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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms_and_civil_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Reforms and civil service </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms_and_civil_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interstate_Commerce_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interstate_Commerce_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Interstate Commerce Act </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interstate_Commerce_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vetoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vetoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Vetoes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vetoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monetary_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monetary_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Monetary policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monetary_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Tariffs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tariffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy,_1885–1889" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy,_1885–1889"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Foreign policy, 1885–1889 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy,_1885–1889-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_policy,_1885–1889" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_policy,_1885–1889"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Military policy, 1885–1889 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_policy,_1885–1889-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights_and_immigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights_and_immigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Civil rights and immigration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights_and_immigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Indian policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Judicial appointments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1888" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1888"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Election of 1888 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1888-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1892" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1892"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Election of 1892 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1892-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Second presidency (1893–1897) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_presidency_(1893–1897)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Second presidency (1893–1897) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Second_presidency_(1893–1897)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administration_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appointments_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointments_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Appointments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointments_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_panic_and_the_silver_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_panic_and_the_silver_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Economic panic and the silver issue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_panic_and_the_silver_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_unrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_unrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Labor unrest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_unrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coxey's_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coxey's_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Coxey's Army </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coxey's_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pullman_Strike" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pullman_Strike"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Pullman Strike </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pullman_Strike-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tariff_frustrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tariff_frustrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Tariff frustrations </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_policy,_1893–1897"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Military policy, 1893–1897 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_policy,_1893–1897-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_appointments_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_appointments_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Judicial appointments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_appointments_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_of_1896" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_of_1896"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Election of 1896 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_of_1896-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-States_admitted_to_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States_admitted_to_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 States admitted 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United States presidential administrations from 1885 to 1889 and 1893 to 1897</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="padding-bottom:2px; padding-top:2px;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:0; padding-bottom:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland"><img alt="Grover Cleveland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/StephenGroverCleveland.jpg/220px-StephenGroverCleveland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/StephenGroverCleveland.jpg/330px-StephenGroverCleveland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/StephenGroverCleveland.jpg/440px-StephenGroverCleveland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="1000" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="padding-top:2px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Presidencies of Grover Cleveland</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:4px 0 4px;" /> First term March 4, 1885 – March 4, 1889</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#First_presidency_(1885–1889)">See list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a></div><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> →</div></div></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 4px;" /> Second term March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)">See list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a></div><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">William McKinley</a> →</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 8px;" /> <div class="center"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:6px 0 2px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/100px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/150px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg/200px-1894_US_Presidential_Seal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="1012" /></a></div> <div style="line-height:normal; min-height:1px; padding-bottom:2px;">Seal of the president (1894–1945)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Grover_Cleveland_(3x4_close_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/75px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/113px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg/150px-Grover_Cleveland_%283x4_close_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="1860" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Personal</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Early_life" title="Grover Cleveland">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Birthplace" title="Grover Cleveland Birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Honors_and_memorials" title="Grover Cleveland">Legacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Cleveland_(1920)" title="SS President Cleveland (1920)">SS Cleveland 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_President_Cleveland_(1947)" title="SS President Cleveland (1947)">SS Cleveland 1947</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">28th Governor of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1882_New_York_gubernatorial_election" title="1882 New York gubernatorial election">Election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Governor_of_New_York" title="Grover Cleveland">Governorship</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">22nd & 24th President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_executive_orders#Grover_Cleveland_(1885–1889,_1893–1897)" title="List of United States federal executive orders">Executive actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897#First_Cleveland_administration,_1885–1889" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">First term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="First inauguration of Grover Cleveland">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Grover_Cleveland_and_Frances_Folsom" title="Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1889" title="Enabling Act of 1889">Enabling Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland#First_administration" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Appointments">Cabinet</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Second term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blount_Report" title="Blount Report">Blount Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Report" title="Morgan Report">Morgan Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coxey%27s_Army" title="Coxey's Army">Coxey's Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1895" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1895">Venezuelan crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland#Second_administration" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Judicial appointments</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Appointments_2">Cabinet</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Presidential campaigns</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1884_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign">1884</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">1888</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1892_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign">1892</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">election</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-presidency</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#1896_election_and_retirement_(1897–1908)" title="Grover Cleveland">Retirement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland#Illness_and_death" title="Grover Cleveland">Death</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland's signature"><img alt="Grover Cleveland's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/150px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/225px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg/300px-Grover_Cleveland_Signature_1882.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="127" /></a></div> <img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Template:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Template talk:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grover_Cleveland_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grover Cleveland series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> was <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a> first from March 4, 1885, to March 4, 1889, and then from March 4, 1893, to March 4, 1897. The first <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrat</a> elected after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, Cleveland is one of only two U.S. presidents to leave office after one term and later be elected for a second term,<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> and the only one to date to have served two full non-consecutive terms. His presidencies were the nation's <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">22nd and 24th</a>.<a href="#cite_note-definition-2">[b]</a> Cleveland defeated <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a> of Maine in <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884</a>, lost to <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> of Indiana in <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a>, and then defeated President Harrison in <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892</a>. He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>, who won in <a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">1896</a>. Cleveland won the 1884 election with the support of a reform-minded group of Republicans known as <a href="/wiki/Mugwumps" title="Mugwumps">Mugwumps</a>, and he expanded the number of government positions that were protected by the <a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a>. He also vetoed several bills designed to provide <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pensions</a> and other benefits to various regions and individuals. In response to <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">anti-competitive practices</a> by railroads, Cleveland signed the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a>, which established the first independent federal agency. During his first term, he unsuccessfully sought the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Bland%E2%80%93Allison_Act" title="Bland–Allison Act">Bland–Allison Act</a> and a lowering of the <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariff</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Samoan_crisis" title="Samoan crisis">Samoan crisis</a> was the major foreign policy event of Cleveland's first term, and that crisis ended with a tripartite protectorate in the <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Islands" title="Samoan Islands">Samoan Islands</a>. As his second term began, disaster hit the nation when the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a> produced a severe national depression. Cleveland presided over the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a>, striking a blow against the <a href="/wiki/Free_Silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Silver">Free Silver</a> movement, and also lowered tariff rates by allowing the <a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a> to become law. He also ordered federal soldiers to crush the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a>. In foreign policy, Cleveland resisted the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> and an American intervention in <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. He also sought to uphold the Monroe Doctrine and forced <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Great Britain</a> to agree to arbitrate a border dispute with <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1894" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1894">midterm elections of 1894</a>, Cleveland's Democratic Party suffered a massive defeat that opened the way for the agrarian and <a href="/wiki/Silverite" title="Silverite">silverite</a> seizure of the Democratic Party. The <a href="/wiki/1896_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1896 Democratic National Convention">1896 Democratic National Convention</a> repudiated Cleveland and nominated silverite <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, but Bryan was defeated by Republican <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> in the subsequent election. Cleveland left office extremely unpopular, but his reputation was eventually rehabilitated in the 1930s by scholars led by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a>. More recent historians and biographers have taken a more ambivalent view of Cleveland, but many note Cleveland's role in re-asserting the power of the presidency. In <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">rankings of American presidents by historians and political scientists</a>, Cleveland is generally ranked as an average or above-average president. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Election_of_1884">Election of 1884</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Election of 1884">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1884_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign">Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884 United States presidential election</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_elections" title="1884 United States elections">1884 United States elections</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg/220px-Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg/330px-Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg/440px-Another_voice_for_Cleveland_-_F.B._LCCN95522869_-_restoration2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3880" data-file-height="5272" /></a><figcaption>An anti-Cleveland cartoon highlights the Halpin scandal</figcaption></figure> Cleveland had risen to prominence as an advocate of <a href="/wiki/U.S._Civil_Service_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Civil Service Reform">civil service reform</a>, and he was widely viewed as a presidential contender after his victory in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_state_election,_1882" class="mw-redirect" title="New York state election, 1882">1882 New York gubernatorial election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Samuel J. Tilden</a>, the party's nominee in 1876, was the initial front-runner, but he declined to run due to poor health.<a href="#cite_note-nevins146-4">[2]</a> Cleveland, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Bayard" title="Thomas F. Bayard">Thomas F. Bayard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allen_G._Thurman" title="Allen G. Thurman">Allen G. Thurman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Samuel Freeman Miller</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Butler (politician)">Benjamin Butler</a> of <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> each had considerable followings entering the <a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">1884 Democratic National Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nevins146-4">[2]</a> Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secession</a> in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the South for his actions during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>; Thurman was generally well liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the <a href="/wiki/Bimetallism" title="Bimetallism">silver question</a> were uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> Cleveland, too, had detractors—the <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">Tammany Hall</a> political machine opposed him—but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends.<a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a> He also benefited from the backing of state party leader <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Manning" title="Daniel Manning">Daniel Manning</a>, who positioned Cleveland as the natural heir to Tilden and emphasized the importance of New York's <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">electoral votes</a> in any Democratic presidential victory.<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> Cleveland led on the convention's first ballot and clinched the nomination on the second ballot.<a href="#cite_note-nevins154-8">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Thomas A. Hendricks</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> was selected as his running mate.<a href="#cite_note-nevins154-8">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1884_Republican_National_Convention" title="1884 Republican National Convention">1884 Republican National Convention</a> nominated former Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">James G. Blaine</a> of <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> for president; Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral.<a href="#cite_note-nevins185-9">[7]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1884.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ElectoralCollege1884.svg/300px-ElectoralCollege1884.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ElectoralCollege1884.svg/450px-ElectoralCollege1884.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ElectoralCollege1884.svg/600px-ElectoralCollege1884.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Results of the <a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884 election</a></figcaption></figure> Blaine campaigned on implementing a protective tariff, increasing international trade, and investing in infrastructure projects, while the Democratic campaign focused on Blaine's ethics.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> Corruption in politics became the central issue in 1884, and Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals.<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats' strongest asset.<a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> Reform-minded Republicans called "<a href="/wiki/Mugwump" class="mw-redirect" title="Mugwump">Mugwumps</a>", including men such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schurz" title="Carl Schurz">Carl Schurz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher" title="Henry Ward Beecher">Henry Ward Beecher</a>, denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> At the same time the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Greenback_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Greenback Party">Greenback-Labor party</a>, led by Benjamin Butler.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> As expected, Cleveland carried the <a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a>, while Blaine carried most of <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>. The electoral votes of closely contested New York, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, Indiana, and <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> determined the election.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the <a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">swing states</a>; he <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_in_New_York,_1884" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election in New York, 1884">won</a> his home state of New York by a margin of 0.1%, which amounted to just 1200 votes.<a href="#cite_note-leip1884-17">[15]</a> Cleveland won the nationwide popular vote by one-quarter of a percent, while he won the electoral vote by a majority of 219–182.<a href="#cite_note-leip1884-17">[15]</a> Cleveland's victory made him the first successful Democratic presidential nominee since the start of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. Despite Cleveland's successful candidacy, Republicans retained control of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_presidency_(1885–1889)">First presidency (1885–1889)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First presidency (1885–1889)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="First inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Cleveland was sworn into office</a> as the 22nd president of the United States on March 4, 1885. That same day, Hendricks was sworn in as vice president. Hendricks died 266 days into this term, and the office remained vacant since there was no constitutional provision at the time for filling an intra-term vice-presidential vacancy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration">Administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Appointments">Appointments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Appointments">edit</a>]</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; float:right; clear:right;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The First Cleveland cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Thomas A. Hendricks</a></th><td>1885</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold">none</th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Bayard" title="Thomas F. Bayard">Thomas F. Bayard</a></th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Manning" title="Daniel Manning">Daniel Manning</a></th><td>1885–1887</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Fairchild" title="Charles S. Fairchild">Charles S. Fairchild</a></th><td>1887–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Crowninshield_Endicott" title="William Crowninshield Endicott">William Crowninshield Endicott</a></th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Augustus_H._Garland" title="Augustus H. Garland">Augustus H. Garland</a></th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_F._Vilas" title="William F. Vilas">William F. Vilas</a></th><td>1885–1888</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Donald_M._Dickinson" title="Donald M. Dickinson">Donald M. Dickinson</a></th><td>1888–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Collins_Whitney" title="William Collins Whitney">William Collins Whitney</a></th><td>1885–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar</a></th><td>1885–1888</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_F._Vilas" title="William F. Vilas">William F. Vilas</a></th><td>1888–1889</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Jay_Colman" title="Norman Jay Colman">Norman Jay Colman</a></th><td>1889</td></tr></tbody></table> There was much speculation during the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_transition" title="United States presidential transition">presidential transition</a> period about who would be serving in Cleveland's <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">cabinet</a>. It was generally assumed that <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Bayard" title="Thomas F. Bayard">Thomas F. Bayard</a> would be offered the position of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">secretary of state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> By February 27, 1885, Cleveland had been reported to have settled on all the officeholders for his <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_S._Lamont" title="Daniel S. Lamont">Daniel S. Lamont</a>, Cleveland's private secretary, immediately denied reports that Cleveland had settled upon his Cabinet choices, and that he had announced his selections to others.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png/360px-Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png/540px-Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png/720px-Cleveland_First_Cabinet.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland's first Cabinet. Front row, left to right: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Bayard" title="Thomas F. Bayard">Thomas F. Bayard</a>, Cleveland, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Manning" title="Daniel Manning">Daniel Manning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Q._C._Lamar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Q. C. Lamar">Lucius Q. C. Lamar</a> Back row, left to right: <a href="/wiki/William_F._Vilas" title="William F. Vilas">William F. Vilas</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_C._Whitney" class="mw-redirect" title="William C. Whitney">William C. Whitney</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_C._Endicott" class="mw-redirect" title="William C. Endicott">William C. Endicott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus_H._Garland" title="Augustus H. Garland">Augustus H. Garland</a> </figcaption></figure> Cleveland faced the challenge of putting together the first Democratic cabinet since the 1850s, and none of the individuals that he appointed to his cabinet had served in the cabinet of another administration. Senator Bayard, Cleveland's strongest rival for the 1884 nomination, accepted the position of Secretary of State. Daniel Manning, a key New York adviser for Cleveland as well as a close ally of Samuel Tilden, became the Secretary of the Treasury. Another New Yorker, the prominent financier <a href="/wiki/William_Collins_Whitney" title="William Collins Whitney">William C. Whitney</a>, was appointed Secretary of the Navy. For the position of Secretary of War, Cleveland appointed <a href="/wiki/William_Crowninshield_Endicott" title="William Crowninshield Endicott">William C. Endicott</a>, a prominent Massachusetts judge with ties to the Mugwumps. Cleveland chose two Southerners for his cabinet: <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar II">Lucius Q. C. Lamar</a> of Mississippi as Secretary of the Interior, and <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Hill_Garland" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Hill Garland">Augustus H. Garland</a> of Arkansas as Attorney General. Postmaster General <a href="/wiki/William_Freeman_Vilas" class="mw-redirect" title="William Freeman Vilas">William F. Vilas</a> of Wisconsin was the lone Westerner in the cabinet. Daniel S. Lamont served as Cleveland's private secretary, becoming one of the most important individuals in the administration.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marriage_and_children">Marriage and children</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Marriage and children">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg/200px-Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg/300px-Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg/400px-Frances_Folsom_Cleveland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1910" data-file-height="2314" /></a><figcaption>Frances Folsom Cleveland</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Grover_Cleveland_and_Frances_Folsom" title="Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom">Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom</a></div> Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor, and his sister <a href="/wiki/Rose_Cleveland" title="Rose Cleveland">Rose Cleveland</a> acted as hostess for the first two years of his administration.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Room_(White_House)" title="Blue Room (White House)">Blue Room</a> at the White House.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> Though Cleveland had supervised Frances's upbringing after her father's death, the public took no exception to the match.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was the youngest <a href="/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">First Lady</a> in history, and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reforms_and_civil_service">Reforms and civil service</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reforms and civil service">edit</a>]</div> Presidential appointments until now were typically filled under the <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">spoils system</a>. However Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the patronage, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats;<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> this was especially the case with policy-making positions.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors' administrations.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> During his first term, Cleveland also expanded the number of federal positions subject to the merit system (under the terms of the recently passed <a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a>) from 16,000 to 27,000. Due to Cleveland's and Harrison's efforts, between 1885 and 1897, the percentage of federal employees protected by the Pendleton Act rose from twelve percent to forty percent. Nonetheless, many Mugwumps were disappointed by Cleveland's unwillingness to promote a truly nonpartisan civil service.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Cleveland was the first Democratic president subject to the <a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a>, which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> Cleveland resisted the Senate's attempts to enforce the act, and invoked <a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">executive privilege</a> in refusing to hand over documents related to appointments. Despite criticism from reformers like Carl Schurz, Cleveland's stance proved popular with the public. Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/George_Frisbie_Hoar" class="mw-redirect" title="George Frisbie Hoar">George Frisbie Hoar</a> proposed a bill to repeal the Tenure of Office Act, and Cleveland signed the repeal into law in March 1887.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[c]</a> In 1889, Cleveland signed into law a bill that elevated the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">Department of Agriculture</a> to the cabinet level, and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Jay_Coleman" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Jay Coleman">Norman Jay Coleman</a> became the first <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">United States Secretary of Agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-deptofag-34">[31]</a> Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of Western lands they held by government grant.<a href="#cite_note-rrgrants-35">[32]</a> Secretary of the Interior Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements.<a href="#cite_note-rrgrants-35">[32]</a> The lands were forfeited, resulting in the return of approximately 81,000,000 acres (330,000 km2).<a href="#cite_note-rrgrants-35">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interstate_Commerce_Act">Interstate Commerce Act</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Interstate Commerce Act">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstate Commerce Act">Interstate Commerce Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a></div> During the 1880s, public support for the regulation of railroads grew because of anger over anti-competitive railroad practices such as "discrimination," in which the railroads charged different rates to different clients.<a href="#cite_note-White,_pp._582–586-36">[33]</a> Though often critical of the business practices of railroad magnates like <a href="/wiki/Jay_Gould" title="Jay Gould">Jay Gould</a>, Cleveland was generally reluctant to involve the federal government in regulatory matters. Despite this reluctance, after the Supreme Court's holding in the 1886 case of <a href="/wiki/Wabash,_St._Louis_%26_Pacific_Railway_Co._v._Illinois" title="Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois">Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois</a> severely limited the power of states to regulate interstate commerce, Cleveland assented to legislation providing for federal oversight of railroads. In 1887, he signed the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a> (ICC), a five-member commission tasked with investigating railroad practices. The ICC was charged with helping to ensure that the railroads charged fair rates, but the power to determine whether rates were fair was assigned to the courts.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> In addition to creating the ICC, the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 required railroads to publicly post rates and made the practice of <a href="/wiki/Railroad_pool" title="Railroad pool">railroad pooling</a> illegal.<a href="#cite_note-White,_pp._582–586-36">[33]</a> The act was the first federal law to regulate private industry in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> and the ICC was the first <a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">independent agency</a> of the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> The Interstate Commerce Act had only a modest effect on railroad practices, as talented railroad lawyers and a conservative judiciary limited the impact of the various provisions of the law.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vetoes">Vetoes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vetoes">edit</a>]</div> Cleveland used the <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_vetoes" title="List of United States presidential vetoes">veto</a> far more often than any president up to that time.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the <a href="/wiki/Pension_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pension Bureau">Pension Bureau</a>, Congress should not attempt to override that decision.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> When Congress, pressured by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a>, passed <a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_Disability_Pension_Act" title="Dependent and Disability Pension Act">a bill granting pensions</a> for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well-known veto, of the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Seed_Bill" title="Texas Seed Bill">Texas Seed Bill</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nevins331-44">[41]</a> A severe drought had devastated many in Texas, with some numbers suggesting that 85% of cattle died in the western part of the state. Many farmers themselves were on the brink of starvation as a result of the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Congress, in response, appropriated $10,000 to purchase seed grain for farmers there.<a href="#cite_note-nevins331-44">[41]</a> Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>, and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support the people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monetary_policy">Monetary policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monetary policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_monetary_policy_in_the_United_States" title="History of monetary policy in the United States">History of monetary policy in the United States</a></div> One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by <a href="/wiki/Bimetallism" title="Bimetallism">gold and silver</a>, or by <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold alone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> The issue cut across party lines, with Western Republicans and Southern Democrats joining in the call for the <a href="/wiki/Free_silver" title="Free silver">free coinage of silver</a>, and both parties' representatives in the Northeast favoring the gold standard.<a href="#cite_note-nevins201-48">[45]</a> Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply.<a href="#cite_note-nevins201-48">[45]</a> Bimetallism tended to result in inflation, which in turn made it easier for debtors to pay off their loans and increased agricultural prices. It was thus popular in many agrarian states.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_117–119-49">[46]</a> Cleveland saw monetary policy as both an economic and moral issue; he thought that adherence to the gold standard would ensure a stable currency, and also felt that those who had extended loans should not be penalized by rising inflation.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_117–119-49">[46]</a> Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Manning tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the <a href="/wiki/Bland%E2%80%93Allison_Act" title="Bland–Allison Act">Bland–Allison Act</a> of 1878.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> Cleveland also unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he was inaugurated.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> In reply, one of the foremost silverites, <a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Bland" title="Richard P. Bland">Richard P. Bland</a>, introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then-deflating currency.<a href="#cite_note-nevins273-52">[49]</a> While Bland's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement.<a href="#cite_note-nevins273-52">[49]</a> The result was a retention of the status quo, and a postponement of the resolution of the Free Silver issue.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tariffs">Tariffs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tariffs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">Tariffs in United States history</a></div> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left;">When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise, with only such deduction as may be his share toward the careful and economical maintenance of the Government which protects him, it is plain that the exaction of more than this is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice ... The public Treasury, which should only exist as a conduit conveying the people's tribute to its legitimate objects of expenditure, becomes a hoarding place for money needlessly withdrawn from trade and the people's use, thus crippling our national energies, suspending our country's development, preventing investment in productive enterprise, threatening financial disturbance, and inviting schemes of public plunder. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">-- Cleveland's third annual message to Congress, December 6, 1887.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> American tariff rates had increased dramatically during the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> Cleveland had not campaigned on the tariff in the 1884 election, but his cabinet, like most Democrats, were sympathetic to calls for lower tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-graff8587-56">[53]</a> Cleveland's opposition to protective tariffs was rooted in his belief that they unfairly benefited certain industries, and unfairly taxed consumers, by raising prices.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> Republicans, by contrast, generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries from foreign competitors.<a href="#cite_note-nevins280-58">[55]</a> Cleveland recommended a reduction of the tariff as part of his first two annual messages to Congress, and he devoted the entirety of his 1887 annual message to tariff reduction.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Cleveland warned that the budget surpluses caused by the high tariffs would lead to a financial crisis.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> Despite Cleveland's advocacy, no major tariff bill passed during Cleveland's first presidency. In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> Republicans, as well as protectionist Northern Democrats like <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Samuel J. Randall</a>, believed that American industries would fail absent high tariffs, and continued to fight efforts to lower tariffs.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Q._Mills" title="Roger Q. Mills">Roger Q. Mills</a>, chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47% to about 40%.<a href="#cite_note-graff88-63">[60]</a> After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House.<a href="#cite_note-graff88-63">[60]</a> Senate Republicans countered by introducing the <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Blair" title="Henry W. Blair">Blair</a> Education Bill, which would have granted federal educational aid to states based on illiteracy rates. The bill passed the Senate with the support of many Southern Democrats, whose constituents benefited disproportionately from the bill. The Senate refused to pass the Mills Tariff, while the House refused to pass the Blair Education Bill.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> Debate over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy,_1885–1889">Foreign policy, 1885–1889</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Foreign policy, 1885–1889">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897</a></div> Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to support the Frelinghuysen-Zavala Treaty, negotiated by the <a href="/wiki/Lame_duck_(politics)" title="Lame duck (politics)">lame duck</a> Arthur Administration, which would have allowed the United States to build a <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> connecting the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> He did, however, see the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> as an important plank of foreign policy, and he sought to protect American hegemony in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> Secretary of State Bayard negotiated with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Chamberlain" title="Joseph Chamberlain">Joseph Chamberlain</a> of Great Britain over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck a conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England's Republican senators.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference treaty</a>, which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">the Congo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wealth-71">[68]</a> Cleveland's presidency saw the start of the <a href="/wiki/Samoan_crisis" title="Samoan crisis">Samoan crisis</a> between the U.S., <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, and Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> Each of those nations had signed a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Samoan_Islands" title="Samoan Islands">Samoa</a> under which they were allowed to engage in trade and maintain a naval base, but Cleveland feared that the Germans sought to annex Samoa after the Germans attempted to remove <a href="/wiki/Malietoa_Laupepa" title="Malietoa Laupepa">Malietoa Laupepa</a> as the monarch of Samoa in favor of <a href="/wiki/Tupua_Tamasese" title="Tupua Tamasese">Tuiātua Tupua Tamasese Titimaea</a>. The U.S. encouraged another claimant to the throne, <a href="/wiki/Mata%27afa_Iosefo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mata'afa Iosefo">Mata'afa Iosefo</a>, to rebel against Malietoa, and in doing so Mata'afa's forces killed a contingent of German naval guards. German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_Von_Bismarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Von Bismarck">Otto Von Bismarck</a> threatened a retaliatory war, but Germany backed down in the face of American and British resistance. In a subsequent conference that took place shortly after Cleveland left office, the United States, Germany, and Britain agreed to make Samoa a <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">joint protectorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_policy,_1885–1889">Military policy, 1885–1889</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Military policy, 1885–1889">edit</a>]</div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 220px; height: 250px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -70px; left: -47px; width: 315px"><div class="noresize"><a href="/wiki/File:CLEVELAND,_Grover-President_(BEP_engraved_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="BEP engraved portrait of Cleveland as President." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/315px-CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="315" height="407" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/473px-CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg/630px-CLEVELAND%2C_Grover-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7912" data-file-height="10213" /></a></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CLEVELAND,_Grover-President_(BEP_engraved_portrait).jpg" title="File:CLEVELAND, Grover-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg"> </a></div><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Engraving_and_Printing" title="Bureau of Engraving and Printing">BEP</a> engraved portrait of Cleveland as President. </div> </div> </div> Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland established the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Fortifications" title="Board of Fortifications">Board of Fortifications</a> under Secretary of War Endicott to recommend a new <a href="/wiki/Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States" title="Seacoast defense in the United States">coastal fortification</a> system for the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._9-10-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-cdsg.org-76">[73]</a> No improvements to U.S. coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> The board's 1886 report recommended a massive $127 million construction program at 29 <a href="/wiki/Harbor_Defense_Command" title="Harbor Defense Command">harbors and river estuaries</a>, to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and <a href="/wiki/Submarine_mines_in_United_States_harbor_defense" title="Submarine mines in United States harbor defense">naval minefields</a>. Most of the board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> Secretary of the Navy Whitney promoted the modernization of the Navy, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships. Construction of four steel-hulled warships that had begun under the Arthur administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, but these ships were completed in a timely manner once the investigation was over.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> Sixteen additional steel-hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> of 1898, and many served in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. These ships included the "second-class battleships" <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)" title="USS Maine (1889)">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(1892)" title="USS Texas (1892)">Texas</a>, which were designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe. Eleven <a href="/wiki/Protected_cruiser" title="Protected cruiser">protected cruisers</a> (including <a href="/wiki/USS_Olympia_(C-6)" title="USS Olympia (C-6)">Olympia</a>), one <a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">armored cruiser</a>, and one <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">monitor</a> were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser <a href="/wiki/USS_Vesuvius_(1888)" title="USS Vesuvius (1888)">Vesuvius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_rights_and_immigration">Civil rights and immigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Civil rights and immigration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era</a></div> Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners (and nearly all white Southerners), believed that <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era of the United States">Reconstruction</a> had been a failed experiment. He was unwilling to use federal power to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a>, which guaranteed voting rights to <a href="/wiki/African-Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="African-Americans">African-Americans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-welch65-83">[80]</a> Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> to continue in his post as <a href="/wiki/Recorder_of_deeds" title="Recorder of deeds">recorder of deeds</a> in Washington, D.C. and appointed another black man to replace Douglass upon his resignation.<a href="#cite_note-welch65-83">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HenryLDawes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/HenryLDawes.jpg/170px-HenryLDawes.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/HenryLDawes.jpg/255px-HenryLDawes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/HenryLDawes.jpg/340px-HenryLDawes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4873" data-file-height="5375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Dawes" title="Henry L. Dawes">Henry L. Dawes</a> wrote the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a>, which Cleveland signed into law.</figcaption></figure> Cleveland generally did not embrace <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativism</a> or immigration restrictions, but he believed that the purpose of immigration was to attract immigrants who would <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilate</a> into American society. Early in his tenure, Cleveland condemned "outrages" against Chinese immigrants, but he eventually came to believe that the deep animosity towards Chinese immigrants in the United States would prevent their assimilation. Secretary of State Bayard negotiated an extension to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a>, and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act</a>, written by Congressman <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Scott" title="William Lawrence Scott">William Lawrence Scott</a>, which prevented the return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States. The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law in October 1888.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_policy">Indian policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indian policy">edit</a>]</div> Approximately 250,000 <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> lived in the United States when Cleveland took office, a dramatic decline from previous decades.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> Cleveland viewed Native Americans as <a href="/wiki/Wards_of_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Wards of the state">wards of the state</a>, saying in his first inaugural address that "[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights."<a href="#cite_note-welch70-86">[83]</a> Cleveland encouraged the idea of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">cultural assimilation</a>, pushing for the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a>, which provided for distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes, rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-welch70-86">[83]</a> While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society, but it ultimately weakened the tribal governments because it allowed individual Indians to sell tribal land and keep the money for themselves.<a href="#cite_note-welch70-86">[83]</a> Between 1881 and 1900, the total land held by Native Americans fell from 155 million acres to 77 million acres.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> In the month before Cleveland's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of <a href="/wiki/Winnebago_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Winnebago (tribe)">Winnebago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crow_Creek_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Creek Reservation">Crow Creek</a> Indian lands in the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a> to white settlement by executive order.<a href="#cite_note-B141-89">[86]</a> Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them.<a href="#cite_note-B141-89">[86]</a> Cleveland believed Arthur's order to be in violation of treaties with the tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory.<a href="#cite_note-B141-89">[86]</a> Cleveland sent in eighteen <a href="/wiki/Company_(military_unit)" title="Company (military unit)">companies</a> of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a>, at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter.<a href="#cite_note-B141-89">[86]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg/150px-Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg/225px-Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg/300px-Melville_Weston_Fuller_Chief_Justice_1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="1485" /></a><figcaption>Chief Justice Melville Fuller</figcaption></figure> During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>. After Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">William Burnham Woods</a> died, Cleveland nominated Interior Secretary Lucius Q.C. Lamar to the Supreme Court in late 1887. While Lamar had been well-liked as a Senator, his service under the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a> two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him. Lamar's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> died in March 1888, and Cleveland nominated <a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> to fill his seat. Though Fuller had previously declined Cleveland's nomination to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service Commission">Civil Service Commission</a>, he accepted the nomination to the Supreme Court. The <a href="/wiki/Senate_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Judiciary Committee">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> spent several months examining the little-known nominee, before the Senate confirmed the nomination 41 to 20.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-nevins445-92">[89]</a> Fuller served as Chief Justice until 1910, presiding over <a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">a court</a> that inaugurated the <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ely1-93">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1888">Election of 1888</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Election of 1888">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1888.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/300px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/450px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/ElectoralCollege1888.svg/600px-ElectoralCollege1888.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Results of the 1888 Election</figcaption></figure> With little opposition, Cleveland won re-nomination at the <a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">1888 Democratic National Convention</a>, making him the first Democratic president to win re-nomination since <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> in <a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840</a>. Vice President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Hendricks</a> having died in 1885, the Democrats chose <a href="/wiki/Allen_G._Thurman" title="Allen G. Thurman">Allen G. Thurman</a> of Ohio to be Cleveland's new running mate.<a href="#cite_note-graff90-94">[91]</a> Former Senator <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">John Sherman</a> and several other candidates to win the presidential nomination of the <a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 Republican National Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North.<a href="#cite_note-nevins418-96">[93]</a> Democrats in the crucial swing state of New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of <a href="/wiki/David_B._Hill" title="David B. Hill">David B. Hill</a>, weakening Cleveland's support.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign, as Cleveland's campaign was poorly managed by <a href="/wiki/Calvin_S._Brice" title="Calvin S. Brice">Calvin S. Brice</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_H._Barnum" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Barnum">William H. Barnum</a>, whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay" title="Matthew Quay">Matt Quay</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Wanamaker" title="John Wanamaker">John Wanamaker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> The Cleveland campaign was further damaged by the desertion of many Mugwumps, who were disappointed by the lack of far-reaching civil service reforms.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> As in 1884, the election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana. Cleveland won every state he had carried in 1884 except for Indiana and his home state of New York, both of which were narrowly won by Harrison.<a href="#cite_note-leip1888-100">[97]</a> Though Cleveland won the nationwide popular vote by a margin of 0.8%, the loss of his home state's 36 electoral votes denied him re-election.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> Republicans also won control of the House of Representatives, giving the party control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1875.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> Cleveland's loss made him the first incumbent president since Van Buren to be defeated in the general election.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Election_of_1892">Election of 1892</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Election of 1892">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1892_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign">Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 United States presidential election</a></div> After his loss in the 1888 election, Cleveland returned to New York, where he resumed his legal career.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> Cleveland established himself as a contender for the 1892 nomination with his February 1891 "Silver Letter," in which he deplored the rising strength of the Free Silver movement in the Democratic Party.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> Cleveland's chief opponent for the nomination was David B. Hill, now a Senator for New York.<a href="#cite_note-nevins470-106">[103]</a> Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination, and Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot of the <a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-nevins470-106">[103]</a> For vice president, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Adlai Stevenson I</a> of Illinois, a silverite.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Although the Cleveland forces preferred <a href="/wiki/Isaac_P._Gray" title="Isaac P. Gray">Isaac P. Gray</a> of Indiana for vice president, they accepted the convention favorite.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> As a supporter of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Note" title="United States Note">greenbacks</a> and Free Silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts, Stevenson balanced the otherwise <a href="/wiki/Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">hard-money</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold-standard</a> ticket headed by Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> The Republicans re-nominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1892.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/300px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/450px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/ElectoralCollege1892.svg/600px-ElectoralCollege1892.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Results of the <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 election</a></figcaption></figure> The issue of the tariff worked to the Republicans' advantage in 1888, but the legislative revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> Many Westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to <a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">James Weaver</a>, the candidate of the new <a href="/wiki/Populist_Party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Populist Party (United States)">Populist Party</a>. Weaver promised Free Silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">eight-hour work day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> At the campaign's end, many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland after an attempt by the Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Strike">Homestead Strike</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> The Tammany Hall Democrats, meanwhile, adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic Party to carry New York.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> Cleveland won 46% of the popular vote and 62.4% of the electoral vote, becoming the first of only two Presidents to win non-consecutive presidential terms. Harrison won 43% of the popular vote and 32.7% of the electoral vote, while Weaver won 8.5% of the popular vote and the votes of several presidential electors from Western states.<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> Cleveland swept the Solid South, won the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut, and surprised many observers by also taking Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana.<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> In the concurrent <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1892" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1892">congressional elections</a>, Democrats retained control of the House and won control of the Senate, giving the party unified <a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">control</a> of Congress and the presidency for the first time since the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> Cleveland's victory made him the second individual to win the popular vote in three presidential elections, alongside <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-threestraight-119">[d]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_presidency_(1893–1897)">Second presidency (1893–1897)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Second presidency (1893–1897)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Cleveland was sworn into office</a> as the 24th president of the United States on March 4, 1893. That same day, Stevenson was sworn in as vice president. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration_2">Administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Appointments_2">Appointments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Appointments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png/360px-Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png/540px-Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png/720px-Cleveland_Second_Cabinet.png 2x" data-file-width="1019" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland's second Cabinet. Front row, left to right: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_S._Lamont" title="Daniel S. Lamont">Daniel S. Lamont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Olney" title="Richard Olney">Richard Olney</a>, Cleveland, <a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">John G. Carlisle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judson_Harmon" title="Judson Harmon">Judson Harmon</a> Back row, left to right: <a href="/wiki/David_R._Francis" title="David R. Francis">David R. Francis</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Lyne_Wilson" title="William Lyne Wilson">William L. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_A._Herbert" title="Hilary A. Herbert">Hilary A. Herbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_S._Morton" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius S. Morton">Julius S. Morton</a> </figcaption></figure> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:0; margin-right:0; float:none; clear:none;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Second Cleveland cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold">Grover Cleveland</th><td>1893–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Adlai Stevenson I</a></th><td>1893–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Q._Gresham" title="Walter Q. Gresham">Walter Q. Gresham</a></th><td>1893–1895</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Olney" title="Richard Olney">Richard Olney</a></th><td>1895–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">John G. Carlisle</a></th><td>1893–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_S._Lamont" title="Daniel S. Lamont">Daniel S. Lamont</a></th><td>1893–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Olney" title="Richard Olney">Richard Olney</a></th><td>1893–1895</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Judson_Harmon" title="Judson Harmon">Judson Harmon</a></th><td>1895–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Wilson_S._Bissell" title="Wilson S. Bissell">Wilson S. Bissell</a></th><td>1893–1895</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_Lyne_Wilson" title="William Lyne Wilson">William Lyne Wilson</a></th><td>1895–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Hilary_A._Herbert" title="Hilary A. Herbert">Hilary A. Herbert</a></th><td>1893–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Hoke_Smith" title="Hoke Smith">Hoke Smith</a></th><td>1893–1896</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/David_R._Francis" title="David R. Francis">David R. Francis</a></th><td>1896–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Sterling_Morton" title="Julius Sterling Morton">Julius Sterling Morton</a></th><td>1893–1897</td></tr></tbody></table> In assembling his second cabinet, Cleveland avoided re-appointing the cabinet members of his first term. Two long-time Cleveland loyalists, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_S._Lamont" title="Daniel S. Lamont">Daniel S. Lamont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilson_S._Bissell" title="Wilson S. Bissell">Wilson S. Bissell</a>, joined the cabinet as Secretary of War and Postmaster General, respectively. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Q._Gresham" title="Walter Q. Gresham">Walter Q. Gresham</a>, a former Republican who had served in President Arthur's cabinet, became Secretary of State. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Olney" title="Richard Olney">Richard Olney</a> of Massachusetts was appointed as Attorney General, and he succeeded Gresham as Secretary of State after the latter's death. Former Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">John G. Carlisle</a> of Kentucky became the Secretary of the Treasury.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Anders_Leonard_Zorn_-_Grover_Cleveland_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4281" data-file-height="5849" /></a><figcaption>Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by <a href="/wiki/Anders_Zorn" title="Anders Zorn">Anders Zorn</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cancer">Cancer</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> In 1893, Cleveland underwent oral surgery to remove a tumor. Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression.<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> The surgeons operated aboard the <a href="/wiki/USS_Adelante_(SP-765)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Adelante (SP-765)">Oneida</a>, a yacht owned by Cleveland's friend <a href="/wiki/Elias_Cornelius_Benedict" title="Elias Cornelius Benedict">E. C. Benedict</a>, as it sailed off <a href="/wiki/Long_Island" title="Long Island">Long Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[119]</a> The surgery was conducted through the president's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery.<a href="#cite_note-nevins530-124">[120]</a> The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth disfigured.<a href="#cite_note-nevins532-125">[121]</a> During another surgery, Cleveland was fitted with a hard rubber dental prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance.<a href="#cite_note-nevins532-125">[121]</a> A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated.<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> Cleveland's operation would not be revealed to the public until 1917.<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_panic_and_the_silver_issue">Economic panic and the silver issue</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Economic panic and the silver issue">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg/220px-Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg/330px-Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg/440px-Grover_Cleveland_and_Wilson-Gorman_Tariff_Cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland's humiliation by Gorman and the sugar trust</figcaption></figure> Shortly after Cleveland's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and the Cleveland administration faced an acute <a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">economic depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Graff,_114-128">[124]</a> The panic was sparked by the collapse of the overleveraged <a href="/wiki/Reading_Company" title="Reading Company">Philadelphia and Reading Railroad</a>, but several underlying issues contributed to the start of a severe economic crisis. European credit played a major role in the U.S. economy during the <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a>, and European investors often infused cash into the economy. However, international investor confidence had been damaged by a <a href="/wiki/Baring_crisis" title="Baring crisis">financial crisis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, which had nearly caused the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Barings_Bank" title="Barings Bank">Barings Bank</a>. Combined with poor economic conditions in Europe, the Argentinian financial crisis led many European investors to liquidate their American investments. Further exacerbating the economy was the poor <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> crop in the U.S. in 1892, as the export of cotton often infused the U.S. economy with European cash and credit. These factors combined to leave the U.S. financial system with insufficient financial resources, and, as the U.S. lacked a <a href="/wiki/History_of_central_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of central banking in the United States">central banking system</a>, the federal government had little control over the money supply. One of the first clear signs of financial crisis came on February 20, 1893, twelve days prior to Cleveland's inauguration, when receivers were appointed for the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_and_Reading_Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia and Reading Railroad">Philadelphia and Reading Railroad</a>, which had greatly overextended itself.<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> President Harrison and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Foster_(Ohio_politician)" title="Charles Foster (Ohio politician)">Charles Foster</a> ignored the urging of individuals such as <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Morgan">J.P. Morgan</a> to take steps to reassure investors.<a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a> Instead, Harrison reassured Congress that there was no cause for concern.<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> Thus the crisis was laid at Cleveland's feet. Republicans would ultimately go on to subsequently blame Cleveland for causing the economic downturn that he had, in actuality, inherited from the Republican Harrison.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg/220px-It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg/330px-It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg/440px-It_can_not_pass_while_he_is_there_-_Dalrymple._LCCN2012648637.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of Cleveland as anti-silver.</figcaption></figure> As panic spread following the collapse of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, a May 1893 <a href="/wiki/Bank_run" title="Bank run">bank run</a> throughout the nation left the financial system with even less resources.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> Cleveland believed that bimetallism encouraged the hoarding of gold<a href="#cite_note-Graff,_114-128">[124]</a> and discouraged investment from European financiers.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> He argued that adopting the gold standard would alleviate the economic crisis by providing a <a href="/wiki/Hard_currency" title="Hard currency">hard currency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Graff,_114-128">[124]</a> Seeking to repeal the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a> and end the coinage of silver-based currency, Cleveland called a special session of Congress, to begin in August 1893.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_117–119-49">[46]</a> The silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin.<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> In the Senate, the repeal of silver coinage was equally contentious. Cleveland, forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal, cajoled several Senate Democrats to support repeal.<a href="#cite_note-tugwell192195-137">[133]</a> Many Senate Democrats favored a middle course between the silverites and Cleveland, but Cleveland squashed their attempts to produce a compromise bill.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_117–119-49">[46]</a> A combination of Democrats and eastern Republicans ultimately supported the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, and the repeal bill passed the Senate by a 48–37 majority.<a href="#cite_note-tugwell192195-137">[133]</a> Depletion of the Treasury's gold reserves continued, at a lesser rate, but subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_126–127-138">[134]</a> At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency.<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> Contrary to the administration's claims during the debate over the repeal bill, the repeal failed to restore investor confidence.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a> Hundreds of banks and other businesses failed, and 25 percent of the nation's railroads were in receivership by 1895.<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> Unemployment rates rose above 20 percent in much of the country, while those who were able to remain employed experienced significant wage cuts.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> The economic panic also caused a drastic reduction in government revenue. In 1894, with the government in danger of being unable to meet its expenditures, Cleveland convinced a group led by financier <a href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan" title="J. P. Morgan">J. P. Morgan</a> to purchase sixty million dollars in U.S. bonds. The deal resulted in an infusion of gold into the economy, allowing for the continuation of the gold standard, but Cleveland was widely criticized for relying on <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a> bankers to keep the government running.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> Poor economic conditions persisted throughout Cleveland's second term, and unemployment levels rose in late 1895 and 1896.<a href="#cite_note-Welch,_126–127-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_unrest">Labor unrest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Labor unrest">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coxey's_Army">Coxey's Army</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Coxey's Army">edit</a>]</div> The Panic of 1893 damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers.<a href="#cite_note-coxey-144">[140]</a> A group of workingmen led by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_S._Coxey" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob S. Coxey">Jacob S. Coxey</a> began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland's policies.<a href="#cite_note-coxey-144">[140]</a> This group, known as <a href="/wiki/Coxey%27s_Army" title="Coxey's Army">Coxey's Army</a>, agitated in favor of a national roadbuilding program to give jobs to workingmen, and a bimetallist currency to help farmers pay their debts.<a href="#cite_note-coxey-144">[140]</a> The march began with just 122 participants, but, in a sign of its national prominence, was covered by 44 assigned reporters. Numerous individuals joined Coxey's Army along its route, and many who sought to join the march hijacked railroads. Upon arriving in Washington, the marchers were dispersed by the U.S. Army and then prosecuted for demonstrating in front of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</a>. Coxey himself returned to Ohio to unsuccessfully run for Congress as a member of the Populist Party in the 1894 elections.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> Though Coxey's Army did not present a serious threat to the government, it signaled a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pullman_Strike">Pullman Strike</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pullman Strike">edit</a>]</div> As railroads suffered from declining profits, they cut wages to workers; by April 1894, the average railroad worker's pay had declined by over 25 percent since the start of 1893. Led by <a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Railway_Union" title="American Railway Union">American Railway Union</a> (ARU) organized strikes against the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Pacific_Railway" title="Northern Pacific Railway">Northern Pacific Railway</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad" title="Union Pacific Railroad">Union Pacific Railroad</a>. The strikes soon spread to other industries, including the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Company" title="Pullman Company">Pullman Company</a>. After <a href="/wiki/George_Pullman" title="George Pullman">George Pullman</a> refused to negotiate with the ARU and laid off workers involved with the union, the ARU refused to service any railroad car constructed by the Pullman Company, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce.<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a> Because the railroads carried the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Postal_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Postal Service">mail</a>, and because several of the affected lines were in <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States" title="Bankruptcy in the United States">federal receivership</a>, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate.<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> He was urged to act by Attorney General Olney, a former railroad attorney who worked with railroad interests to destroy the ARU.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a> Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers.<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago", he proclaimed, "that card will be delivered."<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> Governor <a href="/wiki/John_P._Altgeld" class="mw-redirect" title="John P. Altgeld">John P. Altgeld</a> of Illinois angrily protested Cleveland's deployment of troops, arguing that Cleveland had usurped the <a href="/wiki/Police_power_(United_States_constitutional_law)" title="Police power (United States constitutional law)">police power</a> of state governments.<a href="#cite_note-Welch145-153">[149]</a> Though <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> had set a precedent for using federal soldiers in labor disputes, Cleveland was the first president to deploy soldiers in a labor dispute without the invitation of a state governor.<a href="#cite_note-Welch145-153">[149]</a> Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration.<a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> Cleveland's actions would be upheld by the Supreme Court in the case of <a href="/wiki/In_re_Debs" title="In re Debs">In re Debs</a>, which sanctioned the president's right to intervene in labor disputes that affected interstate commerce.<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> The outcome of the Pullman Strike, combined with the administration's <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._E._C._Knight_Co." title="United States v. E. C. Knight Co.">weak anti-trust prosecution</a> against the <a href="/wiki/American_Sugar_Refining_Company" title="American Sugar Refining Company">American Sugar Refining Company</a>, made many believe that Cleveland was a tool of big business.<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tariff_frustrations">Tariff frustrations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Tariff frustrations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg/220px-Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg/330px-Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg/440px-Cleveland_Tariffs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>Cleveland, portrayed as a tariff reformer</figcaption></figure> The McKinley Tariff was the centerpiece of Republican policy, but Democrats attacked it for raising consumer prices.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a> Democrats believed their victory in the 1892 election gave them a mandate to lower tariff rates, and Democratic leaders made tariff reduction a key priority after Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Act.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> West Virginian Representative <a href="/wiki/William_Lyne_Wilson" title="William Lyne Wilson">William L. Wilson</a> introduced a tariff reduction bill, co-written with Cleveland administration, in December 1893.<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials.<a href="#cite_note-nevins564-160">[156]</a> The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> of two percent on income above $4,000,<a href="#cite_note-nevins564-160">[156]</a> equivalent to $136,000 today<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-161">[157]</a>. Corporate profits, gifts, and inheritances would also be taxed at a two percent rate.<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> The bill would restore the federal income tax for the first time since the 1870s; supporters of the income tax believed that it would help reduce <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> and shift the burden of taxation to the wealthy.<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a> Wilson and the Cleveland administration were ambivalent about the income tax, but it was included in the bill due to the efforts of Congressmen <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benton_McMillin" title="Benton McMillin">Benton McMillin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> The bill was next considered in the Senate, where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Pue_Gorman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Pue Gorman">Arthur Pue Gorman</a> of Maryland, who insisted on more protection for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed.<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a> The bill passed the Senate with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms. The <a href="/wiki/American_Sugar_Refining_Company" title="American Sugar Refining Company">Sugar Trust</a> in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer.<a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> Despite strong conservative opposition to the income tax, it remained in the bill, partly because many senators believed that the Supreme Court would eventually declare the tax to be unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> After extensive debate, the Senate passed the Wilson–Gorman tariff bill in July 1894 in a 39-to-34 vote.<a href="#cite_note-welch134135-169">[165]</a> Wilson and Cleveland attempted to restore some of lower rates of the original House bill, but the House voted to enact the Senate version of the bill in August 1894.<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> The final bill lowered average tariff rates from 49 percent to 42 percent.<a href="#cite_note-welch134135-169">[165]</a> Cleveland was outraged with the final bill and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests. His main issue was thus ruined. Even so, he believed that the <a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a> was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature.<a href="#cite_note-nevins564a-171">[167]</a> The personal income tax included in the tariff was struck down by the Supreme Court in the 1895 case, <a href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co." title="Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_rights">Civil rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Civil rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_t_morgan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/John_t_morgan.jpg/170px-John_t_morgan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/John_t_morgan.jpg/255px-John_t_morgan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/John_t_morgan.jpg/340px-John_t_morgan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Tyler Morgan">John T. Morgan</a> opposed Cleveland on several issues, saying of Cleveland that "I hate the ground that man walks on."<a href="#cite_note-173">[169]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the <a href="/wiki/Lodge_Bill" title="Lodge Bill">Lodge Bill</a>,<a href="#cite_note-174">[170]</a> which would have strengthened <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">voting rights protections</a> through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district. Once in office, he continued to oppose any federal effort to protect voting rights. The <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforcement Act of 1871">Enforcement Act of 1871</a> provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral process, from registration to the certification of returns, but in 1894 Cleveland signed a repeal of this law.<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> Cleveland approved of the 1896 Supreme Court decision of <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a>, which recognized the constitutionality of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> under the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-jbhe1-176">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[e]</a> With the Supreme Court and the federal government both unwilling to intervene to protect the suffrage of African-Americans, Southern states continued to pass numerous <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">effectively denying suffrage</a> to many African Americans through a combination of <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy tests">literacy</a> and comprehension tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements.<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Perman_2001-178">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-jbhe1-176">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1894_elections">1894 elections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 1894 elections">edit</a>]</div> Just before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1894" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1894">1894 election</a>, Cleveland was warned by Francis Lynde Stetson, an advisor: <blockquote>We are on the eve of [a] very dark night, unless a return of commercial prosperity relieves popular discontent with what they believe [is] Democratic incompetence to make laws, and consequently [discontent] with Democratic Administrations anywhere and everywhere.<a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a></blockquote> The warning was appropriate, for in the Congressional elections, Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House. Democrats experienced losses everywhere outside of the South, where the party fended off the Populist challenge to their dominance. The Populists increased their share of the national vote but lost control of Western states such as Kansas and Colorado to the Republicans.<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a> Cleveland's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan, and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states. Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland's allies. The Democratic opposition were close to controlling two-thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate.<a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> For the last two years of his term, Cleveland faced a Republican-controlled Congress, and the remaining Democrats in Congress consisted largely of agrarian-oriented Southerners who held little allegiance to Cleveland.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy,_1893–1897">Foreign policy, 1893–1897</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Foreign policy, 1893–1897">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela_Crisis_of_1895" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuela Crisis of 1895">Venezuela Crisis of 1895</a></div> <table class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left;">I suppose that right and justice should determine the path to be followed in treating this subject. If national honesty is to be disregarded and a desire for territorial expansion or dissatisfaction with a form of government not our own ought to regulate our conduct, I have entirely misapprehended the mission and character of our government and the behavior which the conscience of the people demands of their public servants. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">-- Cleveland's message to Congress on the Hawaiian question, December 18, 1893.<a href="#cite_note-nevins560-183">[178]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> When Cleveland re-entered office, he faced the question of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaiian</a> annexation. In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wealth-71">[68]</a> In the intervening four years, <a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a> businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen <a href="/wiki/Liliuokalani" class="mw-redirect" title="Liliuokalani">Liliuokalani</a> as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government. In early 1893 they engineered the <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom">overthrow of the monarchy</a>, set up a republic under <a href="/wiki/Sanford_B._Dole" title="Sanford B. Dole">Sanford B. Dole</a>, and sought to join the United States. The Harrison administration quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation, which was submitted it to the Senate for ratification on February 15, 1893.<a href="#cite_note-nevins549-184">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-PSQ1997-185">[180]</a> On March 9, five days after taking office, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate. His biographer Alyn Brodsky argues it was a deeply personal opposition on Cleveland's part to what he saw as an immoral action against a little kingdom: <dl><dd>Just as he stood up for the Samoan Islands against Germany because he opposed the conquest of a lesser state by a greater one, so did he stand up for the Hawaiian Islands against his own nation. He could have let the annexation of Hawaii move inexorably to its inevitable culmination. But he opted for confrontation, which he hated, as it was to him the only way a weak and defenseless people might retain their independence. It was not the idea of annexation that Grover Cleveland opposed, but the idea of annexation as a pretext for illicit territorial acquisition.<a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a></dd></dl> Cleveland sent former Congressman <a href="/wiki/James_Henderson_Blount" title="James Henderson Blount">James Henderson Blount</a> to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there. Blount, a leader in the white supremacy movement in Georgia, had long denounced imperialism. Some observers speculated he would support annexation on grounds of the inability of Asiatics to govern themselves. Instead, Blount proposed that the U.S. military restore the Queen by force and argued that the Hawaiian natives should be allowed to continue their "Asiatic ways."<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a> Cleveland decided to restore the queen, but she refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu, and seize all of their properties. Dole's government refused to yield their position, and few Americans wanted to use armed force to overthrow a republican government in order to install an absolute monarch. In December 1893, Cleveland referred the issue to Congress; he encouraged the continuation of the American tradition of non-intervention. Dole had more support in Congress than the queen.<a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> Republicans warned that a completely independent Hawaii could not long survive the scramble for colonies. Most observers thought Japan would soon take it over, and indeed the population of Hawaii was already over 20 percent Japanese. The Japanese advance was worrisome especially on the West Coast.<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> The Senate, under Democratic control but opposed to Cleveland, commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Report" title="Morgan Report">Morgan Report</a>, which contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Hawaii" title="Republic of Hawaii">Republic of Hawaii</a>. In 1898, after Cleveland left office, the United States <a href="/wiki/Newlands_Resolution" title="Newlands Resolution">annexed</a> Hawaii.<a href="#cite_note-191">[186]</a> Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a <a href="/wiki/Olney_interpretation" title="Olney interpretation">broad interpretation</a> of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the Western Hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-wealth2-192">[187]</a> When Britain and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> disagreed over the boundary between Venezuela and the colony of <a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">British Guiana</a>, Cleveland and Secretary of State Olney protested.<a href="#cite_note-193">[188]</a> The British initially rejected the U.S. demand for an arbitration of the boundary dispute and rejected the validity and relevance of the Monroe Doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a> Ultimately, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Salisbury</a> decided that dispute over the boundary with Venezuela was not worth antagonizing the United States, and the British assented to arbitration.<a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a> A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.<a href="#cite_note-196">[191]</a> Seeking to extend arbitration to all disputes between the two countries, the United States and Britain agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Olney%E2%80%93Pauncefote_Treaty" title="Olney–Pauncefote Treaty">Olney–Pauncefote Treaty</a> in 1897, but the treaty fell three votes short of ratification in the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-197">[192]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuban War of Independence</a> began late in 1895 as Cuban rebels sought to break free from Spanish rule. The United States and Cuba enjoyed close trade relations, and humanitarian concerns led many Americans to demand intervention on the side of the rebels. Cleveland did not sympathize with the rebel cause and feared that an independent Cuba would ultimately fall to another European power. He issued a proclamation of neutrality in June 1895 and warned that he would stop any attempted <a href="/wiki/Filibuster_(military)" title="Filibuster (military)">intervention</a> by American adventurers.<a href="#cite_note-198">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_policy,_1893–1897">Military policy, 1893–1897</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Military policy, 1893–1897">edit</a>]</div> The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first, and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action. Construction continued on the Endicott program of <a href="/wiki/Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States" title="Seacoast defense in the United States">coastal fortifications</a> begun under Cleveland's first administration.<a href="#cite_note-Berhow,_pp._9-10-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-cdsg.org-76">[73]</a> The adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Krag%E2%80%93J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Krag–Jørgensen">Krag–Jørgensen</a> rifle, the U.S. Army's first bolt-action repeating rifle, was finalized.<a href="#cite_note-canfield-199">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-NMG-200">[195]</a> In 1895–96 <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of the Navy">Secretary of the Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_A._Herbert" title="Hilary A. Herbert">Hilary A. Herbert</a>, having recently adopted the aggressive naval strategy advocated by Captain <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a>, successfully proposed ordering five <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Kearsarge-class_battleship" title="Kearsarge-class battleship">Kearsarge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illinois-class_battleship" title="Illinois-class battleship">Illinois classes</a>) and sixteen <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat" title="Torpedo boat">torpedo boats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[197]</a> Completion of these ships nearly doubled the Navy's battleships and created a new torpedo boat force, which previously had only two boats. However, the battleships and seven of the torpedo boats were not completed until 1899–1901, after the Spanish–American War.<a href="#cite_note-203">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_appointments_2">Judicial appointments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland</a></div> Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Samuel Blatchford</a>, Cleveland nominated <a href="/wiki/William_B._Hornblower" title="William B. Hornblower">William B. Hornblower</a> to the Court.<a href="#cite_note-nevins569-204">[199]</a> Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy.<a href="#cite_note-nevins569-204">[199]</a> Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved.<a href="#cite_note-nevins569-204">[199]</a> The Senate rejected Hornblower's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 30 to 24.<a href="#cite_note-nevins569-204">[199]</a> Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next nominating <a href="/wiki/Wheeler_Hazard_Peckham" title="Wheeler Hazard Peckham">Wheeler Hazard Peckham</a>, another New York attorney who had opposed Hill's machine.<a href="#cite_note-nevins570-205">[200]</a> Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41.<a href="#cite_note-nevins570-205">[200]</a> Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Ren%C3%A9_Coudert_Sr." title="Frederic René Coudert Sr.">Frederic R. Coudert</a>, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of Senator <a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, whose nomination was accepted unanimously.<a href="#cite_note-nevins570-205">[200]</a> Later, in 1896, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated.<a href="#cite_note-nevins572-206">[201]</a> Instead, Cleveland nominated <a href="/wiki/Rufus_Wheeler_Peckham" class="mw-redirect" title="Rufus Wheeler Peckham">Rufus Wheeler Peckham</a>, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily.<a href="#cite_note-nevins572-206">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_of_1896">Election of 1896</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Election of 1896">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1896.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElectoralCollege1896.svg/300px-ElectoralCollege1896.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElectoralCollege1896.svg/450px-ElectoralCollege1896.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElectoralCollege1896.svg/600px-ElectoralCollege1896.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Results of the 1896 election</figcaption></figure> Cleveland attempted to counteract the growing strength of the Free Silver movement, but Southern Democrats joined with their Western allies in rejecting Cleveland's economic policies.<a href="#cite_note-207">[202]</a> The Panic of 1893 had destroyed Cleveland's popularity, even within his own party.<a href="#cite_note-208">[203]</a> Though Cleveland never publicly announced that he would not seek re-election, he had no intention of running for a third term. Cleveland's silence on a potential successor was damaging to his faction of the party, as Cleveland's conservative allies were unable to unify behind one candidate.<a href="#cite_note-209">[204]</a> Cleveland's agrarian and silverite enemies won control of the <a href="/wiki/1896_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1896 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a>, repudiated Cleveland's administration and the gold standard, and nominated <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Free_Silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Silver">Silver Platform</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[206]</a> Cleveland silently supported the <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="National Democratic Party (United States)">Gold Democrats'</a> third-party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government, and oppose high tariffs, but he declined the splinter group's offer to run for a third term.<a href="#cite_note-graff128129-212">[207]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1896_Republican_National_Convention" title="1896 Republican National Convention">1896 Republican National Convention</a> nominated former Governor <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> of Ohio. With the help of campaign manager <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Mark Hanna</a>, McKinley had emerged as the front-runner for the nomination long before the convention by building the support of Republican leaders throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-213">[208]</a> In the general election, McKinley hoped to please both farmers and business interests by not taking a clear position on monetary issues.<a href="#cite_note-214">[209]</a> He focused his campaign on attacking the Cleveland administration's handling of the economy, and argued that higher tariffs would restore prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-215">[210]</a> Many Populist leaders wanted to nominate Eugene Debs and campaign on the party's full range of proposed reforms, but the 1896 Populist convention instead nominated Bryan.<a href="#cite_note-216">[211]</a> Republicans portrayed Bryan and the Populists as social revolutionaries engaged in class warfare, while Bryan attacked McKinley as a tool of the rich.<a href="#cite_note-217">[212]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">1896 presidential election</a>, McKinley won a decisive victory over Bryan, taking 51% of the popular vote and 60.6% of the electoral vote. Though Bryan had campaigned heavily in the Midwest, Democratic divisions and the traditional Republican strength in the area helped McKinley win a majority of the states in the region. McKinley also swept the Northeast, while Bryan swept the Solid South.<a href="#cite_note-218">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_M._Palmer_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John M. Palmer (politician)">John Palmer</a>, the candidate of the Gold Democrats, took just under one percent of the popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-219">[214]</a> Despite Palmer's loss, Cleveland was pleased by the election outcome, as he strongly preferred McKinley to Bryan and saw the former's victory as vindication for the gold standard.<a href="#cite_note-220">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="States_admitted_to_the_Union">States admitted to the Union</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: States admitted to the Union">edit</a>]</div> During the period 1877–1888, Congress consistently rejected applications from territories in the west for <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">statehood</a>. Denial of statehood was largely due to a concern that the lack of a northern <a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_railroad" title="Transcontinental railroad">transcontinental railroad</a> connection would prevent effective governance, and a hesitation to disturb the delicate balance of Democrats and Republicans in the Senate. Finally, in the closing weeks of Cleveland's first term (February 22, 1889), Congress passed a <a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1889" title="Enabling Act of 1889">statute that enabled</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> to draft constitutions and form state governments and to request admission to the Union. All four did, and each officially became states in November 1889, during the first year of <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison's administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[217]</a> Midway through his second term, July 16, 1894, the <a href="/wiki/53rd_United_States_Congress" title="53rd United States Congress">53rd United States Congress</a> passed an act that permitted <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> to form a constitution and state government, and to apply for statehood.<a href="#cite_note-223">[218]</a> On January 4, 1896, Cleveland proclaimed Utah a state on an equal footing with the other states of the Union.<a href="#cite_note-224">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Historical reputation">edit</a>]</div> According to historian Henry Graff, Cleveland reasserted the power of the executive branch, but his lack of a clear vision for the country marked his presidency as pre-modern. Graff also notes that Cleveland helped establish Democratic dominance in the <a href="/wiki/Solid_South" title="Solid South">Solid South</a> through policies of reconciliation, while at the same time revitalizing his party in the North by embracing civil service reform.<a href="#cite_note-miller_legacy-225">[220]</a> Historian Richard White describes Cleveland as the "<a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>" of the 1890s, in that Cleveland's temperament and policies were unsuited to the crisis confronting the nation.<a href="#cite_note-226">[221]</a> Historian Richard Welch argues that Cleveland was successful in reasserting the power of the presidency, but lacked a broad vision for the country.<a href="#cite_note-227">[222]</a> Cleveland was one of the least popular public figures in the country when he left office in 1897, but his reputation had substantially recovered by the time of his death in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-228">[223]</a> In A Study in Courage, a 1933 biography of Cleveland historian <a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Allan Nevins</a> portrayed Cleveland as a courageous reformer. Historians like <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steele_Commager" title="Henry Steele Commager">Henry Steele Commager</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hofstadter" title="Richard Hofstadter">Richard Hofstadter</a> echoed this view, with Hofstadter writing that Cleveland was "the sole reasonable facsimile of a major president between <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>." Subsequent historians, however, emphasized Cleveland's failures and his favoritism towards big business. In a 1948 poll of historians, Cleveland was ranked as the eighth-greatest president in U.S. history, but his standing in <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">polls of historians and political scientists</a> has declined since 1948.<a href="#cite_note-229">[224]</a> A 2018 poll of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>'s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Cleveland as the 24th-best president.<a href="#cite_note-230">[225]</a> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll of historians ranked Cleveland as the 23rd-best president.<a href="#cite_note-231">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> became the second to do so following his win in the <a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024 election</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-definition-2"><a href="#cite_ref-definition_2-0">^</a> A presidency is defined as an uninterrupted period of time in office served by one person. For example, George Washington's two consecutive terms constitute one presidency, and he is counted as the 1st president (not the first and second). Grover Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms constitute separate presidencies, and he is counted as both the 22nd president and the 24th president. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> In 1926, the principles of the Tenure of Office Act were ruled unconstitutional in the Supreme Court case of <a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a>, as the Supreme Court held the president could unilaterally remove executive branch officials. </li> <li id="cite_note-threestraight-119"><a href="#cite_ref-threestraight_119-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> would later win the popular vote in four presidential elections. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Plessy v. Ferguson would be overturned in the 1954 case of <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> and subsequent rulings. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Graff, pp. 31-33 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins146-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nevins146_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins146_4-1">b</a> Nevins, 146–147 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Nevins, 147 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Nevins, 152–153; Graff, 51–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Welch, 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins154-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nevins154_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins154_8-1">b</a> Nevins, 153-154; Graff, 53–54 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins185-9"><a href="#cite_ref-nevins185_9-0">^</a> Nevins, 185–186; Jeffers, 96–97 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Welch, 32–34 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Tugwell, 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Tugwell, 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Summers, passim; Grossman, 31 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Nevins, 156–159; Graff, 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Nevins, 187–188 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Welch, 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-leip1884-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leip1884_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-leip1884_17-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLeip" class="citation web cs1">Leip, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1884&f=0&off=0&elect=0">"1884 Presidential Election Results"</a>. 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Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/groverclevelands00brod/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312268831" title="Special:BookSources/9780312268831"><bdi>9780312268831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grover+Cleveland%3A+A+Study+in+Character&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780312268831&rft.au=Alyn+Brodsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgroverclevelands00brod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Tennant S. McWilliams, "James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation." Pacific Historical Review (1988) 57#1: 25-46 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3639673">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_J._Gerhardt2013" class="citation book cs1">Michael J. Gerhardt (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199967797">The Forgotten Presidents: Their Untold Constitutional Legacy</a>. Oxford UP. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199967797/page/171">171</a>–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199967810" title="Special:BookSources/9780199967810"><bdi>9780199967810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Presidents%3A+Their+Untold+Constitutional+Legacy&rft.pages=171-72&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199967810&rft.au=Michael+J.+Gerhardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780199967797&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> William Michael Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885-1898 (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Welch, 174 </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> McWilliams, 25–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-wealth2-192"><a href="#cite_ref-wealth2_192-0">^</a> Zakaria, 145–146 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Graff, 123–125; Nevins, 633–642 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Welch, 183–184 </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Welch, 186–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Graff, 123–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Welch, 192–194 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Welch, 194–198 </li> <li id="cite_note-canfield-199"><a href="#cite_ref-canfield_199-0">^</a> Bruce N. Canfield "The Foreign Rifle: U.S. Krag–Jørgensen" American Rifleman October 2010 pp.86–89,126&129 </li> <li id="cite_note-NMG-200"><a href="#cite_ref-NMG_200-0">^</a> Hanevik, Karl Egil (1998). Norske Militærgeværer etter 1867 </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Friedman, pp. 35–38 </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Bauer and Roberts, pp. 162–165 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Bauer and Roberts, pp. 102–104, 162–165 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins569-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nevins569_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins569_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins569_204-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins569_204-3">d</a> Nevins, 569–570 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins570-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nevins570_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins570_205-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins570_205-2">c</a> Nevins, 570–571 </li> <li id="cite_note-nevins572-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nevins572_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nevins572_206-1">b</a> Nevins, 572 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Welch, 202–204 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> White, pp. 836–837 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Welch, 207–211 </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Nevins, 684–693 </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> R. Hal Williams, Years of Decision: American Politics in the 1890s (1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-graff128129-212"><a href="#cite_ref-graff128129_212-0">^</a> Graff, 128–129 </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> White, pp. 836–839 </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Graff, 126–127 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> White, pp. 837–841 </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> White, pp. 843–844 </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> White, pp. 845–846 </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> White, pp. 847–851 </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeip" class="citation web cs1">Leip, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1896&f=0&off=0&elect=0">"1896 Presidential Election Results"</a>. Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved February 23, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dave+Leip%27s+Atlas+of+U.S.+Presidential+Elections&rft.atitle=1896+Presidential+Election+Results&rft.aulast=Leip&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuselectionatlas.org%2FRESULTS%2Fnational.php%3Fyear%3D1896%26f%3D0%26off%3D0%26elect%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Graff, 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov11.html">"Today in History: November 11"</a>. loc.gov. Library of Congress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=loc.gov&rft.atitle=Today+in+History%3A+November+11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmemory.loc.gov%2Fammem%2Ftoday%2Fnov11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov02.html">"Today in History: November 2"</a>. loc.gov. 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State of Utah.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historytogo.utah.gov&rft.atitle=Struggle+For+Statehood+Chronology&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Thatcher&rft.aufirst=Linda+Thatcher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytogo.utah.gov%2Futah_chapters%2Fstatehood_and_the_progressive_era%2Fstruggleforstatehoodchronology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller_legacy-225"><a href="#cite_ref-miller_legacy_225-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff2016" class="citation web cs1">Graff, Henry F. (4 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/cleveland/impact-and-legacy">"GROVER CLEVELAND: IMPACT AND LEGACY"</a>. Miller Center. Retrieved 4 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=GROVER+CLEVELAND%3A+IMPACT+AND+LEGACY&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Henry+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Fcleveland%2Fimpact-and-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> White, pp. 800–801 </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Welch, 219–221 </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Welch, 223 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Welch, 4–6 </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018" class="citation news cs1">Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (19 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/">"How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Does+Trump+Stack+Up+Against+the+Best+%E2%80%94+and+Worst+%E2%80%94+Presidents%3F&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Rottinghaus&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Justin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2018%2F02%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fhow-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall">"Presidential Historians Survey 2017"</a>. C-SPAN. Retrieved 14 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Presidential+Historians+Survey+2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fpresidentsurvey2017%2F%3Fpage%3Doverall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Brodsky, Alan. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character, (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-26883-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-26883-1">0-312-26883-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff2002" class="citation book cs1">Graff, Henry (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland00graf">Grover Cleveland</a>. Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805069235" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805069235"><bdi>978-0805069235</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grover+Cleveland&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0805069235&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrovercleveland00graf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Grossman, Mark, Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed (2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-060-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57607-060-3">1-57607-060-3</a></li> <li>Jeffers, H. Paul, An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (2000), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-97746-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-380-97746-X">0-380-97746-X</a>.</li> <li>McWilliams, Tennant S., "James H. Blount, the South, and Hawaiian Annexation." Pacific Historical Review 1988 57(1): 25–46. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3639673">online</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</a>. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (1932), a standard scholarly biography; Pulitzer Prize <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/groverclevelands0000nevi">online</a></li> <li>Reitano, Joanne R. The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888 (1994). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01035-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01035-5">0-271-01035-5</a>.</li> <li>Summers, Mark Wahlgren. Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884 (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-4849-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-4849-2">0-8078-4849-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rexford_Guy_Tugwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexford Guy Tugwell">Tugwell, Rexford Guy</a>, Grover Cleveland Simon & Schuster, Inc. (1968). short biographt <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland00tugw">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisman2002" class="citation book cs1">Weisman, Steven R. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greattaxwars00weis">The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson-The Fierce Battles over Money That Transformed the Nation</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-85068-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-85068-0"><bdi>0-684-85068-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Tax+Wars%3A+Lincoln+to+Wilson-The+Fierce+Battles+over+Money+That+Transformed+the+Nation&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-684-85068-0&rft.aulast=Weisman&rft.aufirst=Steven+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreattaxwars00weis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Welch, Richard E. Jr. The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (1988) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0355-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0355-7">0-7006-0355-7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofgr0000welc">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_White_(historian)" title="Richard White (historian)">White, Richard</a> (2017). The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age: 1865–1896. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190619060" title="Special:BookSources/9780190619060"><bdi>9780190619060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Republic+for+Which+It+Stands%3A+The+United+States+During+Reconstruction+and+the+Gilded+Age%3A+1865%E2%80%931896&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780190619060&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidencies+of+Grover+Cleveland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fareed_Zakaria" title="Fareed Zakaria">Zakaria, Fareed</a> From Wealth to Power (1999) Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01035-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01035-8">0-691-01035-8</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bard, Mitchell. "Ideology and Depression Politics I: Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)" Presidential Studies Quarterly 1985 15(1): 77–88. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0360-4918">0360-4918</a></li> <li>Blake, Nelson M. "Background of Cleveland's Venezuelan Policy." American Historical Review 1942 47(2): 259–277. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1841667">in Jstor</a></li> <li>Blodgett, Geoffrey. "Ethno-cultural Realities in Presidential Patronage: Grover Cleveland's Choices" New York History 2000 81(2): 189–210. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0146-437X">0146-437X</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23182335">online</a></li> <li>Cleaver, Nick. Grover Cleveland's New Foreign Policy: Arbitration, Neutrality, and the Dawn of American Empire (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/40456/1/2012CleaverNHPhD.pdf">PhD dissertation version</a></li> <li>Dewey, Davis R. National Problems: 1880–1897 (1907), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationalproblem01dewegoog">online</a></li> <li>Doenecke, Justus. "Grover Cleveland and the Enforcement of the Civil Service Act" Hayes Historical Journal 1984 4(3): 44–58. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0364-5924">0364-5924</a></li> <li>Ehrhardt, Andrew, and Charlie Laderman. "Grover Cleveland and Lord Salisbury: A Shared History." in The Palgrave Handbook of Presidents and Prime Ministers From Cleveland and Salisbury to Trump and Johnson (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022) pp. 35–56.</li> <li>Faulkner, Harold U. Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 (1959), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsreformex0000faul">online</a></li> <li>Ford, Henry Jones. The Cleveland Era: A Chronicle of the New Order in Politics (1921), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext02/cleve10.txt">short overview online</a></li> <li>Gould, Lewis. America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914 (2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-35671-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-35671-7">0-582-35671-7</a></li> <li>Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidentprofiles.com//">online</a></li> <li>Grenville, John A. S. and George Berkeley Young. Politics, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873-1917 (1966) pp 39–73 on "Party politics and foreign policy: Grover Cleveland's first administration, 1885-1889," and "Grover Cleveland, Richard Olney, and the Venezuelan crisis," pp 158–78.</li> <li>Hoffman, Karen S. "'Going Public' in the Nineteenth Century: Grover Cleveland's Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act" Rhetoric and Public Affairs 2002 5(1): 57–77. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/summary/v005/5.1hoffman.html">in Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Klinghard, Daniel P. "Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the emergence of the president as party leader." Presidential Studies Quarterly 35.4 (2005): 736–760.</li> <li>Lynch, G. Patrick "U.S. Presidential Elections in the Nineteenth Century: Why Culture and the Economy Both Mattered." Polity 35#1 (2002) pp. 29–50. in JSTOR, focus on election of 1884</li> <li>McElroy, Robert. Grover Cleveland, the Man and the Statesman: An Authorized Biography (1923) Vol. I, Vol. II, older narrative <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland0000unse/page/n8/mode/1up">vol 1 and 2 online</a></li> <li>Merrill, Horace Samuel. Bourbon Leader: Grover Cleveland and the Democratic Party (1957) 228 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bourbonleadergro00merr">online</a> negative appraisal by a liberal historian</li> <li>Morgan, H. Wayne. From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969).</li> <li>Otfinoski, Steven. Grover Cleveland (2011) for middle schools <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland0000otfi">online</a></li> <li>Pafford, John M. The Forgotten Conservative: Rediscovering Grover Cleveland (Simon and Schuster, 2013).</li> <li>Schake, Kori. "Grover Cleveland’s Administration: Prequel to America’s Rise?" ORBIS (2017) 62(1). DOI:10.1016/j.orbis.2017.11.002. Paints Cleveland as a profound conservative.</li> <li>Stephenson, Donald Grier. "22. Grover Cleveland, First Term." in The Presidents and the Constitution, Volume One (New York University Press, 2020) pp. 288–296. <ul><li>Stephenson, Donald Grier. "24. Grover Cleveland, Second Term." in The Presidents and the Constitution, Volume One (2020) pp. 308–315.</li></ul></li> <li>Tugwell, Rexford G. Grover Cleveland (1968), political survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland00tugw/page/n7/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Walters, Ryan S. Grover Cleveland: The Last Jeffersonian President (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_White_(historian)" title="Richard White (historian)">White, Richard</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_for_Which_It_Stands" title="The Republic for Which It Stands">The Republic for Which It Stands</a>, Oxford University Press, 2017.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>DeSantis, Vincent P. "Grover Cleveland: Another Look." Hayes Historical Journal 1980 3(1–2): 41–50. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0364-5924">0364-5924</a>, argues his energy, honesty, and devotion to duty—much more than his actual accomplishments established his claim to greatness.</li> <li>Kelley, Robert, "Presbyterianism, Jacksonianism and Grover Cleveland", "American Quarterly" 1966 18(4): 615–636. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2711386">online</a></li> <li>Marszalek, John F. Grover Cleveland : a bibliography (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/groverclevelandb0000mars">online</a></li> <li>Vexler, Robert I., ed. Grover Cleveland, 1837-1908; chronology, documents, bibliographical aids (1968) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grovercleveland100clev">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Cleveland, Grover. The writings and speeches of Grover Cleveland (1892, reprint 1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsandspee01clevgoog">online</a></li> <li>Cleveland, Grover. Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850-1908 edited by Allan Nevins. (1933; reprinted 1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lettersofgroverc0000clev_f4s0/page/n5/mode/1up">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Presidencies of Grover Cleveland at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Grover_Cleveland" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Grover Cleveland">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Grover_Cleveland" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Grover Cleveland">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li></ul></div></div> </div> Letters and Speeches <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#cleveland">Text of a number of Cleveland's speeches</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Miller_Center_of_Public_Affairs" title="Miller Center of Public Affairs">Miller Center of Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/msscfa/vc19810.htm">Finding Aid to the Grover Cleveland Manuscripts, 1867–1908</a> at the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Library" title="New York State Library">New York State Library</a>, accessed May 11, 2016</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.buffalostate.edu/groverclevelandlet/">10 letters written by Grover Cleveland in 1884–86</a></li></ul> Media coverage <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/c/grover_cleveland/index.html">Presidencies of Grover Cleveland</a> collected news and commentary at <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></li></ul> Other <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/cleveland/index.html">Grover Cleveland: A Resource Guide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/profiles/BECHS/lists/3508848?view=&count=100&se=ts&sd=asc&qt=sort_ts_asc%20target=">Grover Cleveland</a>: A bibliography by The <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_History_Museum" title="Buffalo History Museum">Buffalo History Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=ztsjq7JTPJAg.kFIhQuktgFMA">Grover Cleveland Sites in Buffalo, NY</a>: A Google Map developed by The <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_History_Museum" title="Buffalo History Museum">Buffalo History Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/64060012/">Index to the Grover Cleveland Papers at the Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080318185934/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/cleveland">Essay on Cleveland and each member of his cabinet and First Lady</a>, Miller Center of Public Affairs</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?151466-1/life-portrait-grover-cleveland">"Life Portrait of Grover Cleveland"</a>, from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/American_Presidents:_Life_Portraits" title="American Presidents: Life Portraits">American Presidents: Life Portraits</a>, August 13, 1999</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013215250/http://www.booknotes.org/Watch/157925-1/H+Paul+Jeffers.aspx">Interview with H. Paul Jeffers on An Honest President: The Life and Presidencies of Grover Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Booknotes" title="Booknotes">Booknotes</a> (2000)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1654">Works by Grover Cleveland</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Cleveland%2C%20Grover%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Grover%20Cleveland%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cleveland%2C%20Grover%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Grover%20Cleveland%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cleveland%2C%20G%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Grover%20Cleveland%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Cleveland%2C%20Grover%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Grover%20Cleveland%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Grover Cleveland</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul> <div 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grover_Cleveland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grover_Cleveland" title="Template:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grover_Cleveland" title="Template talk:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grover_Cleveland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grover Cleveland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grover_Cleveland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">22nd and 24th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1885–1889, 1893–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_York" title="List of governors of New York">28th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a> (1883–1885)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_Birthplace" title="Grover Cleveland Birthplace">Grover Cleveland Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Institute_for_Special_Education" title="New York Institute for Special Education">New York Institute for Special Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1881_Buffalo_mayoral_election" title="1881 Buffalo mayoral election">1881 Buffalo mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1882_New_York_state_election" title="1882 New York state election">1882 New York state election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugwumps" title="Mugwumps">Mugwumps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westland_Mansion" title="Westland Mansion">Westland Mansion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1884_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1884 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="First inauguration of Grover Cleveland">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_of_Grover_Cleveland_and_Frances_Folsom" title="Wedding of Grover Cleveland and Frances Folsom">Wedding to Frances Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy,_1861%E2%80%931897" title="History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1867)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1867)">Tenure of Office Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_Disability_Pension_Act" title="Dependent and Disability Pension Act">Dependent and Disability Pension Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatch_Act_of_1887" title="Hatch Act of 1887">Hatch Act of 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Experiment_Stations_Act_of_1887" title="Agricultural Experiment Stations Act of 1887">Agricultural Experiment Stations Act of 1887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Seed_Bill" title="Texas Seed Bill">Texas Seed Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Grover_Cleveland" title="List of federal judges appointed by Grover Cleveland">Federal judges appointed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1888_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1888 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murchison_letter" title="Murchison letter">Murchison letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_Gables" title="Gray Gables">Gray Gables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 presidential election</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_1892_presidential_campaign" title="Grover Cleveland 1892 presidential campaign">Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Grover_Cleveland" title="Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1893" title="Panic of 1893">Panic of 1893</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act" title="Sherman Silver Purchase Act">Sherman Silver Purchase Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Gorman_Tariff_Act" title="Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act">Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coxey%27s_Army" title="Coxey's Army">Coxey's Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom">Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1895" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1895">Venezuelan crisis of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1889" title="Enabling Act of 1889">Enabling Act of 1889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="National Democratic Party (United States)">National Democratic Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_National_Forest" title="Cleveland National Forest">Cleveland National Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Park" title="Cleveland Park">Cleveland Park</a></li> <li>Grover Cleveland High School <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_High_School_(Buffalo,_New_York)" title="Grover Cleveland High School (Buffalo, New York)">Buffalo, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Cleveland High School (Los Angeles)">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland_High_School_(Queens)" title="Grover Cleveland High School (Queens)">Queens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Mississippi" title="Cleveland, Mississippi">Cleveland, Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Cleveland_(Alaska)" title="Mount Cleveland (Alaska)">Mount Cleveland (Alaska)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cleveland" title="Frances Cleveland">Frances Cleveland</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Cleveland" title="Ruth Cleveland">Ruth Cleveland</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Cleveland" title="Esther Cleveland">Esther Cleveland</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Cleveland" title="Richard F. Cleveland">Richard F. Cleveland</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Cleveland" title="Francis Cleveland">Francis Cleveland</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Falley_Cleveland" title="Richard Falley Cleveland">Richard Falley Cleveland</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Cleveland" title="Rose Cleveland">Rose Cleveland</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Falley_Jr." title="Richard Falley Jr.">Richard Falley Jr.</a> (great-grandfather)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">← Chester A. Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">←Benjamin Harrison→</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Grover_Cleveland" title="Category:Grover Cleveland">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_presidents" title="Template:US presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_presidents" title="Template talk:US presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#First_presidency_(1885–1889)">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#B0CEFF;;background:#3333FF; color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Template:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Democratic Party (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democratic_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#B0CEFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth Party System</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention" title="Democratic National Convention">National conventions</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets">presidential tickets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Democratic Party presidential primaries">presidential primaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election#Democratic_Party_nomination" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 (None)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1835_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1835 Democratic National Convention">1835 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">R. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1840 Democratic National Convention">1840 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a>/None</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1844 Democratic National Convention">1844 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_M._Dallas" title="George M. Dallas">Dallas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1848_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1848 Democratic National Convention">1848 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Cass" title="Lewis Cass">Cass</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_Orlando_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="William Orlando Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1852_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1852 Democratic National Convention">1852 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_R._King" title="William R. King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1856 Democratic National Convention">1856 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Democratic_National_Conventions" title="1860 Democratic National Conventions">1860 (Charleston/Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Douglas" title="Stephen A. Douglas">Douglas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Herschel_V._Johnson" title="Herschel V. Johnson">H. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lane" title="Joseph Lane">Lane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Democrats" title="Southern Democrats">SD</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1864 Democratic National Convention">1864 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._Pendleton" title="George H. Pendleton">Pendleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1868 Democratic National Convention">1868 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Seymour" title="Horatio Seymour">Seymour</a>/<a href="/wiki/Francis_Preston_Blair_Jr." title="Francis Preston Blair Jr.">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1872 Democratic National Convention">1872 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley</a>/<a href="/wiki/B._Gratz_Brown" title="B. Gratz Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1876 Democratic National Convention">1876 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Tilden</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1880 Democratic National Convention">1880 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott_Hancock" title="Winfield Scott Hancock">Hancock</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_Hayden_English" title="William Hayden English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1884 Democratic National Convention">1884 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1888 Democratic National Convention">1888 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Allen_G._Thurman" title="Allen G. Thurman">Thurman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1892 Democratic National Convention">1892 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a>/<a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Stevenson I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1896 Democratic National Convention">1896 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sewall" title="Arthur Sewall">Sewall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1900 Democratic National Convention">1900 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_I" title="Adlai Stevenson I">Stevenson I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1904 Democratic National Convention">1904 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alton_B._Parker" title="Alton B. Parker">Parker</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_G._Davis" title="Henry G. Davis">H. Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1908 Democratic National Convention">1908 (Denver)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">W. Bryan</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_W._Kern" title="John W. Kern">Kern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">Marshall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Marshall" title="Thomas R. Marshall">Marshall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1916 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1920 Democratic National Convention">1920 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">Cox</a>/<a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1920 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1924 Democratic National Convention">1924 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">J. Davis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Bryan" title="Charles W. Bryan">C. Bryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1924 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1928 Democratic National Convention">1928 (Houston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joseph_T._Robinson" title="Joseph T. Robinson">Robinson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1928 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1932 Democratic National Convention">1932 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1936 Democratic National Convention">1936 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">1944 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1948 Democratic National Convention">1948 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Barkley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1952 Democratic National Convention">1952 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Stevenson II</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Sparkman" title="John Sparkman">Sparkman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">1956 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Stevenson II</a>/<a href="/wiki/Estes_Kefauver" title="Estes Kefauver">Kefauver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960 (Los Angeles)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">L. Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1964 Democratic National Convention">1964 (Atlantic City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">L. Johnson</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Humphrey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1968 Democratic National Convention">1968 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Humphrey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Muskie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1972 Democratic National Convention">1972 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a>/(<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eagleton" title="Thomas Eagleton">Eagleton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Shriver</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1976 Democratic National Convention">1976 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a>/<a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1980 Democratic National Convention">1980 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a>/<a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1984 Democratic National Convention">1984 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mondale" title="Walter Mondale">Mondale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Ferraro" title="Geraldine Ferraro">Ferraro</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1988 Democratic National Convention">1988 (Atlanta)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Bentsen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1992 Democratic National Convention">1992 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">B. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1996 Democratic National Convention">1996 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">B. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1996 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2000 Democratic National Convention">2000 (Los Angeles)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Lieberman" title="Joe Lieberman">Lieberman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2000 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2004 Democratic National Convention">2004 (Boston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">Kerry</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_Edwards" title="John Edwards">Edwards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2008 Democratic National Convention">2008 (Denver)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2012 Democratic National Convention">2012 (Charlotte)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2016 Democratic National Convention">2016 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">H. Clinton</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tim_Kaine" title="Tim Kaine">Kaine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2020 Democratic National Convention">2020 (Milwaukee/other locations)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2024 Democratic National Convention">2024 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2024 Democratic Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">Presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> (1829–1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a> (1837–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">Polk</a> (1845–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a> (1853–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">Buchanan</a> (1857–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">A. Johnson</a> (1868–1869)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cleveland</a> (1885–1889; 1893–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a> (1913–1921)</li> <li>Roosevelt (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">1933–1941</a>; <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms">1941–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> (1945–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1961–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">L. B. Johnson</a> (1963–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">Carter</a> (1977–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">Clinton</a> (1993–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama</a> (2009–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">Biden</a> (2021–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House leaders</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">Speakers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">Caucus chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Stevenson" title="Andrew Stevenson">A. Stevenson</a> (1827–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_(Tennessee_politician)" title="John Bell (Tennessee politician)">Bell</a> (1834–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a> (1835–1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winston_Jones" title="John Winston Jones">J. W. Jones</a> (1843–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Davis" title="John Wesley Davis">Davis</a> (1845–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_Cobb" title="Howell Cobb">Cobb</a> (1849–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linn_Boyd" title="Linn Boyd">Boyd</a> (1851–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Jones_(Tennessee_politician)" title="George Washington Jones (Tennessee politician)">G. W. Jones</a> (1855–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawrence_Orr" title="James Lawrence Orr">Orr</a> (1857–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_S._Houston" title="George S. Houston">Houston</a> (1859–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Niblack" title="William E. Niblack">Niblack</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Randall</a> (1869–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Niblack" title="William E. Niblack">Niblack</a> (1873–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Kerr" title="Michael C. Kerr">Kerr</a> (1875–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Randall" title="Samuel J. Randall">Randall</a> (1876–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Carlisle" title="John G. Carlisle">Carlisle</a> (1883–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Holman" title="William S. Holman">Holman</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Crisp" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Frederick Crisp">Crisp</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Culberson" title="David B. Culberson">D. B. Culberson</a> (1895–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._Richardson" title="James D. Richardson">Richardson</a> (1897–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sharp_Williams" title="John Sharp Williams">Williams</a> (1903–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_Clark" title="Champ Clark">Clark</a> (1909–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Kitchin" title="Claude Kitchin">Kitchin</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finis_J._Garrett" title="Finis J. Garrett">Garrett</a> (1923–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">Garner</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Thomas_Rainey" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Thomas Rainey">Rainey</a> (1933–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Byrns" title="Jo Byrns">Byrns</a> (1935–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Bankhead" title="William B. Bankhead">Bankhead</a> (1936–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Rayburn" title="Sam Rayburn">Rayburn</a> (1940–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._McCormack" title="John W. McCormack">McCormack</a> (1962–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Albert" title="Carl Albert">Albert</a> (1971–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_O%27Neill" title="Tip O'Neill">O'Neill</a> (1977–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Wright" title="Jim Wright">Wright</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Foley" title="Tom Foley">Foley</a> (1989–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gephardt" title="Dick Gephardt">Gephardt</a> (1995–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Pelosi</a> (2003–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Jeffries" title="Hakeem Jeffries">Jeffries</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">U.S. Senate leaders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Caucus chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Stevenson" title="John W. Stevenson">J. W. Stevenson</a> (1873–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Wallace" title="William A. Wallace">Wallace</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Pendleton" title="George H. Pendleton">Pendleton</a> (1881–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Beck" title="James B. Beck">Beck</a> (1885–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Gorman" title="Arthur P. Gorman">Gorman</a> (1890–1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Turpie" title="David Turpie">Turpie</a> (1898–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Jones" title="James K. Jones">J. K. Jones</a> (1899–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Gorman" title="Arthur P. Gorman">Gorman</a> (1903–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._C._S._Blackburn" title="J. C. S. Blackburn">Blackburn</a> (1906–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Culberson" title="Charles A. Culberson">C. A. Culberson</a> (1907–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_Money" title="Hernando Money">Money</a> (1909–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Martin" title="Thomas S. Martin">Martin</a> (1911–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Kern" title="John W. Kern">Kern</a> (1913–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Martin" title="Thomas S. Martin">Martin</a> (1917–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Hitchcock" title="Gilbert Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a> (1919–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Underwood" title="Oscar Underwood">Underwood</a> (1920–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_T._Robinson" title="Joseph T. Robinson">Robinson</a> (1923–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alben_W._Barkley" title="Alben W. Barkley">Barkley</a> (1937–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_W._Lucas" title="Scott W. Lucas">Lucas</a> (1949–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_McFarland" title="Ernest McFarland">McFarland</a> (1951–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Johnson</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Mansfield" title="Mike Mansfield">Mansfield</a> (1961–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byrd" title="Robert Byrd">Byrd</a> (1977–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_J._Mitchell" title="George J. Mitchell">Mitchell</a> (1989–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Daschle" title="Tom Daschle">Daschle</a> (1995–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Reid" title="Harry Reid">Reid</a> (2005–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Schumer</a> (2017–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Chairs of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">DNC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Hallett" title="Benjamin F. Hallett">Hallett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Milligan_McLane" title="Robert Milligan McLane">McLane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Allen_Smalley" title="David Allen Smalley">Smalley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Belmont" title="August Belmont">Belmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Schell" title="Augustus Schell">Schell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abram_Hewitt" title="Abram Hewitt">Hewitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Barnum" title="William Barnum">Barnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_S._Brice" title="Calvin S. Brice">Brice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Harrity" title="William F. Harrity">Harrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Jones" title="James K. Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taggart" title="Thomas Taggart">Taggart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_E._Mack" title="Norman E. Mack">Mack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._McCombs" title="William F. McCombs">McCombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_C._McCormick" title="Vance C. McCormick">McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Stille_Cummings" title="Homer Stille Cummings">Cummings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_White_(Ohio_politician)" title="George White (Ohio politician)">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clem_L._Shaver" title="Clem L. Shaver">Shaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Raskob" title="John J. Raskob">Raskob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">Farley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Flynn" title="Edward J. Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Walker" title="Frank C. Walker">Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Hannegan" title="Robert E. Hannegan">Hannegan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_McGrath" title="J. Howard McGrath">McGrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Boyle" title="William M. Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_E._McKinney" title="Frank E. McKinney">McKinney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Mitchell_(politician)" title="Stephen A. Mitchell (politician)">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Butler_(lawyer)" title="Paul Butler (lawyer)">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Jackson" title="Henry M. Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Moran_Bailey" title="John Moran Bailey">Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien" title="Larry O'Brien">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_R._Harris" title="Fred R. Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_O%27Brien" title="Larry O'Brien">O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Westwood_(politician)" title="Jean Westwood (politician)">Westwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Strauss" title="Robert S. Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Curtis" title="Kenneth M. Curtis">Curtis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Coyle_White" title="John Coyle White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Manatt" title="Charles Manatt">Manatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_G._Kirk" title="Paul G. Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Brown" title="Ron Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wilhelm" title="David Wilhelm">Wilhelm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debra_DeLee" title="Debra DeLee">DeLee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Dodd" title="Chris Dodd">Dodd</a>/<a href="/wiki/Donald_Fowler" title="Donald Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Romer" title="Roy Romer">Romer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Steven_Grossman_(politician)" title="Steven Grossman (politician)">Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Rendell" title="Ed Rendell">Rendell</a>/<a href="/wiki/Joe_Andrew" title="Joe Andrew">Andrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_McAuliffe" title="Terry McAuliffe">McAuliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Dean" title="Howard Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Kaine" title="Tim Kaine">Kaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debbie_Wasserman_Schultz" title="Debbie Wasserman Schultz">Wasserman Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Perez" title="Tom Perez">Perez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaime_Harrison" title="Jaime Harrison">Harrison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_parties_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="List of state parties of the Democratic Party (United States)">State and territorial parties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Democratic_Party" title="Alabama Democratic Party">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Democratic_Party" title="Alaska Democratic Party">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Democratic_Party" title="Arizona Democratic Party">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Arkansas" title="Democratic Party of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Democratic_Party" title="California Democratic Party">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Democratic_Party" title="Colorado Democratic Party">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Connecticut" title="Democratic Party of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Democratic_Party" title="Delaware Democratic Party">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Democratic_Party" title="Florida Democratic Party">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Georgia" title="Democratic Party of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Hawaii" title="Democratic Party of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Democratic_Party" title="Idaho Democratic Party">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Illinois" title="Democratic Party of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Democratic_Party" title="Indiana Democratic Party">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Democratic_Party" title="Iowa Democratic Party">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Democratic_Party" title="Kansas Democratic Party">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_Democratic_Party" title="Kentucky Democratic Party">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Democratic_Party" title="Louisiana Democratic Party">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Democratic_Party" title="Maine Democratic Party">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Democratic_Party" title="Maryland Democratic Party">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Democratic_Party" title="Massachusetts Democratic Party">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Democratic_Party" title="Michigan Democratic Party">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Democratic%E2%80%93Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party" title="Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Democratic Party">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Democratic_Party" title="Missouri Democratic Party">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Democratic_Party" title="Montana Democratic Party">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Democratic_Party" title="Nebraska Democratic Party">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Democratic_Party" title="Nevada Democratic Party">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Democratic_Party" title="New Hampshire Democratic Party">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Democratic_State_Committee" title="New Jersey Democratic State Committee">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_New_Mexico" title="Democratic Party of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Democratic_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State Democratic Committee">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Democratic_Party" title="North Carolina Democratic Party">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Democratic%E2%80%93Nonpartisan_League_Party" title="North Dakota Democratic–Nonpartisan League Party">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Democratic_Party" title="Ohio Democratic Party">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Democratic_Party" title="Oklahoma Democratic Party">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Oregon" title="Democratic Party of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Democratic_Party" title="Pennsylvania Democratic Party">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Democratic_Party" title="Rhode Island Democratic Party">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Democratic_Party" title="South Carolina Democratic Party">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Democratic_Party" title="South Dakota Democratic Party">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Democratic_Party" title="Tennessee Democratic Party">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Democratic_Party" title="Texas Democratic Party">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Democratic_Party" title="Utah Democratic Party">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Democratic_Party" title="Vermont Democratic Party">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Virginia" title="Democratic Party of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Democratic_Party" title="Washington State Democratic Party">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Democratic_Party" title="West Virginia Democratic Party">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Wisconsin" title="Democratic Party of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Democratic_Party" title="Wyoming Democratic Party">Wyoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Samoa_Democratic_Party" title="American Samoa Democratic Party">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Democratic_State_Committee" title="District of Columbia Democratic State Committee">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Guam" title="Democratic Party of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party (Northern Mariana Islands)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Puerto_Rico)" title="Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Democratic Party of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democrats_Abroad" title="Democrats Abroad">Democrats Abroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)_organizations" title="Democratic Party (United States) organizations">Affiliated groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Senate Caucus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Democratic_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Democratic Policy Committee">Policy Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Democratic_Steering_and_Outreach_Committee" title="United States Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee">Steering and Outreach Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">House Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Democratic Party (United States)">Factions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Dog_Coalition" title="Blue Dog Coalition">Blue Dog Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Progressive_Caucus" title="Congressional Progressive Caucus">Congressional Progressive Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Democrats" title="Justice Democrats">Justice Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democrat_Coalition" title="New Democrat Coalition">New Democrat Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_Solvers_Caucus" title="Problem Solvers Caucus">Problem Solvers Caucus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Fundraising</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Attorneys_General_Association" title="Democratic Attorneys General Association">Democratic Attorneys General Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Congressional_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee">Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Governors_Association" title="Democratic Governors Association">Democratic Governors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Legislative_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee">Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Senatorial_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee">Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Democratic_Mayors" title="National Conference of Democratic Mayors">National Conference of Democratic Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Redistricting_Committee" title="National Democratic Redistricting Committee">National Democratic Redistricting Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Sectional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_Democrats_of_America" title="College Democrats of America">College Democrats of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democrats_Abroad" title="Democrats Abroad">Democrats Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Democratic_Women" title="National Federation of Democratic Women">National Federation of Democratic Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Democrats" title="Stonewall Democrats">Stonewall Democrats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Young_Democrats" title="Stonewall Young Democrats">Stonewall Young Democrats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Democrats_of_America" title="Young Democrats of America">Young Democrats of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_School_Democrats_of_America" title="High School Democrats of America">High School Democrats of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#B0CEFF;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Democratic Party presidential primaries">Primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_candidates" title="List of United States Democratic Party presidential candidates">Presidential candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_presidential_debates" title="Democratic Party presidential debates">Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdelegate" title="Superdelegate">Superdelegate</a></li> <li>Chairmanship elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2005 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2017 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2021 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2025_Democratic_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2025 Democratic National Committee chairmanship election">2025</a></li></ul></li> <li>House caucus leadership elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_United_States_House_of_Representatives_Democratic_Caucus_leadership_election" title="2006 United States House of Representatives Democratic Caucus leadership election">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_United_States_House_of_Representatives_Democratic_Caucus_leadership_election" title="2018 United States House of Representatives Democratic Caucus leadership election">2018</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weekly_Democratic_Address" title="Weekly Democratic Address">Weekly Democratic Address</a></li></ul> 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