurious-231">[231]</a></li> <li>2002 – First data collection of the <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory</a> (LIGO).</li> <li>2002 – James Williams, Slava Turyshev, and Dale Boggs conduct stringent lunar test of violations of the principle of equivalence.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a></li> <li>2005 – Daniel Holz and Scott Hughes coin the term "standard sirens".<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a></li> <li>2009 – <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Probe_B" title="Gravity Probe B">Gravity Probe B</a> experiment verifies the geodetic effect to 0.5%.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-PRL-235">[235]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2010s">2010s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 2010s">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/280px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/420px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/560px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Improving cosmological measurements by three different satellites</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>2010 – A team at the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute for Standards and Technology</a> (NIST) verifies relativistic time dilation using optical <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clocks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a></li> <li>2011 – <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> (WMAP) finds no statistically significant deviations from the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">ΛCDM model</a> of cosmology.<a href="#cite_note-WMAP_CMB-238">[238]</a></li> <li>2012 – <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field" title="Hubble Ultra-Deep Field">Hubble Ultra-Deep Field</a> image released. It was created using data collected by the Hubble Space Telescope between 2003 and 2004.<a href="#cite_note-xdf-239">[239]</a></li> <li>2013 – <a href="/wiki/NuSTAR" title="NuSTAR">NuSTAR</a> and <a href="/wiki/XMM-Newton" title="XMM-Newton">XMM-Newton</a> measure the spin of the <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a> at the center of the galaxy <a href="/wiki/NGC_1365" title="NGC 1365">NGC 1365</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a></li> <li>2015 – Advanced LIGO reports the first direct detections of gravitational waves, <a href="/wiki/GW150914" class="mw-redirect" title="GW150914">GW150914</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> and <a href="/wiki/GW151226" title="GW151226">GW151226</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PRL-20160615-242">[242]</a> mergers of stellar-mass black holes. <a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a> is born.<a href="#cite_note-Naeye-243">[243]</a> No deviations from general relativity were found.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-MIT-245">[245]</a></li> <li>2017 – <a href="/wiki/LIGO-Virgo_Collaboration" class="mw-redirect" title="LIGO-Virgo Collaboration">LIGO-VIRGO collaboration</a> detects gravitational waves emitted by a neutron-star binary, <a href="/wiki/GW170817" title="GW170817">GW170817</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-246">[246]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a> and the International Gamma-ray Astrophysics Laboratory (<a href="/wiki/INTEGRAL" title="INTEGRAL">INTEGRAL</a>) unambiguously detect the corresponding gamma-ray burst.<a href="#cite_note-:5-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> LIGO-VIRGO and Fermi constrain the difference between the speed of gravity and the speed of light in vacuum to 10−15.<a href="#cite_note-Abbott^3_AJT-249">[249]</a> This marks the first time electromagnetic and gravitational waves are detected from a single source,<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> and give direct evidence that some (short) gamma-ray bursts are due to colliding neutron stars.<a href="#cite_note-:3-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-247">[247]</a></li> <li>2017 – <a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger astronomy</a> reveals neutron-star mergers to be responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a> of some heavy elements,<a href="#cite_note-SM-20171016-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20171016-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>,<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> via the rapid-neutron capture or <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a></li> <li>2017 – <a href="/wiki/MICROSCOPE" title="MICROSCOPE">MICROSCOPE</a> satellite experiment verifies the principle of equivalence to 10−15 in terms of the Eötvös ratio <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>η</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4d701857cf5fbec133eebaf94deadf722537f64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.169ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta }">.<a href="#cite_note-Touboul2017-258">[258]</a> The final report is published in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a></li> <li>2017 – Principle of equivalence tested to 10−9 for atoms in a <a href="/wiki/Coherent_state" title="Coherent state">coherent state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">superposition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a></li> <li>2017 – Scientists begin using gravitational-wave sources as "<a href="/wiki/Standard_sirens" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard sirens">standard sirens</a>" to measure the Hubble constant, finding its value to be broadly in line with the best estimates of the time.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nat24471-263">[263]</a> Refinements of this technique will help resolve <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law#Hubble_tension" title="Hubble's law">discrepancies</a> between the different methods of measurements.<a href="#cite_note-NAT-20181017-264">[264]</a></li> <li>2017 – <a href="/wiki/Neutron_Star_Interior_Composition_Explorer" title="Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer">Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer</a> (NICER) arrives on the International Space Station.<a href="#cite_note-:1-154">[154]</a></li> <li>2017-18 – Georgios Moschidis proves the instability of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space" title="Anti-de Sitter space">anti-de Sitter spacetime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-212">[212]</a></li> <li>2018 – Final paper by the <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck satellite</a> collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-planck2018-265">[265]</a> Planck operated between 2009 and 2013.</li> <li>2018 – Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk disprove the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis for the Cauchy horizon of an uncharged, rotating black hole.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a></li> <li>2018 – <a href="/wiki/European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) observes gravitational redshift of radiation emitted by matter orbiting <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_A*" title="Sagittarius A*">Sagittarius A*</a>, the central supermassive black hole of the Milky Way,<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> and verifies the <a href="/wiki/Innermost_stable_circular_orbit" title="Innermost stable circular orbit">innermost stable circular orbit</a> for that object.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a></li> <li>2018 – Advanced LIGO-VIRGO collaboration constrains <a href="/wiki/Equations_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Equations of state">equations of state</a> for a neutron star using GW170817.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a></li> <li>2018 – Luciano Rezzolla, Elias R. Most, and Lukas R. Weih used gravitational-wave data from GW170817 constrain the possible maximum mass for a neutron star to around 2.17 solar masses.<a href="#cite_note-Rezzolla2018-271">[271]</a></li> <li>2018 – Kris Pardo, Maya Fishbach, Daniel Holz, and David Spergel limit the number of spacetime dimensions through which gravitational waves can propagate to 3 + 1, in line with general relativity and ruling out models that allow for "leakage" to higher dimensions of space.<a href="#cite_note-arxiv.org_2-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> Analyses of GW170817 have also ruled out many other alternatives to general relativity,<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> and proposals for dark energy.<a href="#cite_note-Dark_Energy_after_GW_170817-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dark_Energy_After_GW170817:_Dead_En-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a></li> <li>2018 – Two different experimental teams report highly precise values of Newton's gravitational constant <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>G</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G}"> that slightly disagree.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a></li> <li>2019 – <a href="/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope" title="Event Horizon Telescope">Event Horizon Telescope</a> (EHT) releases an image of <a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">supermassive black hole</a> <a href="/wiki/Messier_87#Supermassive_black_hole_M87*" title="Messier 87">M87*</a>, and measures its mass and shadow.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Results are confirmed in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a></li> <li>2019 – Advanced LIGO and VIRGO detect <a href="/wiki/GW190814" title="GW190814">GW190814</a>, the collision of a 26-solar-mass black hole and a 2.6-solar-mass object, either an extremely heavy neutron star or a very light black hole.<a href="#cite_note-LIGO-2020-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-AJL-20200623-290">[290]</a> This is the largest mass gap seen in a gravitational-wave source to-date.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020s">2020s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 2020s">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif/lossy-page1-280px-Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif/lossy-page1-420px-Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif/lossy-page1-560px-Eso2208-eht-mwe.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3701" data-file-height="2163" /></a><figcaption>The size of Sagittarius A* is smaller than the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>2020 – Principle of equivalence tested for individual atoms using <a href="/wiki/Atom_interferometer" title="Atom interferometer">atomic interferometry</a> to ~10−12.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a></li> <li>2020 – ESO observes <a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession#General_relativity" title="Apsidal precession">Schwarzschild precession</a> of the star <a href="/wiki/S2_(star)" title="S2 (star)">S2</a> about Sagittarius A*.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></li> <li>2021 – <a href="/wiki/Jun_Ye" title="Jun Ye">Jun Ye</a> and his team measure gravitational redshift with an accuracy of 7.6 × 10−21 using an <a href="/wiki/Ultracold_atom" title="Ultracold atom">ultracold</a> cloud of 100,000 strontium atoms in an <a href="/wiki/Optical_lattice" title="Optical lattice">optical lattice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a></li> <li>2021 – EHT measures the polarization of the ring of M87*,<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> and other properties of the magnetic field in its vicinity.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a></li> <li>2021 – EHT releases an image of Sagittarius A*,<a href="#cite_note-AJ-202205-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20220512-299">[299]</a> measures its shadow,<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> and shows that it is accurately described by the Kerr metric.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a></li> <li>2022 – Chris Overstreet and his team observe the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_Aharonov-Bohm_effect" title="Gravitational Aharonov-Bohm effect">gravitational Aharonov-Bohm effect</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> using an experimental design from 2012.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a></li> <li>2022 – <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) publishes its first image, a <a href="/wiki/Webb%27s_First_Deep_Field" title="Webb's First Deep Field">deep-field photograph</a> of the <a href="/wiki/SMACS_0723" title="SMACS 0723">SMACS 0723</a> galaxy cluster.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a></li> <li>2022 – <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gehrels_Swift_Observatory" title="Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory">Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory</a> detects <a href="/wiki/GRB_221009A" title="GRB 221009A">GRB 221009A</a>, the brightest gamma-ray burst recorded.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-310">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA20221013-311">[311]</a></li> <li>2022 – JWST identifies several candidate high-redshift objects, corresponding to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-MNRAS-20230101-312">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yan2023-313">[313]</a></li> <li>2023 – James Nightingale and colleagues detect <a href="/wiki/Abell_1201_BCG" title="Abell 1201 BCG">Abell 1201</a>, an ultramassive black hole (33 billion solar masses), using strong gravitational lensing.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a></li> <li>2023 – Matteo Bachetti and colleagues confirm that neutron star <a href="/wiki/M82_X-2" title="M82 X-2">M82 X-2</a> is violating the <a href="/wiki/Eddington_luminosity" title="Eddington luminosity">Eddington limit</a>, making it an <a href="/wiki/Ultraluminous_X-ray_source" title="Ultraluminous X-ray source">ultraluminous X-ray source</a> (ULX).<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a></li> <li>2023 – Team led by Dong Sheng and Zheng-Tian Lu found a <a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">null result</a> for the coupling between quantum spin and gravity to 10−9.<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a></li> <li>2023 – The <a href="/wiki/North_American_Nanohertz_Observatory_for_Gravitational_Waves" title="North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves">North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves</a> (NANOGrav), the <a href="/wiki/European_Pulsar_Timing_Array" title="European Pulsar Timing Array">European Pulsar Timing Array</a> (EPTA), the <a href="/wiki/Parkes_Observatory" title="Parkes Observatory">Parkes Pulsar Timing Array</a> (Australia), and the <a href="/wiki/Five-hundred-meter_Aperture_Spherical_Telescope" title="Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope">Chinese Pulsar Timing Array</a> report detection of a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">gravitational-wave background</a>.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a></li> <li>2023 – <a href="/wiki/Geraint_F._Lewis" title="Geraint F. Lewis">Geraint F. Lewis</a> and Brendon Brewer present evidence of cosmological time dilation in quasars.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a></li> <li>2024 – The <a href="/wiki/Large_High_Altitude_Air_Shower_Observatory" title="Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory">Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory</a> (LHAASO) collaboration imposes stringent limits on violations of <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz invariance">Lorentz invariance</a> proposed in certain theories of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> using GRB 221009A.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:9-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBauer2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Wise_Bauer" title="Susan Wise Bauer">Bauer, Susan Wise</a> (2015). "Chapter Seven: The Last Ancient Astronomer". The Story of Science from the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24326-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24326-0"><bdi>978-0-393-24326-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Seven%3A+The+Last+Ancient+Astronomer&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Science+from+the+Writings+of+Aristotle+to+the+Big+Bang+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-24326-0&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Susan+Wise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gribbin" title="John Gribbin">Gribbin, John</a> (2003). "Chapter 3: The First Scientists". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. Random House. pp. 76–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-400-06013-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-400-06013-9"><bdi>978-1-400-06013-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+The+First+Scientists&rft.btitle=The+Scientists%3A+A+History+of+Science+Told+Through+the+Lives+of+Its+Greatest+Inventors&rft.pages=76-7&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-400-06013-9&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasachoffPasachoff2012" class="citation book cs1">Pasachoff, Naomi; Pasachoff, Jay (2012). "Galileo Galilei". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25191-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25191-1"><bdi>978-0-500-25191-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.btitle=The+Scientists%3A+An+Epic+of+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-500-25191-1&rft.aulast=Pasachoff&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft.au=Pasachoff%2C+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolnick2011" class="citation book cs1">Dolnick, Edward (2011). "Timeline". The Clockwork Universe: Isaac Newton, the Royal Society, and the Birth of the Modern World. New York: Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780061719516" title="Special:BookSources/9780061719516"><bdi>9780061719516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Timeline&rft.btitle=The+Clockwork+Universe%3A+Isaac+Newton%2C+the+Royal+Society%2C+and+the+Birth+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780061719516&rft.aulast=Dolnick&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/journey-to-the-stars/educator-resources/stars/olbers-paradox">"Olber's Paradox: Why Is The Sky Dark at Night?"</a>. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved June 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=Olber%27s+Paradox%3A+Why+Is+The+Sky+Dark+at+Night%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnh.org%2Fexhibitions%2Fjourney-to-the-stars%2Feducator-resources%2Fstars%2Folbers-paradox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2015" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Susan Wise (2015). "Chapter Ten: The Death of Aristotle". The Story of Science: From the Writings of Aristotle to the Big Bang Theory. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24326-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24326-0"><bdi>978-0-393-24326-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Ten%3A+The+Death+of+Aristotle&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Science%3A+From+the+Writings+of+Aristotle+to+the+Big+Bang+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-24326-0&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Susan+Wise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliffe2012" class="citation book cs1">Iliffe, Rob (2012). "Isaac Newton". In Robinson, Andrew (ed.). The Scientists: An Epic of Discovery. New York: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25191-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25191-1"><bdi>978-0-500-25191-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton&rft.btitle=The+Scientists%3A+An+Epic+of+Discovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-500-25191-1&rft.aulast=Iliffe&rft.aufirst=Rob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGribbin2002" class="citation book cs1">Gribbin, John (2002). "4. Science Finds Its Feet". The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. New york: Random House. pp. 122–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6788-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-6788-7"><bdi>0-8129-6788-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.+Science+Finds+Its+Feet&rft.btitle=The+Scientists%3A+A+History+of+Science+Told+Through+the+Lives+of+Its+Greatest+Inventors&rft.place=New+york&rft.pages=122-23&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8129-6788-7&rft.aulast=Gribbin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1999" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1999). The Principia: The Authoritative Translation and Guide. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29088-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-29088-4"><bdi>978-0-520-29088-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principia%3A+The+Authoritative+Translation+and+Guide&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-29088-4&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleppnerKolenkow1973" class="citation book cs1">Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert J. (1973). "8.4: The Principle of Equivalence". An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-035048-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-035048-5"><bdi>0-07-035048-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8.4%3A+The+Principle+of+Equivalence&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Mechanics&rft.pages=353-54&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-07-035048-5&rft.aulast=Kleppner&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Kolenkow%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalley1705" class="citation book cs1">Halley, Edmund (1705). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/synopsisofastron00hall/page/n3/mode/2up">A synopsis of the astronomy of comets</a>. Oxford: John Senex. Retrieved 16 June 2020 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+synopsis+of+the+astronomy+of+comets&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=John+Senex&rft.date=1705&rft.aulast=Halley&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsynopsisofastron00hall%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaganDruyan1997" class="citation book cs1">Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann (1997). Comet. New York: Random House. pp. 66–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3078-0105-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3078-0105-0"><bdi>978-0-3078-0105-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-3078-0105-0&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Druyan%2C+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-treatiselat-13"><a href="#cite_ref-treatiselat_13-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ewhgAAAAcAAJ">De mundi systemate</a>, Isaac Newton, London: J. Tonson, J. Osborn, & T. Longman, 1728. </li> <li id="cite_note-cohen2004-14"><a href="#cite_ref-cohen2004_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewtonCohen2004" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac; Cohen, I. Bernard (2004-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UvyPx-DwnrAC">A Treatise of the System of the World</a>. Courier Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43880-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43880-1"><bdi>978-0-486-43880-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+of+the+System+of+the+World&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-486-43880-1&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft.au=Cohen%2C+I.+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUvyPx-DwnrAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Maclaurin, Colin. A Treatise of Fluxions: In Two Books. 1. Vol. 1. Ruddimans, 1742. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrasekhar1969" class="citation book cs1">Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1969). "5: The Maclaurin Spheroids". Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30001-116-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30001-116-6"><bdi>978-0-30001-116-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5%3A+The+Maclaurin+Spheroids&rft.btitle=Ellipsoidal+Figures+of+Equilibrium&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-30001-116-6&rft.aulast=Chandrasekhar&rft.aufirst=Subrahmanyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woolfson1993-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woolfson1993_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woolfson1993_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolfson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Woolfson, M.M. (1993). "Solar System – its origin and evolution". Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 34: 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993QJRAS..34....1W">1993QJRAS..34....1W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Q.+J.+R.+Astron.+Soc.&rft.atitle=Solar+System+%E2%80%93+its+origin+and+evolution&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993QJRAS..34....1W&rft.aulast=Woolfson&rft.aufirst=M.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> For details of Kant's position, see Stephen Palmquist, "Kant's Cosmogony Re-Evaluated", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 18:3 (September 1987), pp.255–269. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoonLoMarsdenRoss2006" class="citation book cs1">Koon, W. S.; Lo, M. W.; Marsden, J. E.; Ross, S. D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527145955/http://www.cds.caltech.edu/~marsden/books/Mission_Design.html">Dynamical Systems, the Three-Body Problem, and Space Mission Design</a>. p. 9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cds.caltech.edu/~marsden/books/Mission_Design.html">the original</a> on 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2008-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamical+Systems%2C+the+Three-Body+Problem%2C+and+Space+Mission+Design&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koon&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft.au=Lo%2C+M.+W.&rft.au=Marsden%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Ross%2C+S.+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cds.caltech.edu%2F~marsden%2Fbooks%2FMission_Design.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> (16MB) </li> <li id="cite_note-E327-19"><a href="#cite_ref-E327_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuler1765" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler, Leonhard</a> (1765). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/docs/originals/E327.pdf">De motu rectilineo trium corporum se mutuo attrahentium</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+motu+rectilineo+trium+corporum+se+mutuo+attrahentium&rft.date=1765&rft.aulast=Euler&rft.aufirst=Leonhard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.dartmouth.edu%2F~euler%2Fdocs%2Foriginals%2FE327.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-euler_1760-20"><a href="#cite_ref-euler_1760_20-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler L</a>, Nov. Comm. Acad. Imp. Petropolitanae, 10, pp. 207–242, 11, pp. 152–184; Mémoires de l'Acad. de Berlin, 11, 228–249. </li> <li id="cite_note-gallica.bnf.fr2-21"><a href="#cite_ref-gallica.bnf.fr2_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagrange1867–92" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Lagrange, Joseph-Louis</a> (1867–92). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k229225j/f231.image.r=Oeuvres+de+Lagrange.langFR">"Tome 6, Chapitre II: Essai sur le problème des trois corps"</a>. Œuvres de Lagrange (in French). Gauthier-Villars. pp. 229–334.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tome+6%2C+Chapitre+II%3A+Essai+sur+le+probl%C3%A8me+des+trois+corps&rft.btitle=%C5%92uvres+de+Lagrange&rft.pages=229-334&rft.pub=Gauthier-Villars&rft.date=1867%2F1892&rft.aulast=Lagrange&rft.aufirst=Joseph-Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k229225j%2Ff231.image.r%3DOeuvres%2Bde%2BLagrange.langFR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish1798" class="citation journal cs1">Cavendish, Henry (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1798.0022">"Experiments to Determine the Density of Earth"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 88: 469–526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1798.0022">10.1098/rstl.1798.0022</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/106988">106988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Experiments+to+Determine+the+Density+of+Earth&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=469-526&rft.date=1798&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1798.0022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F106988%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cavendish&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frstl.1798.0022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClotfelter1987" class="citation journal cs1">Clotfelter, B.E. (1987). "The Cavendish Experiment as Cavendish Knew It". American Journal of Physics. 55 (3): 210–213. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987AmJPh..55..210C">1987AmJPh..55..210C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.15214">10.1119/1.15214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Cavendish+Experiment+as+Cavendish+Knew+It&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=210-213&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.15214&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987AmJPh..55..210C&rft.aulast=Clotfelter&rft.aufirst=B.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Space_Theory_of_Matter" class="extiw" title="s:On the Space Theory of Matter">s:On the Space Theory of Matter</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_25-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_25-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShankland1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sherwood_Shankland" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Sherwood Shankland">Shankland, Robert Sherwood</a> (1964). "Michelson-Morley Experiment". American Journal of Physics. 32: 16–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1970063">10.1119/1.1970063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Michelson-Morley+Experiment&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=16-35&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.1970063&rft.aulast=Shankland&rft.aufirst=Robert+Sherwood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaelsonMorley1887" class="citation journal cs1">Michaelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajs.scholasticahq.com/article/62505">"On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"</a>. American Journal of Science. 134 (333): 333–345. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1887AmJS...34..333M">1887AmJS...34..333M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333">10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124333204">124333204</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+Relative+Motion+of+the+Earth+and+the+Luminiferous+Ether&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=333&rft.pages=333-345&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A124333204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1887AmJS...34..333M&rft.aulast=Michaelson&rft.aufirst=Albert+A.&rft.au=Morley%2C+Edward+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fajs.scholasticahq.com%2Farticle%2F62505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrench1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Philip_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Philip French">French, A. P.</a> (1968). "Chapter 2: Perplexities in the Propagation of Light". Special Relativity. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 52–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-09793-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-09793-5"><bdi>0-393-09793-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Perplexities+in+the+Propagation+of+Light&rft.btitle=Special+Relativity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=52-58&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-393-09793-5&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodFischbachMarxNáray-Ziegler1990" class="citation web cs1">Bod, L.; Fischbach, E.; Marx, G.; Náray-Ziegler, Maria (31 Aug 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022054838/http://www.kfki.hu/eotvos/onehund.html">"One Hundred Years of the Eötvös Experiment"</a>. 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Physics Today. 17 (5): 21–34. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhT....17e..21C">1964PhT....17e..21C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3051610">10.1063/1.3051610</a>. <q>So far, the clumsily long name 'quasi-stellar radio sources' is used to describe these objects. Because the nature of these objects is entirely unknown, it is hard to prepare a short, appropriate nomenclature for them so that their essential properties are obvious from their name. 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Physical Review Letters. 133 (7). <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.06009">2402.06009</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.133.071501">10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.071501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Stringent+Tests+of+Lorentz+Invariance+Violation+from+LHAASO+Observations+of+GRB+221009A&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=7&rft.date=2024-08-15&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2402.06009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.133.071501&rft.au=The+LHAASO+Collaboration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.aps.org%2Fprl%2Fabstract%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.133.071501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2024" class="citation news cs1">Stephens, Marric (August 15, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.aps.org/articles/v17/s99">"Gamma-Ray Burst Tightens Constraints on Quantum Gravity"</a>. Physics Today. American Physical Society (APS). Retrieved September 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Gamma-Ray+Burst+Tightens+Constraints+on+Quantum+Gravity&rft.date=2024-08-15&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Marric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.aps.org%2Farticles%2Fv17%2Fs99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATimeline+of+gravitational+physics+and+relativity" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.rikkyo.ac.jp/web/harada/nenpyo-en.html">Timeline of relativity and gravitation</a> (Tomohiro Harada, Department of Physics, Rikkyo University)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tiyezerk.blogspot.com/2008/09/timeline-of-general-relativity-and.html">Timeline of General Relativity and Cosmology from 1905</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.aps.org/general-relativity-centennial">2015–General Relativity's Centennial</a>. Physical Review Journals. American Physical Society (APS).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light" title="Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_physics" title="Women in physics">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Shapley–Curtis</a></li> <li>Relativity priority <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute" title="Relativity priority dispute">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity_priority_dispute" title="General relativity priority dispute">General relativity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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