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<span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definitions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_Health_Organization_definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Health_Organization_definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>World Health Organization definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Health_Organization_definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Financial resources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Financial_resources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Financial resources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Financial_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Payment_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Payment_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Payment models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Payment_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fee-for-service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fee-for-service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Fee-for-service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fee-for-service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Capitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salary_arrangements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salary_arrangements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Salary arrangements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salary_arrangements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value-based_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value-based_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Value-based care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value-based_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spending" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spending"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Spending</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Information resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_systems_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_systems_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Health systems performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_systems_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_comparisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_comparisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>International comparisons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_comparisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Health system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="نظام رعاية صحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام رعاية صحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemas_d%27asistencia_sanitaria" title="Sistemas d'asistencia sanitaria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sistemas d'asistencia sanitaria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE" title="স্বাস্থ্য ব্যবস্থা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্বাস্থ্য ব্যবস্থা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27assist%C3%A8ncia_sanit%C3%A0ria" title="Sistema d'assistència sanitària – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema d'assistència sanitària" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundhedsv%C3%A6sen" title="Sundhedsvæsen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sundhedsvæsen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesundheitssystem" title="Gesundheitssystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gesundheitssystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_asistencia_sanitaria" title="Sistema de asistencia sanitaria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema de asistencia sanitaria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AA" title="نظام سلامت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظام سلامت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_de_sant%C3%A9" title="Système de santé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système de santé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%EB%A3%8C%EC%A0%9C%EB%8F%84" title="의료제도 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="의료제도" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saneso-sistemo" title="Saneso-sistemo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Saneso-sistemo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_kesehatan" title="Sistem kesehatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem kesehatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_sanitario" title="Sistema sanitario – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema sanitario" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_sanitari" title="Sistema sanitari – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sistema sanitari" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eg%C3%A9szs%C3%A9g%C3%BCgy" title="Egészségügy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Egészségügy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_kesihatan" title="Sistem kesihatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem kesihatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E7%99%82%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="医療制度 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="医療制度" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsevesen" title="Helsevesen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Helsevesen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_opieki_zdrowotnej" title="System opieki zdrowotnej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System opieki zdrowotnej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_sa%C3%BAde" title="Sistema de saúde – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de saúde" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_de_s%C4%83n%C4%83tate" title="Sistem de sănătate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem de sănătate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_sanit%C3%A0riu" title="Sistema sanitàriu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sistema sanitàriu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Здравствени систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Здравствени систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_pangkalusugan" title="Sistemang pangkalusugan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistemang pangkalusugan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E" title="ระบบสุขภาพ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบสุขภาพ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BB%91ng_y_t%E1%BA%BF" title="Hệ thống y tế – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống y tế" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E7%99%82%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="醫療系統 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="醫療系統" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11000047#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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an <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> of people, institutions, and resources that delivers <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> services to meet the <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> needs of target populations. </p><p>There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure" title="Organizational structure">organizational structures</a> as there are nations. Implicitly, nations must design and develop health systems in accordance with their needs and resources, although common elements in virtually all health systems are <a href="/wiki/Primary_health_care" title="Primary health care">primary healthcare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> measures.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In certain nations, the orchestration of health system planning is decentralized, with various stakeholders in the market assuming responsibilities. In contrast, in other regions, a collaborative endeavor exists among governmental entities, labor unions, philanthropic organizations, religious institutions, or other organized bodies, aimed at the meticulous provision of healthcare services tailored to the specific needs of their respective populations. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the process of healthcare planning is frequently characterized as an evolutionary progression rather than a revolutionary transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-liverpool-ha.org.uk_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liverpool-ha.org.uk-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As with other social institutional structures, health systems are likely to reflect the history, culture and economics of the states in which they evolve. These peculiarities bedevil and complicate international comparisons and preclude any universal standard of performance. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Goals">Goals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system, healthcare systems' goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair means of funding operations. Progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions: <a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">provision of health care services</a>, resource generation, financing, and stewardship.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2000_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other dimensions for the evaluation of health systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability, and <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">equity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-liverpool-ha.org.uk_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liverpool-ha.org.uk-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have also been described in the United States as "the five C's": Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity, and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">Chronic Illness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuity of health care">continuity of health care</a> is a major goal.<sup id="cite_ref-cook2000_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cook2000-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective. Some authors<sup id="cite_ref-Frenk_Global_Health_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frenk_Global_Health-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have developed arguments to expand the concept of health systems, indicating additional dimensions that should be considered: </p> <ul><li>Health systems should not be expressed in terms of their components only, but also of their interrelationships;</li> <li>Health systems should include not only the institutional or supply side of the health system but also the population;</li> <li>Health systems must be seen in terms of their goals, which include not only health improvement, but also <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">equity</a>, responsiveness to legitimate expectations, respect of dignity, and fair financing, among others;</li> <li>Health systems must also be defined in terms of their functions, including the direct provision of services, whether they are medical or public health services, but also "other enabling functions, such as stewardship, financing, and resource generation, including what is probably the most complex of all challenges, the health workforce."<sup id="cite_ref-Frenk_Global_Health_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frenk_Global_Health-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_Health_Organization_definition">World Health Organization definition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World Health Organization definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The World Health Organization defines health systems as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A health system consists of all organizations, people and actions whose primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health. This includes efforts to influence determinants of health as well as more direct health-improving activities. A health system is, therefore, more than the pyramid of publicly owned facilities that deliver personal health services. It includes, for example, a mother caring for a sick child at home; private providers; behaviour change programmes; vector-control campaigns; health insurance organizations; occupational health and safety legislation. It includes inter-sectoral action by health staff, for example, encouraging the ministry of education to promote female education, a well-known determinant of better health.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Financial_resources">Financial resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Financial resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">Universal health care</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital(KatyAppleton)Aug2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg/200px-NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg/300px-NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg/400px-NorfolkAndNorwichUniversityHospital%28KatyAppleton%29Aug2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_and_Norwich_University_Hospital" title="Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital">Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital</a>, a <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> hospital in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are generally five primary methods of funding health systems:<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>general <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxation</a> to the state, county or municipality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">national health insurance</a></li> <li>voluntary or private <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-of-pocket_expense" title="Out-of-pocket expense">out-of-pocket payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donation" title="Donation">donations</a> to <a href="/wiki/Charitable_organization" title="Charitable organization">charities</a></li></ol> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Healthcare models </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Universal </th> <th colspan="2">Non-universal </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Single-payer_healthcare" title="Single-payer healthcare">Single payer</a> </th> <th>Multi-payer </th> <th>Multi-payer </th> <th>No insurance </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Single provider</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_model" title="Beveridge model">Beveridge Model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semashko_model" title="Semashko model">Semashko model</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Private_hospital" title="Private hospital">Multiple Providers</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National Health Insurance</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bismarck_model" title="Bismarck model">Bismarck model</a> </td> <td>Private health insurance </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Out-of-pocket_expense" title="Out-of-pocket expense">Out-of-pocket</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Most countries' systems feature a mix of all five models. One study<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on data from the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> concluded that all types of health care finance "are compatible with" an efficient health system. The study also found no relationship between financing and cost control.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another study examining single payer and multi payer systems in OECD countries found that single payer systems have significantly less hospital beds per 100,000 people than in multi payer systems.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term health insurance is generally used to describe a form of <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a> that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used more broadly to include insurance covering <a href="/wiki/Disability_insurance" title="Disability insurance">disability</a> or <a href="/wiki/Long-term_care_insurance" title="Long-term care insurance">long-term nursing or custodial care</a> needs. It may be provided through a <a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">social insurance</a> program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a group basis (e.g., by a firm to cover its employees) or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Through the calculation of the comprehensive cost of healthcare expenditures, it becomes feasible to construct a standard financial framework, which may involve mechanisms like monthly premiums or annual taxes. This ensures the availability of funds to cover the healthcare benefits delineated in the insurance agreement. Typically, the administration of these benefits is overseen by a government agency, a nonprofit health fund, or a commercial corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many commercial health insurers control their costs by restricting the benefits provided, by such means as <a href="/wiki/Deductible" title="Deductible">deductibles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copayment" title="Copayment">copayments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Co-insurance" title="Co-insurance">co-insurance</a>, policy exclusions, and total coverage limits. They will also severely restrict or refuse coverage of pre-existing conditions. Many government systems also have co-payment arrangements but express exclusions are rare or limited because of political pressure. The larger insurance systems may also negotiate fees with providers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many forms of social insurance systems control their costs by using the bargaining power of the community they are intended to serve to control costs in the health care delivery system. They may attempt to do so by, for example, negotiating drug prices directly with pharmaceutical companies, negotiating standard fees with the medical profession, or reducing <a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_health_care" title="Unnecessary health care">unnecessary health care</a> costs. Social systems sometimes feature contributions related to earnings as part of a system to deliver <a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">universal health care</a>, which may or may not also involve the use of commercial and non-commercial insurers. Essentially the wealthier users pay proportionately more into the system to cover the needs of the poorer users who therefore contribute proportionately less. There are usually caps on the contributions of the wealthy and minimum payments that must be made by the insured (often in the form of a minimum contribution, similar to a deductible in commercial insurance models).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In addition to these traditional health care financing methods, some lower income countries and development partners are also implementing non-traditional or <a href="/wiki/Innovative_financing" title="Innovative financing">innovative financing</a> mechanisms for scaling up delivery and sustainability of health care,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as micro-contributions, <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">public-private partnerships</a>, and market-based <a href="/wiki/Financial_transaction_tax" title="Financial transaction tax">financial transaction taxes</a>. For example, as of June 2011, <a href="/wiki/Unitaid" title="Unitaid">Unitaid</a> had collected more than one billion dollars from 29 member countries, including several from Africa, through an air ticket solidarity levy to expand access to care and treatment for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in 94 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-UNITAID_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNITAID-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Payment_models">Payment models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Payment models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most countries, <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wage</a> costs for healthcare practitioners are estimated to represent between 65% and 80% of renewable health system expenditures.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three ways to pay medical practitioners: fee for service, capitation, and salary. There has been growing interest in blending elements of these systems.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fee-for-service">Fee-for-service</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fee-for-service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fee-for-service" title="Fee-for-service">Fee-for-service</a> arrangements pay <a href="/wiki/General_practitioner" title="General practitioner">general practitioners</a> (GPs) based on the service.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are even more widely used for specialists working in <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory_care" title="Ambulatory care">ambulatory care</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two ways to set fee levels:<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>By individual practitioners.</li> <li>Central negotiations (as in Japan, Germany, Canada and in France) or hybrid model (such as in Australia, France's sector 2, and New Zealand) where GPs can charge extra fees on top of standardized patient reimbursement rates.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Capitation">Capitation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Capitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Capitation_(healthcare)" title="Capitation (healthcare)">capitation payment systems</a>, GPs are paid for each patient on their "list", usually with adjustments for factors such as age and gender.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), "these systems are used in Italy (with some fees), in all four countries of the United Kingdom (with some fees and allowances for specific services), Austria (with fees for specific services), Denmark (one third of income with remainder fee for service), Ireland (since 1989), the Netherlands (fee-for-service for privately insured patients and public employees) and Sweden (from 1994). Capitation payments have become more frequent in "managed care" environments in the United States."<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to OECD, "capitation systems allow funders to control the overall level of primary health expenditures, and the allocation of funding among GPs is determined by patient registrations". However, under this approach, GPs may register too many patients and under-serve them, select the better risks and refer on patients who could have been treated by the GP directly. Freedom of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_choice" title="Consumer choice">consumer choice</a> over doctors, coupled with the principle of "money following the patient" may moderate some of these risks. Aside from selection, these problems are likely to be less marked than under salary-type arrangements.'<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salary_arrangements">Salary arrangements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Salary arrangements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In several OECD countries, general practitioners (GPs) are employed on <i><a href="/wiki/Salary" title="Salary">salaries</a></i> for the government.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to OECD, "Salary arrangements allow funders to control primary care costs directly; however, they may lead to under-provision of services (to ease workloads), excessive referrals to secondary providers and lack of attention to the preferences of patients."<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been movement away from this system.<sup id="cite_ref-docteur/oxley_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-docteur/oxley-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Value-based_care">Value-based care</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Value-based care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, providers have been switching from fee-for-service payment models to a <a href="/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)" title="Pay for performance (healthcare)">value-based care</a> payment system, where they are compensated for providing value to patients. In this system, providers are given incentives to close gaps in care and provide better quality care for patients. <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spending">Spending</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Spending"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_spending_as_percent_of_gross_domestic_product_(GDP)_by_country" title="Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country">Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita" title="List of countries by total health expenditure per capita">List of countries by total health expenditure per capita</a></div> <p>Expand the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> charts below to see the breakdown: </p> <ul><li>"Government/compulsory": Government spending and compulsory health insurance.</li> <li>"Voluntary": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households' out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations.</li> <li>They are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total.</li> <li>At the source you can run your cursor over the columns to get the year and the total for that country.<sup id="cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Click the table tab at the source to get 3 lists (one after another) of amounts by country: "Total", "Government/compulsory", and "Voluntary".<sup id="cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_(Gross_domestic_product).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png/310px-Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png/465px-Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png/620px-Health_spending_by_country._Percent_of_GDP_%28Gross_domestic_product%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2562" data-file-height="1281" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Health_spending_as_a_percent_of_GDP_by_country_(gross_domestic_product)" class="mw-redirect" title="Health spending as a percent of GDP by country (gross domestic product)">Health spending by country</a>. Percent of GDP (<a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">Gross domestic product</a>). For example: 11.2% for Canada in 2022. 16.6% for the United States in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_(using_economy-wide_PPPs).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png/310px-Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png/465px-Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png/620px-Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_%28using_economy-wide_PPPs%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2562" data-file-height="1267" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita" title="List of countries by total health expenditure per capita">Total healthcare cost per person</a>. Public and private spending. US dollars <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>. For example: $6,319 for Canada in 2022. $12,555 for the US in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Information_resources">Information resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Information resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Health_care_delivery" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care delivery">Health care delivery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_information_management" title="Health information management">Health information management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Health informatics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/EHealth" title="EHealth">eHealth</a></div> <p>Sound information plays an increasingly critical role in the delivery of modern health care and efficiency of health systems. Health informatics – the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> – deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition and use of information in health and biomedicine. Necessary tools for proper health information coding and management include <a href="/wiki/Medical_guideline" title="Medical guideline">clinical guidelines</a>, formal <a href="/wiki/Medical_terminology" title="Medical terminology">medical terminologies</a>, and computers and other <a href="/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">information and communication technologies</a>. The kinds of <a href="/wiki/Health_data" title="Health data">health data</a> processed may include <a href="/wiki/Medical_record" title="Medical record">patients' medical records</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hospital_information_system" title="Hospital information system">hospital administration and clinical functions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/HRHIS" title="HRHIS">human resources information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NHS_2023_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHS_2023-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of health information lies at the root of <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">evidence-based policy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">evidence-based management</a> in health care. Increasingly, information and communication technologies are being utilised to improve health systems in developing countries through: the standardisation of health information; computer-aided diagnosis and treatment monitoring; informing population groups on health and treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_administration" title="Health administration">Health administration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Disease_management_(health)" title="Disease management (health)">Disease management (health)</a></div> <p>The management of any health system is typically directed through a set of <a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">policies and plans</a> adopted by government, private sector business and other groups in areas such as personal healthcare delivery and financing, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">pharmaceuticals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_human_resources" title="Health human resources">health human resources</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">population health</a> analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>). Public health is typically divided into <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health services</a>. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental</a>, social, <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">behavioral</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational health</a> are also important subfields.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poliodrops.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Poliodrops.jpg/220px-Poliodrops.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Poliodrops.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>A child being immunized against <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, the effects of ageing and <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">health inequities</a>, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. For example, most countries have a <a href="/wiki/Vaccination_policy" title="Vaccination policy">vaccination policy</a>, supporting public health programs in providing <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a> to promote health. Vaccinations are voluntary in some countries and mandatory in some countries. Some governments pay all or part of the costs for vaccines in a national vaccination schedule.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The rapid emergence of many <a href="/wiki/Chronic_condition" title="Chronic condition">chronic diseases</a>, which require costly <a href="/wiki/Chronic_care_management" title="Chronic care management">long-term care and treatment</a>, is making many health managers and policy makers re-examine their healthcare delivery practices. An important health issue facing the world currently is <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another major public health concern is <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide had diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by 2030, this number will double. A controversial aspect of public health is the control of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a>, linked to cancer and other chronic illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a> is another major concern, leading to the reemergence of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, for its <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Day" title="World Health Day">World Health Day 2011</a> campaign, called for intensified global commitment to safeguard antibiotics and other <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> medicines for future generations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_systems_performance">Health systems performance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Health systems performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Health_services_research" title="Health services research">Health services research</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg/310px-Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg/465px-Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg/620px-Life_expectancy_vs_healthcare_spending.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1876" data-file-height="1816" /></a><figcaption>Life expectancy vs healthcare spending of rich <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> countries. <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita" title="List of countries by total health expenditure per capita">US average of $10,447 in 2018</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-life_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-life-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Since 2000, more and more initiatives have been taken at the international and national levels in order to strengthen national health systems as the core components of the <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">global health</a> system. Having this scope in mind, it is essential to have a clear, and unrestricted, vision of national health systems that might generate further progress in global health. The elaboration and the selection of <a href="/wiki/Performance_indicator" title="Performance indicator">performance indicators</a> are indeed both highly dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual framework</a> adopted for the <a href="/wiki/Evaluation" title="Evaluation">evaluation</a> of the health systems performance.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like most social systems, health systems are <a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">complex adaptive systems</a> where change does not necessarily follow rigid management models.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In complex systems path dependency, emergent properties and other non-linear patterns are seen,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can lead to the development of inappropriate guidelines for developing responsive health systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_2012_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_2012-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quality frameworks are essential tools for understanding and improving health systems. They help define, prioritize, and implement health system goals and functions. Among the key frameworks is the World Health Organization's building blocks model, which enhances health quality by focusing on elements like financing, workforce, information, medical products, governance, and service delivery. This model influences global health evaluation and contributes to indicator development and research.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Lancet Global Health Commission's 2018 framework builds upon earlier models by emphasizing system foundations, processes, and outcomes, guided by principles of efficiency, resilience, equity, and people-centeredness. This comprehensive approach addresses challenges associated with chronic and complex conditions and is particularly influential in health services research in developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Importantly, recent developments also highlight the need to integrate environmental sustainability into these frameworks, suggesting its inclusion as a guiding principle to enhance the environmental responsiveness of health systems.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An increasing number of tools and guidelines are being published by international agencies and development partners to assist health system decision-makers to monitor and assess health systems strengthening<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including <a href="/wiki/Health_human_resources" title="Health human resources">human resources</a> development<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using standard definitions, indicators and measures. In response to a series of papers published in 2012 by members of the World Health Organization's Task Force on Developing Health Systems Guidance, researchers from the Future Health Systems consortium argue that there is insufficient focus on the 'policy implementation gap'. Recognizing the diversity of stakeholders and complexity of health systems is crucial to ensure that evidence-based guidelines are tested with requisite humility and without a rigid adherence to models dominated by a limited number of disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters_2012_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters_2012-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Healthcare services often implement Quality Improvement Initiatives to overcome this policy implementation gap. Although many of these initiatives deliver improved healthcare, a large proportion fail to be sustained. Numerous tools and frameworks have been created to respond to this challenge and increase improvement longevity. One tool highlighted the need for these tools to respond to user preferences and settings to optimize impact.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) is an emerging multidisciplinary field that challenges 'disciplinary capture' by dominant health research traditions, arguing that these traditions generate premature and inappropriately narrow definitions that impede rather than enhance health systems strengthening.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HPSR focuses on low- and middle-income countries and draws on the relativist social science paradigm which recognises that all phenomena are constructed through human behaviour and interpretation. In using this approach, HPSR offers insight into health systems by generating a complex understanding of context in order to enhance health policy learning.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HPSR calls for greater involvement of local actors, including policy makers, civil society and researchers, in decisions that are made around funding health policy research and health systems strengthening.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png/220px-Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png/330px-Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png/440px-Overweight_or_obese_population_OECD_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="1103" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of overweight or obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://stats.oecd.org">http://stats.oecd.org</a>, retrieved 2013-12-12<sup id="cite_ref-OECDOverwObese_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDOverwObese-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> </div> <div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obese_population_OECD_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Obese_population_OECD_2010.png/220px-Obese_population_OECD_2010.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Obese_population_OECD_2010.png/330px-Obese_population_OECD_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Obese_population_OECD_2010.png/440px-Obese_population_OECD_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://stats.oecd.org">http://stats.oecd.org</a>, retrieved 2013-12-13<sup id="cite_ref-OECDObese_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECDObese-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_comparisons">International comparisons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: International comparisons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_quality_of_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by quality of health care">List of countries by quality of health care</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_health_expenditure_covered_by_government" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by health expenditure covered by government">List of countries by health expenditure covered by government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care_systems_by_country" title="Health care systems by country">Health care systems by country</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Europe" title="Healthcare in Europe">Healthcare in Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png/330px-Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="456" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png/495px-Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png/660px-Health_systems_comparison_OECD_2008.png 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="1094" /></a><figcaption>Chart comparing 2008 health care spending (left) vs. life expectancy (right) in OECD countries</figcaption></figure> <p>Health systems can vary substantially from country to country, and in the last few years, comparisons have been made on an international basis. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, in its <i><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Report" title="World Health Report">World Health Report 2000</a></i>, provided a <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization_ranking_of_health_systems_in_2000" title="World Health Organization ranking of health systems in 2000">ranking of health systems</a> around the world according to criteria of the overall level and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> in the populations, and the responsiveness and fair financing of health care services.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO2000_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goals for health systems, according to the WHO's <i>World Health Report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance</i> (WHO, 2000),<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are good health, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair financial contribution. There have been several debates around the results of this WHO exercise,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and especially based on the country <a href="/wiki/Ranking" title="Ranking">ranking</a> linked to it,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> insofar as it appeared to depend mostly on the choice of the retained <a href="/wiki/Performance_indicator" title="Performance indicator">indicators</a>. </p><p>Direct comparisons of health statistics across nations are complex. The <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Fund" title="Commonwealth Fund">Commonwealth Fund</a>, in its annual survey, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall", compares the performance of the health systems in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the United States. Its 2007 study found that, although the United States system is the most expensive, it consistently underperforms compared to the other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major difference between the United States and the other countries in the study is that the United States is the only country without <a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">universal health care</a>. The <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> also collects comparative statistics, and has published brief country profiles.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oecdstats_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oecdstats-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-datasource_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-datasource-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Health_Consumer_Powerhouse" title="Health Consumer Powerhouse">Health Consumer Powerhouse</a> makes comparisons between both national health care systems in the <a href="/wiki/Euro_Health_Consumer_Index" title="Euro Health Consumer Index">Euro health consumer index</a> and specific areas of health care such as diabetes<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or hepatitis.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a> produces an annual study of public perceptions of healthcare services across 30 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></small><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a> rate</small><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><small>Preventable deaths per 100,000 people in 2007</small><sup id="cite_ref-comamenable_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comamenable-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physicians</a> per 1000 people</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Nurses" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurses">Nurses</a> per 1000 people</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_per_capita" title="List of countries by total health expenditure per capita">Per capita expenditure on health</a> (USD PPP)</small> </th> <th><small>Healthcare costs as a percent of <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a></small> </th> <th><small>% of government revenue spent on health</small> </th> <th><small>% of health costs paid by government</small> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Australia" title="Health care in Australia">Australia</a> </td> <td>83.0 </td> <td>4.49 </td> <td>57 </td> <td>2.8 </td> <td>10.1 </td> <td>3,353 </td> <td>8.5 </td> <td>17.7 </td> <td>67.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Canada" title="Healthcare in Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td>82.0 </td> <td>4.78 </td> <td>77<sup id="cite_ref-canadacwa_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canadacwa-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2.2 </td> <td>9.0 </td> <td>3,844 </td> <td>10.0 </td> <td>16.7 </td> <td>70.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Finland" title="Healthcare in Finland">Finland</a> </td> <td>79.5 </td> <td>2.6 </td> <td> </td> <td>2.7 </td> <td>15.5 </td> <td>3,008 </td> <td>8.4 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">France</a> </td> <td>82.0 </td> <td>3.34 </td> <td>55 </td> <td>3.3 </td> <td>7.7 </td> <td>3,679 </td> <td>11.6 </td> <td>14.2 </td> <td>78.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Germany" title="Healthcare in Germany">Germany</a> </td> <td>81.0 </td> <td>3.48 </td> <td>76 </td> <td>3.5 </td> <td>10.5 </td> <td>3,724 </td> <td>10.4 </td> <td>17.6 </td> <td>76.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Italy</a> </td> <td>83.0 </td> <td>3.33 </td> <td>60 </td> <td>4.2 </td> <td>6.1 </td> <td>2,771 </td> <td>8.7 </td> <td>14.1 </td> <td>76.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Health_care_system_in_Japan" title="Health care system in Japan">Japan</a> </td> <td>84.0 </td> <td>2.17 </td> <td>61 </td> <td>2.1 </td> <td>9.4 </td> <td>2,750 </td> <td>8.2 </td> <td>16.8 </td> <td>80.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Norway" title="Healthcare in Norway">Norway</a> </td> <td>83.0 </td> <td>3.47 </td> <td>64 </td> <td>3.8 </td> <td>16.2 </td> <td>4,885 </td> <td>8.9 </td> <td>17.9 </td> <td>84.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Spain" title="Health care in Spain">Spain</a> </td> <td>83.0 </td> <td>3.30 </td> <td>74 </td> <td>3.8 </td> <td>5.3 </td> <td>3,248 </td> <td>8.9 </td> <td>15.1 </td> <td>73.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Sweden" title="Healthcare in Sweden">Sweden</a> </td> <td>82.0 </td> <td>2.73 </td> <td>61 </td> <td>3.6 </td> <td>10.8 </td> <td>3,432 </td> <td>8.9 </td> <td>13.6 </td> <td>81.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Healthcare in the United Kingdom">UK</a> </td> <td>81.6 </td> <td>4.5 </td> <td>83 </td> <td>2.5 </td> <td>9.5 </td> <td>3,051 </td> <td>8.4 </td> <td>15.8 </td> <td>81.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">US</a> </td> <td>78.74 </td> <td>5.9 </td> <td>96 </td> <td>2.4 </td> <td>10.6 </td> <td>7,437 </td> <td>16.0 </td> <td>18.5 </td> <td>45.1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Physicians and hospital beds per 1000 inhabitants vs Health Care Spending in 2008 for OECD Countries. The data source is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org">OECD.org - OECD</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oecdstats_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oecdstats-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-datasource_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-datasource-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Health_spending_vs_physicians_oecd_2008.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Physicians per 1000 vs Health Care Spending in 2008 for OECD Countries. The data source is http://www.oecd.org"><img alt="Physicians per 1000 vs Health Care Spending" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Health_spending_vs_physicians_oecd_2008.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="500" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Health_spending_vs_beds_oecd_2008.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Hospital beds per 1000 vs Health Care Spending in 2008 for OECD Countries. The data source is http://www.oecd.org"><img alt="Hospital beds per 1000 vs Health Care Spending" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Health_spending_vs_beds_oecd_2008.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="500" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acronyms_in_healthcare" title="Acronyms in healthcare">Acronyms in healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">Catholic Church and health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_Health_Promotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical Health Promotion">Clinical Health Promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_the_health_care_systems_in_Canada_and_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of the health care systems in Canada and the United States">Comparison of the health care systems in Canada and the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-driven_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer-driven health care">Consumer-driven health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence in health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing#In_Estonia" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_health_insurance_coverage" title="List of countries by health insurance coverage">List of countries by health insurance coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_administration" title="Health administration">Health administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">Health care provider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_crisis" title="Health crisis">Health crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_human_resources" title="Health human resources">Health human resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_services_research" title="Health services research">Health services research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_network" title="Hospital network">Hospital network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Philosophy of healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">Primary care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_health_care" title="Primary health care">Primary health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">Publicly funded health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialized_medicine" title="Socialized medicine">Socialized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_global_health" title="Timeline of global health">Timeline of global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-tier_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-tier health care">Two-tier health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">Universal health care</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 15 May 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-comamenable-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-comamenable_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Mortality amenable to health care" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolte2011" class="citation journal cs1">Nolte, Ellen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205105617/http://www.commonwealthfund.org/Publications/In-the-Literature/2011/Sep/Variations-in-Amenable-Mortality.aspx">"Variations in Amenable Mortality—Trends in 16 High-Income Nations"</a>. <i>Health Policy (Amsterdam, Netherlands)</i>. <b>103</b> (1). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Affairs&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Health+of+Nations%3A+Updating+an+Earlier+Analysis&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=58-71&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1377%2Fhlthaff.27.1.58&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18180480&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commonwealthfund.org%2FPublications%2FIn-the-Literature%2F2008%2FJan%2FMeasuring-the-Health-of-Nations--Updating-an-Earlier-Analysis.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHealth+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Health system</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Health+system">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/healthsystems/en/">World Health Organization: Health Systems</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/">HRC/Eldis Health Systems Resource Guide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050802103517/http://www.eldis.org/healthsystems/">Archived</a> 2 August 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> research and other resources on health systems in developing countries</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/department/0,3355,en_2649_33929_1_1_1_1_1,00.html">OECD: Health policies</a>, a list of latest publications by OECD</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="Template talk:Health care"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_care" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health care"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_care" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Health care</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_guideline" title="Medical guideline">Guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">Providers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHO%27s_ranking_of_health_care_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO's ranking of health care systems">Ranking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare science">Healthcare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health professions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_information_management" title="Health information management">Health information management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Settings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_living" title="Assisted living">Assisted living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinic" title="Clinic">Clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_home" title="Nursing home">Nursing home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a> (<a href="/wiki/Academic_health_science_centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic health science centre">Academic health science centre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teaching_hospital" title="Teaching hospital">Teaching hospital</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_school" title="Pharmacy school">Pharmacy school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Care</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_care" title="Acute care">Acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_care" title="Chronic care">Chronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">End-of-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice" title="Hospice">Hospice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overutilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Overutilization">Overutilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">Primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-care" title="Self-care">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_care" title="Total care">Total</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skills / training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship#Bedside_manner" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">Bedside manner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_bioprinting" title="3D bioprinting">3D bioprinting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connected_health" title="Connected health">Connected health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_health" title="Digital health">Digital health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_health_record" title="Electronic health record">Electronic health records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MHealth" title="MHealth">mHealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemedicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Telemedicine">Telemedicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Health informatics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">Medical image computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imaging_informatics" title="Imaging informatics">imaging informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Artificial intelligence in healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a> in healthcare</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_informatics" title="Behavior informatics">Behavior informatics</a> in healthcare</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a> in healthcare</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translational_bioinformatics" title="Translational bioinformatics">Translational bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translational_medicine" title="Translational medicine">Translational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_information_technology" title="Health information technology">health information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemedicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Telemedicine">Telemedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_information_management" title="Health information management">Health information management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_health_informatics" title="Consumer health informatics">Consumer health informatics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_reform_debate_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare reform debate in the United States">reform debate in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Healthcare in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Canada" title="Healthcare in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Australia" title="Health care in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_New_Zealand" title="Healthcare in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_care_by_country" title="Category:Health care by country">(Category Health care by country)</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Health_care" title="Category:Health care">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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