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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Phases</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phases subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meiosis_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meiosis_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Meiosis I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meiosis_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prophase_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prophase_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Prophase I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prophase_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leptotene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leptotene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.1</span> <span>Leptotene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leptotene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zygotene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zygotene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.2</span> <span>Zygotene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zygotene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pachytene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pachytene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.3</span> <span>Pachytene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pachytene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diplotene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diplotene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.4</span> <span>Diplotene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diplotene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diakinesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diakinesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.5</span> <span>Diakinesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diakinesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meiotic_spindle_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meiotic_spindle_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.6</span> <span>Meiotic spindle formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meiotic_spindle_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphase_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphase_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Metaphase I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphase_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anaphase_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anaphase_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Anaphase I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anaphase_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telophase_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telophase_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Telophase I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telophase_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meiosis_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meiosis_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Meiosis II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meiosis_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Origin and function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin and function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin_of_meiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_meiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Origin of meiosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_meiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Genetic variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prophase_I_arrest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prophase_I_arrest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Prophase I arrest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prophase_I_arrest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meiosis_as_an_adaptation_for_repairing_germline_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meiosis_as_an_adaptation_for_repairing_germline_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Meiosis as an adaptation for repairing germline DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meiosis_as_an_adaptation_for_repairing_germline_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Occurrence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Occurrence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_life_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_life_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In life cycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_life_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_plants_and_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_plants_and_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In plants and animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_plants_and_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>In mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flagellates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flagellates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Flagellates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flagellates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_human_genetics_and_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_human_genetics_and_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Role in human genetics and disease</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_human_genetics_and_disease-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Role in human genetics and disease subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_human_genetics_and_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nondisjunction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nondisjunction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Nondisjunction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nondisjunction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_mitosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_mitosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Comparison to mitosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_mitosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Molecular regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cited_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Cited texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Meiosis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%81" title="انقسام منصف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انقسام منصف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyoz_b%C3%B6l%C3%BCnm%C9%99" title="Meyoz bölünmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Meyoz bölünmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8" title="মিয়োসিস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিয়োসিস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C3%A1m-s%C3%B2%CD%98_hun-lia%CC%8Dt" title="Kiám-sò͘ hun-lia̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kiám-sò͘ hun-lia̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%91%D0%B7" title="Меёз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Меёз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Мейоза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мейоза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosi" title="Meiosi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Meiosi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei%C3%B3za" title="Meióza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Meióza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meioos" title="Meioos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meioos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7_(%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Μείωση (βιολογία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μείωση (βιολογία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejozo" title="Mejozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mejozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosi" title="Meiosi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Meiosi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B2" title="میوز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میوز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9iose" title="Méiose – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Méiose" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9%C3%B3is" title="Méóis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Méóis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EC%88%98%EB%B6%84%EC%97%B4" title="감수분열 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감수분열" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B8%D5%A6" title="Մեյոզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեյոզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="अर्धसूत्रण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्धसूत्रण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BDriskipting" title="Rýriskipting – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rýriskipting" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosi" title="Meiosi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Meiosi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%96%D7%94" title="מיוזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיוזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಮಿಯಾಸಿಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಿಯಾಸಿಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="მეიოზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეიოზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Мейоз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мейоз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyoz" title="Meyoz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Meyoz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyoz" title="Miyoz – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Miyoz" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Мейоз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мейоз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoze" title="Mejoze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mejoze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoz%C4%97" title="Mejozė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mejozė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei%C3%B3zis" title="Meiózis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Meiózis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Мејоза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мејоза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="ഊനഭംഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഊനഭംഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Мейоз – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мейоз" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose_(voortplanting)" title="Meiose (voortplanting) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Meiose (voortplanting)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%9B%E6%95%B0%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="減数分裂 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="減数分裂" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeyoosisii" title="Meeyoosisii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Meeyoosisii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyoz" title="Meyoz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Meyoz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiose" title="Meiose – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Meiose" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meioz%C4%83" title="Meioză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Meioză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Мейоз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мейоз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%8C%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ඌනන විභාජනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඌනන විභාජනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Meiosis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei%C3%B3za" title="Meióza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Meióza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Мејоза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мејоза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mejoza" title="Mejoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mejoza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meioosi" title="Meioosi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Meioosi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meios" title="Meios – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Meios" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="ஒடுக்கற்பிரிவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒடுக்கற்பிரிவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA" title="ไมโอซิส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไมโอซิส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayoz" title="Mayoz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mayoz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Мейоз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мейоз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%81" title="انتصاف – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انتصاف" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%E1%BA%A3m_ph%C3%A2n" title="Giảm phân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Giảm phân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%8F%E6%95%B0%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="减数分裂 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="减数分裂" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%9B%E6%95%B8%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="減數分裂 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="減數分裂" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%8F%E6%95%B0%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="减数分裂 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="减数分裂" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16424695#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Meiosis">reviewed</a> on <i>27 November 2024</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Cell division producing haploid gametes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the figure of speech, see <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_(figure_of_speech)" title="Meiosis (figure of speech)">Meiosis (figure of speech)</a>. For the process whereby cell nuclei divide to produce two copies of themselves, see <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a>. For excessive constriction of the pupils, see <a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a>. For the parasitic infestation, see <a href="/wiki/Myiasis" title="Myiasis">Myiasis</a>. For muscle inflammation, see <a href="/wiki/Myositis" title="Myositis">Myositis</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Meiosis" title="Special:EditPage/Meiosis">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Meiosis%22">"Meiosis"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Meiosis%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Meiosis%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Meiosis%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Meiosis%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Meiosis%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meiosis_Overview_new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/300px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/450px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Meiosis_Overview_new.svg/600px-Meiosis_Overview_new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>In meiosis, the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> duplicate (during <a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">interphase</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> exchange genetic information (<a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">chromosomal crossover</a>) during the first division, called <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis I">meiosis I</a>. The daughter cells divide again in <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis II">meiosis II</a>, splitting up <a href="/wiki/Sister_chromatid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sister chromatid">sister chromatids</a> to form haploid <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>. Two gametes fuse during <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, forming a diploid cell (<a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>) with a complete set of paired chromosomes.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv/220px--Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="18" data-mwtitle="Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="312" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="312" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="312" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/48/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv/Calyculin-A-an-enhancer-of-myosin-speeds-up-anaphase-chromosome-movement-1475-9268-6-1-S1.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="188" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>A video of meiosis I in a <a href="/wiki/Nephrotoma_suturalis" title="Nephrotoma suturalis">crane fly</a> <a href="/wiki/Spermatocyte" title="Spermatocyte">spermatocyte</a>, played back at 120× the recorded speed.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Meiosis</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/34\/En-us-meiosis.ogg\/En-us-meiosis.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-meiosis.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/34/En-us-meiosis.ogg/En-us-meiosis.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-meiosis.ogg" title="File:En-us-meiosis.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:μείωσις">μείωσις</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>meíōsis</i></span>)</i> 'lessening', (since it is a reductional division)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a special type of <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a> of <a href="/wiki/Germ_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ cells">germ cells</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexually-reproducing</a> organisms that produces the <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Egg_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg cells">egg cells</a>. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one copy of each <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>). Additionally, prior to the division, genetic material from the paternal and maternal copies of each chromosome is <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">crossed over</a>, creating new combinations of code on each chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman-2011_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on, during <a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilisation</a>, the haploid cells produced by meiosis from a male and a female will fuse to create a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, a cell with two copies of each chromosome again. </p><p>Errors in meiosis resulting in <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a> (an abnormal number of chromosomes) are the leading known cause of <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a> and the most frequent genetic cause of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental disabilities">developmental disabilities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In meiosis, <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> as the original parent cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman-2011_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-2011-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two meiotic divisions are known as <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis I">meiosis I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis II">meiosis II</a>. Before meiosis begins, during <a href="/wiki/S_phase" title="S phase">S phase</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a>, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical <a href="/wiki/Sister_chromatids" title="Sister chromatids">sister chromatids</a>, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as "premeiotic S-phase" or "meiotic S-phase". Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged <a href="/wiki/G2_phase" title="G2 phase">G<sub>2</sub></a>-like stage known as meiotic <a href="/wiki/Prophase" title="Prophase">prophase</a>. During this time, <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> pair with each other and undergo <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>, a programmed process in which DNA may be cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their <a href="/wiki/Genetic_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic information">genetic information</a>. A subset of recombination events results in <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">crossovers</a>, which create physical links known as <a href="/wiki/Chiasma_(genetics)" title="Chiasma (genetics)">chiasmata</a> (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter <a href="/wiki/Chi_(letter)" title="Chi (letter)">Chi</a>, Χ) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links can help direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_segregation" title="Chromosome segregation">segregate</a> away from each other during meiosis I, resulting in two <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. </p><p>During meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. In some cases, all four of the meiotic products form <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extrusion</a> into <a href="/wiki/Polar_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar bodies">polar bodies</a>, and only one cell develops to produce an <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ovum</a>. Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>) to form a diploid <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes. For example, <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis. </p><p>Meiosis occurs in all sexually-reproducing single-celled and <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular</a> organisms (which are all <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>), including <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Letunic_I_and_Bork_P_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letunic_I_and_Bork_P-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein2010_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an essential process for <a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the process of meiosis is related to the more general cell division process of <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, it differs in two important respects: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption align="bottom" style="text-align:left;"> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" style="background: #DDEEFF;">recombination </th> <td>meiosis </td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">shuffles the genes</a> between the two chromosomes in each pair (one received from each parent), producing lots of recombinant chromosomes with unique genetic combinations in every gamete </td></tr> <tr> <td>mitosis </td> <td align="center">occurs only if needed to repair DNA damage; <p>usually occurs between identical sister chromatids and does not result in genetic changes </p> </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#ccccff"> <th colspan="3" style="background:#dddddd;">  </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="background: #DDEEFF;">chromosome number (ploidy) </th> <td>meiosis </td> <td align="center">produces four genetically unique cells, each with <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">half</a> the number of chromosomes as in the parent </td></tr> <tr> <td>mitosis </td> <td align="center">produces two genetically identical cells, each with <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Diploid" title="Ploidy">the same number</a> of chromosomes as in the parent </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="12" style="background: #FFFFFF; border-right:1px solid white; border-bottom:1px solid white; border-left:1px solid white;"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed <a href="/wiki/Homologs" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologs">homologs</a>. First, the cell undergoes <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange genetic information by <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a> often leading to physical connections (<a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">crossovers</a>) between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the <a href="/wiki/Spindle_apparatus" title="Spindle apparatus">spindle apparatus</a>. The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and three small polar bodies. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal genetic information, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent. Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> can act. </p><p>Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, the type of cell division used by <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> to divide one cell into two identical daughter cells. In some plants, fungi, and <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> meiosis results in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization. Some eukaryotes, like <a href="/wiki/Bdelloid_rotifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bdelloid rotifers">bdelloid rotifers</a>, do not have the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>. </p><p>Meiosis does not occur in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, which generally reproduce asexually via <a href="/wiki/Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>. However, a "sexual" process known as <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium or <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaeon</a> to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a> <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</a> in 1876 by the German biologist <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Hertwig" title="Oscar Hertwig">Oscar Hertwig</a>. It was described again in 1883, at the level of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, by the Belgian zoologist <a href="/wiki/Edouard_Van_Beneden" title="Edouard Van Beneden">Edouard Van Beneden</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Ascaris" title="Ascaris">Ascaris</a></i> roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a>, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. In 1911, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> geneticist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>, which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes. </p><p>The term "meiosis" is derived from the Greek word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μείωσις</span></span>, meaning 'lessening'. It was introduced to biology by <a href="/wiki/John_Bretland_Farmer" title="John Bretland Farmer">J.B. Farmer</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Edmund_Sharrock_Moore" title="John Edmund Sharrock Moore">J.E.S. Moore</a> in 1905, using the idiosyncratic rendering "maiosis": </p> <blockquote><p><i>We propose to apply the terms Maiosis or Maiotic phase to cover the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated as Heterotype and Homotype by <a href="/wiki/Walther_Flemming" title="Walther Flemming">Flemming</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The spelling was changed to "meiosis" by Koernicke (1905) and by Pantel and De Sinety (1906) to follow the usual conventions for <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">transliterating Greek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phases">Phases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meiosis is divided into <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis I">meiosis I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meiosis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiosis II">meiosis II</a> which are further divided into Karyokinesis I, Cytokinesis I, Karyokinesis II, and Cytokinesis II, respectively. The preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">Interphase</a> is divided into three phases: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G1_phase" title="G1 phase">Growth 1 (G<sub>1</sub>) phase</a>: In this very active phase, the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G<sub>1</sub>, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_phase" title="S phase">Synthesis (S) phase</a>: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical <a href="/wiki/Sister_chromatid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sister chromatid">sister chromatids</a> attached at a centromere. This replication does not change the <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">ploidy</a> of the cell since the centromere number remains the same. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G2_phase" title="G2 phase">Growth 2 (G<sub>2</sub>) phase</a>: G<sub>2</sub> phase as seen before mitosis is not present in meiosis. Meiotic prophase corresponds most closely to the G<sub>2</sub> phase of the mitotic cell cycle.</li></ul> <p>Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I separates replicated homologous chromosomes, each still made up of two sister chromatids, into two daughter cells, thus reducing the chromosome number by half. During meiosis II, sister chromatids decouple and the resultant daughter chromosomes are segregated into four daughter cells. For diploid organisms, the daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and contain only one copy of each chromosome. In some species, cells enter a resting phase known as <a href="/wiki/Interkinesis" title="Interkinesis">interkinesis</a> between meiosis I and meiosis II. </p><p>Meiosis I and II are each divided into <a href="/wiki/Prophase" title="Prophase">prophase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">metaphase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaphase" title="Anaphase">anaphase</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Telophase" title="Telophase">telophase</a> stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II). </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1108px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meiosis_Stages.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram of the meiotic phases"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Meiosis_Stages.svg/1100px-Meiosis_Stages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="1100" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Meiosis_Stages.svg/1650px-Meiosis_Stages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Meiosis_Stages.svg/2200px-Meiosis_Stages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2809" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Meiosis_Stages.svg" title="File:Meiosis Stages.svg"> </a></div>Diagram of the meiotic phases</div></div></div> <p>During meiosis, specific genes are more highly <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcribed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to strong meiotic stage-specific expression of <a href="/wiki/MRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRNA">mRNA</a>, there are also pervasive translational controls (e.g. selective usage of preformed mRNA), regulating the ultimate meiotic stage-specific protein expression of genes during meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Brar_2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brar_2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, both transcriptional and translational controls determine the broad restructuring of meiotic cells needed to carry out meiosis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meiosis_I">Meiosis I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Meiosis I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meiosis I segregates <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>, which are joined as tetrads (2n, 4c), producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) which each contain chromatid pairs (1n, 2c). Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid, meiosis I is referred to as a <i>reductional division</i>. Meiosis II is an <i>equational division</i> analogous to mitosis, in which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating four haploid daughter cells (1n, 1c).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meiosis_Prophase_I.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Meiosis_Prophase_I.png/350px-Meiosis_Prophase_I.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Meiosis_Prophase_I.png/525px-Meiosis_Prophase_I.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Meiosis_Prophase_I.png/700px-Meiosis_Prophase_I.png 2x" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="811" /></a><figcaption>Meiosis Prophase I in mice. In Leptotene (L), the axial elements (stained by SYCP3) begin to form. In Zygotene (Z), the transverse elements (SYCP1) and central elements of the synaptonemal complex are partially installed (appearing as yellow as they overlap with SYCP3). In Pachytene (P), it is fully installed except on the sex chromosomes. In Diplotene (D), it disassembles revealing chiasmata. CREST marks the centromeres.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synaptonemal_Complex.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Synaptonemal_Complex.svg/350px-Synaptonemal_Complex.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Synaptonemal_Complex.svg/525px-Synaptonemal_Complex.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Synaptonemal_Complex.svg/700px-Synaptonemal_Complex.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="231" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of the synaptonemal complex at different stages of prophase I and the chromosomes arranged as a linear array of loops.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prophase_I">Prophase I</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prophase I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prophase I is by far the longest phase of meiosis (lasting 13 out of 14 days in mice<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). During prophase I, homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair, <a href="/wiki/Synapsis" title="Synapsis">synapse</a>, and exchange genetic information (by <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>), forming at least one crossover per chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These crossovers become visible as chiasmata (plural; singular <a href="/wiki/Chiasma_(genetics)" title="Chiasma (genetics)">chiasma</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman249-502_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman249-502-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process facilitates stable pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence enables accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiotic division. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents (two chromosomes) or tetrads (four <a href="/wiki/Chromatids" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatids">chromatids</a>), with one chromosome coming from each parent. Prophase I is divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Leptotene">Leptotene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Leptotene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leptotene_stage" title="Leptotene stage">Leptotene stage</a></div> <p>The first stage of prophase I is the <i>leptotene</i> stage, also known as <i>leptonema</i>, from Greek words meaning "thin threads".<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> In this stage of prophase I, individual chromosomes—each consisting of two replicated sister chromatids—become "individualized" to form visible strands within the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lewins_Genes_X_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewins_Genes_X-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 353">: 353 </span></sup> The chromosomes each form a linear array of loops mediated by <a href="/wiki/Cohesin" title="Cohesin">cohesin</a>, and the lateral elements of the <a href="/wiki/Synaptonemal_complex" title="Synaptonemal complex">synaptonemal complex</a> assemble forming an "axial element" from which the loops emanate.<sup id="cite_ref-Zickler-2015_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zickler-2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recombination is initiated in this stage by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Spo11" title="Spo11">SPO11</a> which creates programmed <a href="/wiki/Double-strand_breaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-strand breaks">double strand breaks</a> (around 300 per meiosis in mice).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process generates single stranded DNA filaments coated by <a href="/wiki/RAD51" title="RAD51">RAD51</a> and <a href="/wiki/DMC1_(gene)" title="DMC1 (gene)">DMC1</a> which invade the homologous chromosomes, forming inter-axis bridges, and resulting in the pairing/co-alignment of homologues (to a distance of ~400 nm in mice).<sup id="cite_ref-Zickler-2015_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zickler-2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Zygotene">Zygotene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Zygotene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zygotene" title="Zygotene">Zygotene</a></div> <p>Leptotene is followed by the <i>zygotene</i> stage, also known as <i>zygonema</i>, from Greek words meaning "paired threads",<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> which in some organisms is also called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this stage the homologous chromosomes become much more closely (~100 nm) and stably paired (a process called synapsis) mediated by the installation of the transverse and central elements of the <a href="/wiki/Synaptonemal_complex" title="Synaptonemal complex">synaptonemal complex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zickler-2015_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zickler-2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Synapsis is thought to occur in a zipper-like fashion starting from a recombination nodule. The paired chromosomes are called bivalent or tetrad chromosomes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pachytene">Pachytene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pachytene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pachytene" title="Pachytene">Pachytene</a></div> <p>The <i>pachytene</i> stage (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">PAK</span>-i-teen</i></a>), also known as <i>pachynema</i>, from Greek words meaning "thick threads".<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> is the stage at which all autosomal chromosomes have synapsed. In this stage homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), is completed through the repair of the double strand breaks formed in leptotene.<sup id="cite_ref-Zickler-2015_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zickler-2015-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most breaks are repaired without forming crossovers resulting in <a href="/wiki/Gene_conversion" title="Gene conversion">gene conversion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a subset of breaks (at least one per chromosome) form crossovers between non-sister (homologous) chromosomes resulting in the exchange of genetic information.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exchange of information between the homologous chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through an ordinary light microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Diplotene">Diplotene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diplotene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <i><a href="/wiki/Diplotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplotene">diplotene</a></i> stage, also known as <i>diplonema</i>, from Greek words meaning "two threads",<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Synaptonemal_complex" title="Synaptonemal complex">synaptonemal complex</a> disassembles and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I to allow homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell. </p><p>In human fetal <a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a>, all developing oocytes develop to this stage and are arrested in prophase I before birth.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suspended state is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Dictyotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictyotene"><i>dictyotene stage</i></a> or dictyate. It lasts until meiosis is resumed to prepare the oocyte for ovulation, which happens at puberty or even later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Diakinesis">Diakinesis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diakinesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chromosomes condense further during the <i>diakinesis</i> stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through".<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad_2008_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad_2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles <a href="/wiki/Prometaphase" title="Prometaphase">prometaphase</a> of mitosis; the <a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">nucleoli</a> disappear, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear membrane">nuclear membrane</a> disintegrates into vesicles, and the <a href="/wiki/Spindle_apparatus" title="Spindle apparatus">meiotic spindle</a> begins to form. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Meiotic_spindle_formation">Meiotic spindle formation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Meiotic spindle formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike mitotic cells, human and mouse oocytes do not have <a href="/wiki/Centrosome" title="Centrosome">centrosomes</a> to produce the meiotic spindle. In mice, approximately 80 MicroTubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs) form a sphere in the ooplasm and begin to nucleate microtubules that reach out towards chromosomes, attaching to the chromosomes at the <a href="/wiki/Kinetochore" title="Kinetochore">kinetochore</a>. Over time, the MTOCs merge until two poles have formed, generating a barrel shaped spindle.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In human oocytes spindle microtubule nucleation begins on the chromosomes, forming an aster that eventually expands to surround the chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chromosomes then slide along the microtubules towards the equator of the spindle, at which point the chromosome kinetochores form end-on attachments to microtubules.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metaphase_I">Metaphase I</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Metaphase I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As <i>kinetochore microtubules</i> from both spindle poles attach to their respective kinetochores, the paired homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. This attachment is referred to as a bipolar attachment. The physical basis of the <a href="/wiki/Independent_assortment" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent assortment">independent assortment</a> of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along with the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman249-502_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman249-502-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protein complex <a href="/wiki/Cohesin" title="Cohesin">cohesin</a> holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase. In mitosis, the force of kinetochore microtubules pulling in opposite directions creates tension. The cell senses this tension and does not progress with anaphase until all the chromosomes are properly bi-oriented. In meiosis, establishing tension ordinarily requires at least one crossover per chromosome pair in addition to cohesin between sister chromatids (see <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_segregation" title="Chromosome segregation">Chromosome segregation</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anaphase_I">Anaphase I</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anaphase I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes (which each consist of a pair of sister chromatids) to opposite poles. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman249-502_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman249-502-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike in mitosis, only the cohesin from the chromosome arms is degraded while the cohesin surrounding the centromere remains protected by a protein named Shugoshin (Japanese for "guardian spirit"), what prevents the sister chromatids from separating.<sup id="cite_ref-Pierce,_Benjamin_2009_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierce,_Benjamin_2009-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the sister chromatids to remain together while homologs are segregated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Telophase_I">Telophase I</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Telophase I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. However, cytokinesis does not fully complete resulting in "cytoplasmic bridges" which enable the cytoplasm to be shared between daughter cells until the end of meiosis II.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I. </p><p>Cells may enter a period of rest known as <a href="/wiki/Interkinesis" title="Interkinesis">interkinesis</a> or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meiosis_II">Meiosis II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Meiosis II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids. Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The result is the production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes; 23 in humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. </p><p>In <b>prophase II</b>, we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_envelope" title="Nuclear envelope">nuclear envelope</a> again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division. </p><p>In <b>metaphase II</b>, the centromeres contain two <a href="/wiki/Kinetochore" title="Kinetochore">kinetochores</a> that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is followed by <b>anaphase II</b>, in which the remaining centromeric cohesin, not protected by Shugoshin anymore, is cleaved, allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.<sup id="cite_ref-Pierce,_Benjamin_2009_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierce,_Benjamin_2009-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process ends with <b>telophase II</b>, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes re-form and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. </p><p>Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_function">Origin and function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Origin and function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_meiosis">Origin of meiosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Origin of meiosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meiosis appears to be a fundamental characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic organisms</a> and to have been present early in eukaryotic evolution. Eukaryotes that were once thought to lack meiotic sex have recently been shown to likely have, or once have had, this capability. As one example, <a href="/wiki/Giardia_duodenalis" title="Giardia duodenalis"><i>Giardia intestinalis</i></a>, a common intestinal parasite, was previously considered to have descended from a lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, <i>G. intestinalis</i> has now been found to possess a core set of meiotic genes, including five meiosis specific genes.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also evidence for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">meiotic recombination</a>, indicative of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, was found in <i>G. intestinalis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of organisms previously thought to be asexual are parasitic protozoa of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a></i>, which cause human disease. However, these organisms were shown to have a sexual cycle consistent with a meiotic process.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoeba</a> were once generally regarded as asexual, evidence has been presented that most lineages are anciently sexual and that the majority of asexual groups probably arose recently and independently.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dacks and Rogers<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed, based on a phylogenetic analysis, that facultative sex was likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_variation">Genetic variation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Genetic variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The new combinations of DNA created during meiosis are a significant source of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a> alongside mutation, resulting in new combinations of <a href="/wiki/Alleles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleles">alleles</a>, which may be beneficial. Meiosis generates gamete genetic diversity in two ways: (1) <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Independent_Assortment" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Independent Assortment">Law of Independent Assortment</a>. The independent orientation of homologous chromosome pairs along the metaphase plate during metaphase I and orientation of sister chromatids in metaphase II, this is the subsequent separation of homologs and sister chromatids during anaphase I and II, it allows a random and independent distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell (and ultimately to gametes);<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and (2) <a href="/wiki/Crossing_over,_genetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossing over, genetic">Crossing Over</a>. The physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by homologous <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombination</a> during prophase I results in new combinations of genetic information within chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, such physical exchange does not always occur during meiosis. In the oocytes of the silkworm <i><a href="/wiki/Bombyx_mori" title="Bombyx mori">Bombyx mori</a></i>, meiosis is completely <a href="/wiki/Chiasma_(genetics)" title="Chiasma (genetics)">achiasmate</a> (lacking crossovers).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Synaptonemal_complex" title="Synaptonemal complex">synaptonemal complexes</a> are present during the <a href="/wiki/Pachytene" title="Pachytene">pachytene</a> stage of meiosis in <i>B. mori</i>, crossing-over <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a> is absent between the paired <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prophase_I_arrest">Prophase I arrest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prophase I arrest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Female mammals and birds are born possessing all the oocytes needed for future ovulations, and these <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocytes</a> are arrested at the prophase I stage of meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Mira1998_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mira1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, as an example, oocytes are formed between three and four months of <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a> within the fetus and are therefore present at birth. During this prophase I arrested stage (<a href="/wiki/Dictyate" title="Dictyate">dictyate</a>), which may last for decades, four copies of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> are present in the oocytes. The arrest of ooctyes at the four genome copy stage was proposed to provide the informational redundancy needed to <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repair damage in the DNA</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mira1998_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mira1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The repair process used appears to involve <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair<sup id="cite_ref-Mira1998_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mira1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stringer2020_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stringer2020-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prophase I arrested oocytes have a high capability for efficient repair of <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a>, particularly exogenously induced double-strand breaks.<sup id="cite_ref-Stringer2020_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stringer2020-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA repair capability appears to be a key quality control mechanism in the female germ line and a critical determinant of <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stringer2020_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stringer2020-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meiosis_as_an_adaptation_for_repairing_germline_DNA">Meiosis as an adaptation for repairing germline DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Meiosis as an adaptation for repairing germline DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">Genetic recombination</a> can be viewed as fundamentally a <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> process, and that when it occurs during meiosis it is an adaptation for repairing the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomic</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> that is passed on to progeny.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental findings indicate that a substantial benefit of meiosis is <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombinational repair</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a>, as indicated by the following examples. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a> is an agent that causes <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> leading to oxidative DNA damage.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of the yeast <i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i> with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> increased the frequency of mating and the formation of meiotic spores by 4 to 18-fold.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Volvox_carteri" title="Volvox carteri">Volvox carteri</a></i>, a haploid multicellular, facultatively sexual green algae, can be induced by heat shock to reproduce by meiotic sex.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This induction can be inhibited by <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a> indicating that the induction of meiotic sex by heat shock is likely mediated by <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> leading to increased DNA damage.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_life_cycles">In life cycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In life cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gametic_meiosis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png/350px-Gametic_meiosis.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png 1.5x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Diplontic life cycle</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zygotic_meiosis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Zygotic_meiosis.png/350px-Zygotic_meiosis.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Zygotic_meiosis.png 1.5x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Haplontic life cycle.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Biological life cycle</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></div> <p>Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, consisting of the cyclical process of growth and development by <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitotic</a> cell division, production of gametes by meiosis and fertilization. At certain stages of the life cycle, <a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">germ cells</a> produce gametes. <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">Somatic cells</a> make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production. </p><p>Cycling meiosis and fertilization events results in alternation between haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (<i>diplontic</i> life cycle), during the haploid state (<i>haplontic</i> life cycle), or both (<i>haplodiplontic</i> life cycle), in which there are two distinct organism phases, one with haploid cells and the other with diploid cells. </p><p>In the <i>diplontic life cycle</i> (with pre-gametic meiosis), as in humans, the organism is multicellular and diploid, grown by mitosis from a diploid cell called the <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to make haploid gametes (the <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">spermatozoa</a> in males and <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> in females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> to grow into the organism. </p><p>In the <i>haplontic life cycle</i> (with post-zygotic meiosis), the organism is haploid, by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a>. Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> utilize the haplontic life cycle. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the <i>haplodiplontic life cycle</i> (with sporic or intermediate meiosis), the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to produce a new diploid organism. The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_plants_and_animals">In plants and animals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: In plants and animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png/330px-MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="466" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png/495px-MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png/660px-MitosisAndMeiosis_en.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Overview of chromatides' and chromosomes' distribution within the mitotic and meiotic cycle of a male human cell</figcaption></figure> <p>Meiosis occurs in all animals and plants. The result, the production of gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, is the same, but the detailed process is different. In animals, meiosis produces gametes directly. In land plants and some algae, there is an <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a> such that meiosis in the diploid <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a> generation produces haploid spores instead of gametes. When they germinate, these spores undergo repeated cell division by mitosis, developing into a multicellular haploid <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> generation, which then produces gametes directly (i.e. without further meiosis). </p><p>In both animals and plants, the final stage is for the gametes to fuse to form a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> in which the original number of chromosomes is restored.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_mammals">In mammals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: In mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as <a href="/wiki/Oocyte" title="Oocyte">oocytes</a> (singular: oocyte). Each primary oocyte divides twice in meiosis, unequally in each case. The first division produces a daughter cell, and a much smaller polar body which may or may not undergo a second division. In meiosis II, division of the daughter cell produces a second polar body, and a single haploid cell, which enlarges to become an <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a>. Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and two or three polar bodies. </p><p>There are pauses during meiosis in females. Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_follicle" title="Ovarian follicle">follicle</a>. At the beginning of each <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a> secretion from the anterior pituitary stimulates a few follicles to mature in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Folliculogenesis" title="Folliculogenesis">folliculogenesis</a>. During this process, the maturing oocytes resume meiosis and continue until metaphase II of meiosis II, where they are again arrested just before ovulation. If these oocytes are fertilized by sperm, they will resume and complete meiosis. During folliculogenesis in humans, usually one follicle becomes dominant while the others undergo <a href="/wiki/Follicular_atresia" title="Follicular atresia">atresia</a>. The process of meiosis in females occurs during <a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a>, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the <a href="/wiki/Dictyate" title="Dictyate">dictyate</a> stage and lacks the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Centrosome" title="Centrosome">centrosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In males, meiosis occurs during <a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Seminiferous_tubule" title="Seminiferous tubule">seminiferous tubules</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testicles</a>. Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called <a href="/wiki/Spermatocyte" title="Spermatocyte">spermatocytes</a>, which will later mature to become <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoa</a>. Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, proposed to be a stimulator of meiosis. This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid. Sensitivity to retinoic acid is also adjusted by proteins called nanos and DAZL.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is required postnatally to stimulate spermatogonia differentiation which results several days later in spermatocytes undergoing meiosis, however retinoic acid is not required during the time when meiosis initiates.<sup id="cite_ref-Teletin_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teletin-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Female#Mammalian_females" title="Female">female mammals</a>, meiosis begins immediately after primordial germ cells migrate to the ovary in the embryo. Some studies suggest that retinoic acid derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) stimulates meiosis in embryonic ovarian oogonia and that tissues of the embryonic male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowles_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowles-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is not required for initiation of either female meiosis which occurs during embryogenesis<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or male meiosis which initiates postnatally.<sup id="cite_ref-Teletin_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teletin-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flagellates">Flagellates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Flagellates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the majority of eukaryotes have a two-divisional meiosis (though sometimes <a href="/wiki/Chiasma_(genetics)" title="Chiasma (genetics)">achiasmatic</a>), a very rare form, one-divisional meiosis, occurs in some flagellates (<a href="/wiki/Parabasalid" title="Parabasalid">parabasalids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxymonad" title="Oxymonad">oxymonads</a>) from the gut of the wood-feeding cockroach <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptocercus" title="Cryptocercus">Cryptocercus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-raikov_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raikov-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_human_genetics_and_disease">Role in human genetics and disease</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Role in human genetics and disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recombination among the 23 pairs of human chromosomes is responsible for redistributing not just the actual chromosomes, but also pieces of each of them. There is also an estimated 1.6-fold more recombination in females relative to males. In addition, average, female recombination is higher at the centromeres and male recombination is higher at the telomeres. On average, 1 million bp (1 Mb) correspond to 1 cMorgan (cm = 1% recombination frequency).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frequency of cross-overs remain uncertain. In yeast, mouse and human, it has been estimated that ≥200 double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed per meiotic cell. However, only a subset of DSBs (~5–30% depending on the organism), go on to produce crossovers,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would result in only 1-2 cross-overs per human chromosome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nondisjunction">Nondisjunction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nondisjunction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nondisjunction" title="Nondisjunction">Nondisjunction</a></div> <p>The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed <i>disjunction</i>. When the segregation is not normal, it is called <i>nondisjunction</i>. This results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for <a href="/wiki/Trisomy" title="Trisomy">trisomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Monosomy" title="Monosomy">monosomy</a>. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. </p><p>Most monosomic and trisomic human embryos are not viable, but some aneuploidies can be tolerated, such as trisomy for the smallest chromosome, chromosome 21. Phenotypes of these aneuploidies range from severe developmental disorders to asymptomatic. Medical conditions include but are not limited to: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> – trisomy of chromosome 21</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patau_syndrome" title="Patau syndrome">Patau syndrome</a> – trisomy of chromosome 13</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards syndrome">Edwards syndrome</a> – trisomy of chromosome 18</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome</a> – extra X chromosomes in males – i.e. XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a> – lacking of one X chromosome in females – i.e. X0</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_X_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple X syndrome">Triple X syndrome</a> – an extra X chromosome in females</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobs_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobs syndrome">Jacobs syndrome</a> – an extra Y chromosome in males.</li></ul> <p>The probability of nondisjunction in human oocytes increases with increasing maternal age,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presumably due to loss of <a href="/wiki/Cohesin" title="Cohesin">cohesin</a> over time.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_to_mitosis">Comparison to mitosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Comparison to mitosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful. The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Meiosis</th> <th>Mitosis </th></tr> <tr> <td>End result</td> <td>Normally four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent</td> <td>Two cells, having the same number of chromosomes as the parent </td></tr> <tr> <td>Function</td> <td>Production of gametes (sex cells) in sexually reproducing eukaryotes with diplont life cycle</td> <td>Cellular reproduction, growth, repair, asexual reproduction </td></tr> <tr> <td>Where does it happen?</td> <td>Almost all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, and <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-raikov_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raikov-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />In gonads, before gametes (in diplontic life cycles); <br />After zygotes (in haplontic); <br />Before spores (in haplodiplontic)</td> <td>All proliferating cells in all eukaryotes </td></tr> <tr> <td>Steps</td> <td>Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, <br />Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II</td> <td>Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genetically same as parent?</td> <td>No</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crossing over happens?</td> <td>Yes, normally occurs between each pair of homologous chromosomes</td> <td>Very rarely </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pairing of homologous chromosomes?</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cytokinesis</td> <td>Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II</td> <td>Occurs in Telophase </td></tr> <tr> <td>Centromeres split</td> <td>Does not occur in Anaphase I, but occurs in Anaphase II</td> <td>Occurs in Anaphase </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molecular_regulation">Molecular regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Molecular regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>How a cell proceeds to meiotic division in meiotic cell division is not well known. <a href="/wiki/Maturation_promoting_factor" title="Maturation promoting factor">Maturation promoting factor (MPF)</a> seemingly have role in frog Oocyte meiosis. In the fungus <a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe"><i>S. pombe</i></a>. there is a role of MeiRNA binding protein for entry to meiotic cell division.<sup id="cite_ref-Kimble_2011_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimble_2011-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested that Yeast CEP1 gene product, that binds centromeric region CDE1, may play a role in chromosome pairing during meiosis-I.<sup id="cite_ref-Honigberg_1993_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honigberg_1993-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meiotic recombination is mediated through double stranded break, which is catalyzed by Spo11 protein. Also Mre11, Sae2 and Exo1 play role in breakage and recombination. After the breakage happen, recombination take place which is typically homologous. The recombination may go through either a double Holliday junction (dHJ) pathway or synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA). (The second one gives to noncrossover product).<sup id="cite_ref-Lam_2014_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lam_2014-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seemingly there are checkpoints for meiotic cell division too. In S. pombe, Rad proteins, S. pombe Mek1 (with FHA kinase domain), Cdc25, Cdc2 and unknown factor is thought to form a checkpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12482912_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12482912-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In vertebrate oogenesis, maintained by cytostatic factor (CSF) has role in switching into meiosis-II.<sup id="cite_ref-Honigberg_1993_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honigberg_1993-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_coincidence" title="Coefficient of coincidence">Coefficient of coincidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">Oxidative stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synizesis_(biology)" title="Synizesis (biology)">Synizesis (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Biological life cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">Apomixis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">Parthenogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachymeiosis" title="Brachymeiosis">Brachymeiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitotic_recombination" title="Mitotic recombination">Mitotic recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">Dikaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_of_yeast" title="Mating of yeast">Mating of yeast</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output 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"Regulation of meiotic progression by the meiosis-specific checkpoint kinase Mek1 in fission yeast". <i>Journal of Cell Science</i>. <b>116</b> (Pt 2): 259–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjcs.00232">10.1242/jcs.00232</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F62904">10261/62904</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12482912">12482912</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14608163">14608163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cell+Science&rft.atitle=Regulation+of+meiotic+progression+by+the+meiosis-specific+checkpoint+kinase+Mek1+in+fission+yeast&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=Pt+2&rft.pages=259-71&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F62904&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14608163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12482912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjcs.00232&rft.aulast=P%C3%A9rez-Hidalgo&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Moreno%2C+S&rft.au=San-Segundo%2C+PA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeiosis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_texts">Cited texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Cited texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2005" class="citation book cs1">Freeman S (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologicalscienc00scot"><i>Biological Science</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-140941-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-140941-5"><bdi>978-0-13-140941-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Science&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-13-140941-5&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologicalscienc00scot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMeiosis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meiosis&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Meiosis" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Meiosis">Meiosis</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnkyrk.com/meiosis.html">Meiosis Flash Animation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100823065031/http://www.johnkyrk.com/meiosis.html">Archived</a> 2010-08-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_BIO/tutorials/meiosis/page3.html">Animations from the U. of Arizona Biology Dept.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140308200250/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Meiosis.html">Meiosis at Kimball's Biology Pages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110925004349/http://www.khanacademy.org/video/phases-of-meiosis?playlist=Biology">Khan Academy, video lecture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190215050532/http://www.cellcycleontology.org/">CCO</a> The Cell-Cycle Ontology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120074/bio19.swf">Stages of Meiosis animation</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiology.org/cell-biology/overview-of-meiosis/">"Abby Dernburg Seminar: Chromosome 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_(biology)" title="Template talk:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sex" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological<br />terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">parasexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Sex organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile-vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile-vaginal intercourse">Penile-vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex" title="Category:Sex">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cell_cycle_proteins" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cell_cycle_proteins" title="Template:Cell cycle proteins"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cell_cycle_proteins" title="Template talk:Cell cycle proteins"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cell_cycle_proteins" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cell cycle proteins"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cell_cycle_proteins" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclin" title="Cyclin">Cyclin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin_A" title="Cyclin A">A</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyclin_A1" title="Cyclin A1">A1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin_A2" title="Cyclin A2">A2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin_B" title="Cyclin B">B</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyclin_B1" title="Cyclin B1">B1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin_B2" title="Cyclin B2">B2</a>, B3)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin_D" title="Cyclin D">D</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyclin_D1" title="Cyclin D1">D1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin_D2" title="Cyclin D2">D2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin_D3" title="Cyclin D3">D3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin_E" title="Cyclin E">E</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyclin_E1" title="Cyclin E1">E1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin_E2" title="Cyclin E2">E2</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase">CDK</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_1" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_2" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_3" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_4" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_5" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_6" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_7" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_8" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_9" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_10" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDC2L2" title="CDC2L2">11A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDC2L1" title="CDC2L1">11B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDK12" title="CDK12">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDK13" title="CDK13">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PFTK1" title="PFTK1">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDK-activating_kinase" title="CDK-activating kinase">CDK-activating kinase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_inhibitor_protein" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor protein">CDK inhibitor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/INK4" title="INK4">INK4a/ARF</a> (<a href="/wiki/P14arf" title="P14arf">p14arf</a>/<a href="/wiki/P16" title="P16">p16</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDKN2B" title="CDKN2B">p15</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDKN2C" title="CDKN2C">p18</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDKN2D" title="CDKN2D">p19</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle#Inhibitors" title="Cell cycle">cip/kip</a> (<a href="/wiki/P21" title="P21">p21</a>, <a href="/wiki/CDKN1B" title="CDKN1B">p27</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_inhibitor_1C" title="Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C">p57</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/P53_p63_p73_family" title="P53 p63 p73 family">P53 p63 p73 family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P53" title="P53">p53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TP63" title="TP63">p63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P73" title="P73">p73</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cdk1" class="mw-redirect" title="Cdk1">Cdc2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cdc25" title="Cdc25">Cdc25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CDC42" title="CDC42">Cdc42</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_apoptosis_susceptibility_protein" title="Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein">Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E2F" title="E2F">E2F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturation_promoting_factor" title="Maturation promoting factor">Maturation promoting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wee1" title="Wee1">Wee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cullin" title="Cullin">Cullin</a> (<a href="/wiki/CUL7" title="CUL7">CUL7</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phases and<br />checkpoints</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interphase" title="Interphase">Interphase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G1_phase" title="G1 phase">G<sub>1</sub> phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_phase" title="S phase">S phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G2_phase" title="G2 phase">G<sub>2</sub> phase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">M phase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preprophase" title="Preprophase">Preprophase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophase" title="Prophase">Prophase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prometaphase" title="Prometaphase">Prometaphase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphase" title="Metaphase">Metaphase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaphase" title="Anaphase">Anaphase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telophase" title="Telophase">Telophase</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">Cytokinesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle_checkpoint" title="Cell cycle checkpoint">Cell cycle checkpoints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_point" title="Restriction point">Restriction point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spindle_checkpoint" title="Spindle checkpoint">Spindle checkpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postreplication_checkpoint" title="Postreplication checkpoint">Postreplication checkpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cellular phases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G0_phase" title="G0 phase">G<sub>0</sub> phase</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Meiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template talk:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Ploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genetic material</a>/<a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex chromosome</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">allosome</a> or heterosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Macrochromosome/Microchromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">Circular chromosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Extra chromosome</a> (or accessory chromosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Supernumerary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_chromosome" title="B chromosome">A chromosome/B chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinoflagellate chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isochromosome" title="Isochromosome">Isochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">Satellite chromosome</a></li> <li><i>Centromere position</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Metacentric" title="Centromere">Metacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submetacentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Submetacentric">Submetacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Telocentric">Telocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrocentric">Acrocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocentric_chromosome" title="Holocentric chromosome">Holocentric</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Centromere number</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acentric_fragment" title="Acentric fragment">Acentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocentric">Monocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicentric_chromosome" title="Dicentric chromosome">Dicentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycentric_chromosome" title="Polycentric chromosome">Polycentric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes<br />and evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Structural_abnormalities" title="Chromosome abnormality">Structural alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">Chromosomal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Chromosomal translocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Numerical_disorders" title="Chromosome abnormality">Numerical alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Euploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploidization">Polyploidization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a>: <a href="/wiki/Telomere-binding_protein" title="Telomere-binding protein">Telomere-binding protein</a> (<a href="/wiki/TINF2" title="TINF2">TINF2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H1" title="Histone H1">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2A" title="Histone H2A">H2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2B" title="Histone H2B">H2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H3" title="Histone H3">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H4" title="Histone H4">H4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CENPA" title="CENPA">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_B" title="Centromere protein B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPC1" title="CENPC1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPC2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPC2 (page does not exist)">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_E" title="Centromere protein E">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPF" title="CENPF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPH" title="CENPH">H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPI" title="CENPI">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPJ" title="CENPJ">J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPK" title="CENPK">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPM" title="CENPM">M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPN" title="CENPN">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPO" title="CENPO">O</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPP (page does not exist)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPQ (page does not exist)">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPT" title="CENPT">T</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature">International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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