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href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="رابرت باکر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رابرت باکر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="رابرت باکر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابرت باکر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1" title="روبرت باشر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روبرت باشر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%90%E3%83%83%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC" title="ロバート・バッチャー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロバート・バッチャー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Бэчер, Роберт Фокс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бэчер, Роберт Фокс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Robert Bacher" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Fox_Bacher" title="Robert Fox Bacher – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Robert Fox Bacher" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E5%BD%BB" title="罗伯特·巴彻 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="罗伯特·巴彻" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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Please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead.</div></div><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American nuclear physicist (1905–2004)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Robert Bacher</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_F._Bacher.GIF" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head and shoulders of a man in suit and tie with glasses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_F._Bacher.GIF/220px-Robert_F._Bacher.GIF" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_F._Bacher.GIF/330px-Robert_F._Bacher.GIF 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Robert_F._Bacher.GIF/440px-Robert_F._Bacher.GIF 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="615" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1905-08-31</span>)</span>August 31, 1905<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Loudonville,_Ohio" title="Loudonville, Ohio">Loudonville, Ohio</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 18, 2004<span style="display:none">(2004-11-18)</span> (aged 99)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Montecito,_California" title="Montecito, California">Montecito, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">MS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Boyce_McDaniel" title="Boyce McDaniel">Boyce McDaniel</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Robert F. Bacher's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg/150px-Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg/225px-Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Robert_F._Bacher_signature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="51" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Robert Fox Bacher</b> (August 31, 1905 – November 18, 2004) was an American <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> and one of the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Born in <a href="/wiki/Loudonville,_Ohio" title="Loudonville, Ohio">Loudonville, Ohio</a>, Bacher obtained his <a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">undergraduate degree</a> and doctorate from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>, writing his 1930 doctoral thesis under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hyperfine_structure" title="Hyperfine structure">hyperfine structure</a> of atomic levels. After graduate work at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), he accepted a job at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. In 1935 he accepted an offer from <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> to work with him at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>. It was there that Bacher collaborated with Bethe on his book <i>Nuclear Physics. A: Stationary States of Nuclei</i> (1936), the first of three books that would become known as the "Bethe Bible". </p><p>In December 1940, Bacher joined the <a href="/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory" title="MIT Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> at MIT, although he did not immediately cease his research at Cornell into the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">neutron cross section</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>. The Radiation Laboratory was organized into two sections, one for incoming <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> signals, and one for outgoing radar signals. Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section. Here he gained valuable experience in administration, coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists, but also those of <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>. In 1942, Bacher was approached by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> to join the Manhattan Project at its new laboratory in <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos, New Mexico</a>. It was at Bacher's insistence that Los Alamos became a civilian rather than a military laboratory. At Los Alamos, Bacher headed the project's P (Physics) Division, and later its G (Gadget) Division. Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer, and the two men discussed the project's progress on a daily basis. </p><p>After the war, Bacher became director of the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies at Cornell. He also served on the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Atomic_Energy_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Atomic Energy Commission">U.S. Atomic Energy Commission</a>, the civilian agency that replaced the wartime Manhattan Project, and in 1947 he became one of its inaugural commissioners. He left in 1949 to become head Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy at Caltech. He was appointed a member of the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a> (PSAC) in 1958. In 1962, he became Caltech's vice president and <a href="/wiki/Provost_(education)" title="Provost (education)">provost</a>. He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970, and became a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> in 1976. He died in 2004 at the age of 99. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_career">Early life and career</h2></div> <p>Bacher was born in <a href="/wiki/Loudonville,_Ohio" title="Loudonville, Ohio">Loudonville, Ohio</a>, on August 31, 1905, the only child of Harry and Byrl Fox Bacher. In 1908, the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor,_Michigan" title="Ann Arbor, Michigan">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20082–3_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20082–3-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where Harry worked as a banker and Byrl as a voice teacher on the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> faculty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacher attended the W. S. Perry School, and later <a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor_High_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann Arbor High School">Ann Arbor High School</a>. While there he met Professor <a href="/wiki/Harrison_M._Randall" title="Harrison M. Randall">Harrison M. Randall</a>, the head of the physics department at the University of Michigan, who encouraged him to study physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Oral_History,_part_1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oral_History,_part_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher entered the University of Michigan, where he joined the <a href="/wiki/Kappa_Sigma" title="Kappa Sigma">Kappa Sigma</a> <a href="/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities" title="Fraternities and sororities">fraternity</a> and lived in the frat house. He became the house manager in his <a href="/wiki/Sophomore_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophomore year">sophomore year</a>, but moved back home in his <a href="/wiki/Junior_(education_year)" title="Junior (education year)">junior</a> year to concentrate on physics. At Randall's suggestion he applied to the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences</a>, which he entered in 1926 to study for his doctorate. His fees were paid by his family, but his father had a heart attack and could no longer afford them, so in 1927 Bacher moved back to Ann Arbor, where he lived at home,<sup id="cite_ref-Oral_History,_part_1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oral_History,_part_1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093–5_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093–5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and attended the University of Michigan. He received a Charles A. Coffin Foundation Fellowship from <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20084–6_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20084–6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To build up the theoretical physics department at the University of Michigan, Randall recruited four distinguished young physicists to work at Ann Arbor in 1927: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Laporte" title="Otto Laporte">Otto Laporte</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_M._Dennison" title="David M. Dennison">David M. Dennison</a>. The University of Michigan was no longer a backwater in theoretical physics. Bacher immediately signed up for Goudsmit's course on atomic structure. With Goudsmit he investigated the <a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hyperfine_structure" title="Hyperfine structure">hyperfine structure</a> of atomic levels, which became the subject of his 1930 <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 30, 1930, Bacher married Jean Dow. His mother gave them a <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_A_(1927%E2%80%931931)" title="Ford Model A (1927–1931)">Ford Model A</a> and the use of the family's lakeside holiday house, where they entertained guests including <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>. In 1931, with a <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> Fellowship, he spent a year at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) because <a href="/wiki/Ira_Bowen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ira Bowen">Ira Bowen</a> taught there. At Caltech Bacher attended lectures by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a>, but spent most of his time at the <a href="/wiki/Mt._Wilson_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Mt. Wilson Observatory">Mt. Wilson Observatory</a>, which had a better library. Bacher decided to create a work listing the energy, <a href="/wiki/Coupling_constant" title="Coupling constant">coupling constant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parity_(physics)" title="Parity (physics)">parity</a> and electron configurations of all the known atoms and <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, working with Goudsmit back in Ann Arbor. The result was a book, <i>Atomic Energy States as Derived from the Analysis of Optical Spectra</i> (1932), which they dedicated to Randall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20085_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20085-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second year of his National Research Council Fellowship, Bacher moved across the country to the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> to work with <a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a>, who had taught Bacher at Harvard. While there, Slater asked him to conduct a seminar on <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>'s recent discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>. Reading Chadwick's paper, he realized that anomalies in then-current theory would be resolved if the <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> of the neutron was <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>. This became the subject of a letter he submitted to the <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i> with <a href="/wiki/Visiting_scholar" title="Visiting scholar">visiting scholar</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20098–9_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20098–9-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A year later, Bacher became the first to suggest the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_magnetic_moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron magnetic moment">neutron had a magnetic moment</a> equal to about minus one <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magneton" title="Nuclear magneton">nuclear magneton</a>, based on the unusually small magnetic moment of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> determined from its hyperfine structure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1986412_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1986412-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afterwards Bacher returned to the University of Michigan on an Alfred H. Lloyd Fellowship. Jobs were hard to find at this time due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and in 1934 he accepted a job at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, where he worked with <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Zacharias" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerrold Zacharias">Jerrold Zacharias</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerome_Kellogg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerome Kellogg (page does not exist)">Jerome Kellogg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sid_Millman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sid Millman (page does not exist)">Sid Millman</a>. However it was difficult living in New York on his salary, and Jean gave birth to their first child, Martha, in December 1935. A second child, Andrew, was born in 1938. Bacher therefore accepted an offer from <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> to work with him at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>. Ithaca was a university town similar to Ann Arbor, where Bacher and Jean had been raised. At Cornell Bacher worked with Bethe on his book <i>Nuclear Physics. A: Stationary States of Nuclei</i> (1936), the first of three books that would become known as the "Bethe Bible".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20086–8_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20086–8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-right"><div class="title"><div>Los Alamos ID badges</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Robert Bacher"><img alt="Mug shot of a man with glasses in suit and tie. The number O-15 appears in front of him." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg/140px-Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg/210px-Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg/280px-Robert_Bacher_Los_Alamos_ID_badge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1564" data-file-height="2212" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Robert Bacher</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 170px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jean Dow Bacher"><img alt="Mug shot of woman with glasses in suit The number V-56 appears in front of him." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg/140px-Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg/210px-Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg/280px-Jean_Dow_Bacher_Los_Alamos_identity_badge_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1528" data-file-height="2173" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Jean Dow Bacher</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <p>In December 1940 Bacher joined the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> at MIT, but did not immediately cease his research. He reached an arrangement with its director, <a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee Alvin DuBridge</a>, to return to Cornell for four days every three weeks until it was completed. He was researching the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">neutron cross section</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, a topic of interest to Enrico Fermi, who was attempting to build a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, but whose figures did not agree with Bacher's. Bacher carefully checked his results, and Fermi, convinced of their correctness, urged Bacher to publish them. Bacher submitted a paper to the <i>Physical Review</i> with instructions to withhold publication until after the war, and the paper was not published until 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> DuBridge organized the Radiation Laboratory into two sections, one for incoming <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> signals, and one for outgoing radar signals. Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section. Here he gained valuable experience in administration, coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists, but also those of General Electric and <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later recalled: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We quickly concluded that the ultimate discrimination between signals reflected from a target, as opposed to noise from the transmitter, should be done finally on the cathode-ray tube. We had to develop the tubes, and then contract with GE and RCA to work together on producing them. I supervised the contracts myself, visiting GE one week and RCA the next, and the following week we would hold a joint meeting at the Rad Lab in Cambridge. I was getting into contract management."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h3></div><p> In 1942, Bacher and Rabi, the Radiation Laboratory's assistant director, were approached by Oppenheimer to join the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> at its new <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico</a>. They convinced Oppenheimer that the plan for a military laboratory would not work, since a scientific effort would need to be a civilian affair. The plan was modified, and the new laboratory would be a civilian one, run by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> under contract from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a>. Bacher felt that this was his first contribution to the success of the project. He met with Oppenheimer at Los Alamos in April 1943, but was not convinced that he was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200915–17_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200915–17-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oppenheimer wrote to him that:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You know that I have been extremely eager to have your help in this work. I think perhaps you have not fully realized how much I appreciate your administrative experience and obvious administrative wisdom, nor how aware I am of our need for just this in the present project. Perhaps too you do not evaluate highly enough the fact that you have worked so much in neutron physics, and that you are so well informed about the last year's developments at MIT. These three qualifications make you, in my opinion, very nearly unique. In addition, I want to express in writing my own confidence in your stability and judgement, qualities on which this stormy enterprise puts a very high premium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200917_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200917-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leslie_Groves,_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two men in suits, with medals pinned on the left breast. One shakes hands with a fat man in an Army uniform." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg/220px-Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg/330px-Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg/440px-Leslie_Groves%2C_Richard_Tolman_and_Robert_Bacher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2764" data-file-height="2218" /></a><figcaption>Bacher is awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> by Major General <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr.">Leslie R. Groves, Jr.</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Bacher then accepted the job at Los Alamos, moving there in May 1943 with his family to become the head of the Experimental Physics Division (P Division). His wife <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Dow_Bacher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Dow Bacher (page does not exist)">Jean Dow Bacher</a> was also hired to work as a <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computer</a> in the Theoretical Division (T Division).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his seven group leaders he had John H. Williams, <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_H._Manley" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Manley">John H. Manley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Darol_Froman" title="Darol Froman">Darol K. Froman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_G._Segr%C3%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilio G. Segrè">Emilio G. Segrè</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_W._Kerst" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald W. Kerst">Donald W. Kerst</a>. Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer, and the two men discussed the project's progress on a daily basis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200816–20_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200816–20-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1944, Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory to focus on the problem of building an <a href="/wiki/Implosion-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion-type nuclear weapon">implosion-type nuclear weapon</a>, which was necessary because the <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun-type nuclear weapon">gun-type design</a> would not work with <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. P Division was broken up, and Bacher became the head of the G (for Gadget) Division. This much larger division contained eleven groups headed by leaders who included <a href="/wiki/William_Higinbotham" title="William Higinbotham">William Higinbotham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seth_Neddermeyer" title="Seth Neddermeyer">Seth Neddermeyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a>'s Explosives Division (X Division) developed the <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a>, G Division designed the rest of the weapon. There were numerous difficulties to overcome, not the least of which was devising a means of detonating the lenses with the required speed. <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Christy" title="Robert F. Christy">Robert F. Christy</a>'s solid <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">core</a> design was chosen as the most likely design to succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To coordinate the efforts of the laboratory, Oppenheimer created the "Cowpuncher Committee", so-called because they were to "ride herd" on the implosion effort and coordinate all the efforts of the laboratory. It included Bacher, along with <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Allison" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Allison">Samuel Allison</a>, George Kistiakowsky, <a href="/wiki/Deak_Parsons" class="mw-redirect" title="Deak Parsons">Deak Parsons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lauritsen" title="Charles Lauritsen">Charles Lauritsen</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hartley_Rowe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hartley Rowe (page does not exist)">Hartley Rowe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962318_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962318-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three days before the day the bomb was to be <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">test detonated</a> in the <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> desert, Bacher was part of the pit assembly team, which assembled the nuclear capsule (a cylindrical section of the uranium tamper, containing the plutonium core and initiator) in an <a href="/wiki/McDonald_Ranch_House" title="McDonald Ranch House">old farmhouse</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Alamogordo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamogordo">Alamogordo</a> testing site. When the capsule was driven to the shot tower and inserted into the spherical tamper, inside the explosive assembly, it stuck. Bacher recognized that expansion of the capsule due to the heat given off by the plutonium core was causing the jam, and that leaving the two parts in contact would equalize temperatures and allow the capsule to be inserted fully.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoster-Mullen201249–50_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoster-Mullen201249–50-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After watching the test, his reaction was merely "Well, it works."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200830_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200830-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher was packaging the <a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">third core</a> for shipment to <a href="/wiki/Tinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinian">Tinian</a> on August 12 at the Ice House at Los Alamos when he received word that the Japanese had initiated <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender negotiations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987215–216_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987215–216-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had already set G Division the task of designing and building new types of cores and assemblies, and he co-authored a report with Robert Wilson urging the development of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>'s <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">Super</a> bomb. He served on a committee chaired by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tolman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Tolman">Richard Tolman</a> that looked into declassifying documents produced by the Manhattan Project,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200833–34_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200833–34-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one chaired by <a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a> that investigated the technical feasibility of international control of nuclear energy. For his services to the Manhattan Project Bacher was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> on January 12, 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-World_War_II">Post-World War II</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_Energy_Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</h3></div> <p>After the war, Bacher returned to Ithaca to head Cornell's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies. He agreed with Bethe that what Cornell needed to become a major player in high energy nuclear physics was a new <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">synchrotron</a>, but first he needed to find somewhere to put it. However, in 1946 Bacher was appointed to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the new <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United Nations Atomic Energy Commission">United Nations Atomic Energy Commission</a>, along with fellow United States representatives Tolman and Oppenheimer. Bacher therefore had to divide his time between Ithaca and New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200921–23_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200921–23-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacher,_Lilienthal,_Pike,_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five men in suits with hats and coats." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg/220px-Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg/330px-Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg/440px-Bacher%2C_Lilienthal%2C_Pike%2C_Waymack_and_Strauss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption>The five Atomic Energy Commissioners at Los Alamos. Left to right: Bacher, <a href="/wiki/David_E._Lilienthal" title="David E. Lilienthal">David E. Lilienthal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumner_Pike" title="Sumner Pike">Sumner Pike</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_W._Waymack&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William W. Waymack (page does not exist)">William W. Waymack</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_L._Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis L. Strauss">Lewis L. Strauss</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In October 1946 <a href="/wiki/David_Lilienthal" class="mw-redirect" title="David Lilienthal">David Lilienthal</a> asked Bacher to become one of the inaugural commissioners of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a>, the civilian agency that was being formed to replace the wartime Manhattan Project. As a <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a>, Bacher was easily confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_Atomic_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy">United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy</a> by an 8–0 vote. As he was the only one of the five commissioners who was a scientist—an important factor in his decision to accept the post—he played a leading role in the selection of the Atomic Energy Commission's influential General Advisory Committee<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200924_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200924-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to which nine scientists were appointed: <a href="/wiki/James_Bryant_Conant" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bryant Conant">James Conant</a>, Lee DuBridge, Enrico Fermi, Robert Oppenheimer, Isidor Isaac Rabi, Hartley Rowe, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Seaborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenn Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Stanley_Smith" title="Cyril Stanley Smith">Cyril Stanley Smith</a> and Hood Worthington.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher and fellow commissioner <a href="/wiki/Sumner_Pike" title="Sumner Pike">Sumner Pike</a> began with an inspection of Los Alamos and the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a>, and conducted an inventory of the <a href="/wiki/Fissionable_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable material">fissionable material</a> at Los Alamos with <a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a>, who had succeeded Oppenheimer as its director. He found that only nine atomic bombs had been built in 1946; only four would be in 1947, primarily due to production problems with the reactors at Hanford. These problems were on their way to resolution when Bacher observed the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sandstone" title="Operation Sandstone">Operation Sandstone</a> nuclear tests at <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll</a> in 1948 as the Atomic Energy Commission's representative. Bacher's original two-year term would have expired on January 1, 1949, but President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> convinced him to stay on. Bacher resigned in May 1949, and this time the President was unable to dissuade him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200925–28_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200925–28-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200842–43_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200842–43-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher wished to return to academia, but Robert Wilson was now the head of Cornell's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies, and Bacher felt that it would be awkward working for someone who was one of his group leaders at Los Alamos. He therefore accepted an offer from Lee DuBridge of the chair of the Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy at Caltech. However the work at the Atomic Energy Commission was not so easily left behind. Senator <a href="/wiki/Bourke_Hickenlooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourke Hickenlooper">Bourke Hickenlooper</a> charged the commission with mismanagement, specifically cost overruns at Hanford, awarding a scholarship to a <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a>, and the loss of 289 grams (10.2 oz) of uranium from the <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>. Bacher felt obligated to return to Washington to testify on Lilienthal's behalf before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969355–361_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969355–361-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another crisis broke in September 1949 when the Air Force picked up signs of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">RDS-1</a> nuclear test. Bacher joined Oppenheimer, Parsons, <a href="/wiki/General_(United_States)" title="General (United States)">General</a> <a href="/wiki/Hoyt_Vandenberg" title="Hoyt Vandenberg">Hoyt Vandenberg</a>, the Atomic Energy Commissioners and a British delegation under <a href="/wiki/William_Penney" class="mw-redirect" title="William Penney">William Penney</a> to discuss what to do. The recent devaluation of the British pound had already triggered a financial crisis, and there was concern about how the markets would react to the news. Oppenheimer and Bacher saw the evidence of a nuclear test as conclusive, and Bacher in particular came down strongly on the side of making a public announcement, as the number of people who already knew made a leak almost inevitable. Truman made the announcement a few days later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969362–369_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969362–369-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caltech">Caltech</h3></div> <p>The division chair that Bacher now occupied at Caltech had been vacant since <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Millikan">Robert A. Millikan</a> had retired in 1945. Although nominally a professorship, it was primarily an administrative post. In 1949 there were 17 professors in the department, of whom nine were physicists, two were astrophysicists, and the remaining six were mathematicians. There were two world class research laboratories funded by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a>, the Cosmic Ray Laboratory that had been founded by Millikan, which was now directed by <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">Carl Anderson</a>, and the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory which was directed by Charles Lauritsen. But there were no facilities for high energy physics; these would have to be created from scratch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In moving into high energy physics Bacher had the full support not just of DuBridge, but of Anderson and Lauritsen as well. Lauritsen had already hired <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Langmuir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Langmuir (page does not exist)">Robert Langmuir</a> to begin designing a new 600 MeV synchrotron, and Bacher found a large building to house it that had originally been used for grinding and polishing the Palomar Observatory's 200-inch (5,100 mm) mirror, but which had been empty since 1948. He arranged for Atomic Energy Commission and Office of Naval Research grants worth $1 million to build it and the other required facilities, and $300,000 a year to run it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Facilities were not enough; Bacher needed physicists. Lauritsen had made a start on this too, by hiring Robert Christy. Bacher hired experimental physicists <a href="/wiki/Alvin_V._Tollestrup" title="Alvin V. Tollestrup">Alvin V. Tollestrup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Walker_(physicist)" title="Robert M. Walker (physicist)">Robert M. Walker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sands" title="Matthew Sands">Matthew Sands</a>. The physicist that Bacher decided he wanted most, though, was <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200933–34_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200933–34-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To get him, Bacher offered a large salary, and agreed to pay for Feynman's 1950–1951 sabbatical in Brazil. Feynman would go on to win the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200844–45_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200844–45-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1955 Bacher hired <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a>, who would win the Nobel Prize in 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relatively new field of <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a> sparked Bacher's interest, and he hired <a href="/wiki/John_Gatenby_Bolton" title="John Gatenby Bolton">John Bolton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_J._Stanley" title="Gordon J. Stanley">Gordon Stanley</a> from the Australian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a> in 1955. A grant from the Office of Naval Research allowed Bolton to build the <a href="/wiki/Owens_Valley_Radio_Observatory" title="Owens Valley Radio Observatory">Owens Valley Radio Observatory</a>, which became an important center for the study of <a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">quasars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Caltech did not spell an end to Bacher's service in Washington. He served two terms as a member of the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">President's Science Advisory Committee</a> (PSAC) under President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, from November 18, 1953, to June 30, 1955, and from December 9, 1957, to December 31, 1959. During his first term he testified on behalf of his old friend at the <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a> in 1954. During his second, he worked with <a href="/wiki/James_Brown_Fisk" title="James Brown Fisk">James Fisk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a> to examine how a <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> could be monitored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200852–56_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200852–56-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200940_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200940-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher remained chair of the division of physics, mathematics and astronomy at Caltech until 1962, when he was appointed as vice president and <a href="/wiki/Provost_(education)" title="Provost (education)">provost</a>. He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970 at the age of 65, and became a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> in 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-Obituary_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obituary-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He still did some research at the <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, and visited Caltech from time to time. In 1983 he was master of ceremonies at Los Alamos for events commemorating the 40th anniversary of the founding of the laboratory in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his lifetime, he was elected to the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bacher died on November 18, 2004, at a <a href="/wiki/Retirement_home" title="Retirement home">retirement home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montecito,_California" title="Montecito, California">Montecito, California</a>. He was survived by his daughter, Martha Bacher Eaton, and son, Andrew Dow Bacher, a nuclear physicist working at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Obituary_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obituary-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his wife Jean having died on May 28, 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His papers are in the California Institute of Technology Archives.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=88677">Robert Bacher</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20082–3-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20082–3_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oral_History,_part_1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oral_History,_part_1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oral_History,_part_1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/27978">"Oral History interview transcript with Robert Bacher"</a>. American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives. June 30, 1966<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oral+History+interview+transcript+with+Robert+Bacher&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Physics%2C+Niels+Bohr+Library+and+Archives&rft.date=1966-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory-programs%2Fniels-bohr-library%2Foral-histories%2F27978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093–5-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20093–5_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 3–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20084–6-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20084–6_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 4–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20095–8_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 5–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20085-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20085_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling20098–9-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling20098–9_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPais1986412-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPais1986412_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPais1986">Pais 1986</a>, p. 412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20086–8-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20086–8_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 6–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200911–14_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 11–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr20089–10_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200915–17-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200915–17_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200917-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200917_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowesHerzenberg2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Howes" title="Ruth Howes">Howes, Ruth H.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Herzenberg" title="Caroline Herzenberg">Herzenberg, Caroline L.</a> (2003). <i>Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project</i>. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press. pp. 99–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781592131921" title="Special:BookSources/9781592131921"><bdi>9781592131921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Their+Day+in+the+Sun%3A+Women+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa.&rft.pages=99-100&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781592131921&rft.aulast=Howes&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rft.au=Herzenberg%2C+Caroline+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200816–20-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200816–20_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 16–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200822–25_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 22–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200919–21_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 19–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962318-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962318_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoster-Mullen201249–50-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoster-Mullen201249–50_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoster-Mullen2012">Coster-Mullen 2012</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200830-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200830_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987215–216-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987215–216_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNichols1987">Nichols 1987</a>, pp. 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200833–34-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200833–34_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200921–23-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200921–23_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 21–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200924-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200924_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969665_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969">Hewlett & Duncan 1969</a>, p. 665.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200925–28-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200925–28_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 25–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200842–43-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200842–43_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969355–361-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969355–361_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969">Hewlett & Duncan 1969</a>, pp. 355–361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200928–31_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 28–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969362–369-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettDuncan1969362–369_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969">Hewlett & Duncan 1969</a>, pp. 362–369.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200932–33_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200933–34-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200933–34_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200844–45-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200844–45_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1969/gell-mann-bio.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1969 – Murray Gell-Mann"</a>. The Nobel Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1969+%E2%80%93+Murray+Gell-Mann&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1969%2Fgell-mann-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200852–56-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200852–56_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 52–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhaling200940-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhaling200940_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhaling2009">Whaling 2009</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Obituary-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Obituary_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Obituary_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearce2004" class="citation news cs1">Pearce, Jeremy (November 22, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/22/obituaries/22bacher.html?_r=0">"Robert Bacher, Manhattan Project Physicist, Dies at 99"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Robert+Bacher%2C+Manhattan+Project+Physicist%2C+Dies+at+99&rft.date=2004-11-22&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F11%2F22%2Fobituaries%2F22bacher.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarr200862–65_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarr2008">Carr 2008</a>, pp. 62–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/58086.html">"Robert F. Bacher"</a>. National Academy of Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+F.+Bacher&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fmember-directory%2Fdeceased-members%2F58086.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Robert+Bacher&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. American Philosophical Society<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=APS+Member+History&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DRobert%2BBacher%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/robert-bacher">"Robert Bacher"</a>. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. February 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+Bacher&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.date=2023-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fperson%2Frobert-bacher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3489q4fh/">"Finding Aid for the Robert F. Bacher Papers 1924–1994"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Archive_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Archive of California">Online Archive of California</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Finding+Aid+for+the+Robert+F.+Bacher+Papers+1924%E2%80%931994&rft.pub=Online+Archive+of+California&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oac.cdlib.org%2Ffindaid%2Fark%3A%2F13030%2Fkt3489q4fh%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr2008" class="citation book cs1">Carr, Alan B. (2008). <i>The Forgotten Physicist: Robert F. Bacher, 1905–2004</i>. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941232-36-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941232-36-4"><bdi>978-0-941232-36-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Physicist%3A+Robert+F.+Bacher%2C+1905%E2%80%932004&rft.place=Los+Alamos%2C+New+Mexico&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+Historical+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-941232-36-4&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=Alan+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoster-Mullen2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Coster-Mullen" title="John Coster-Mullen">Coster-Mullen, John</a> (2012). <i>Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man</i>. Waukesha, Wisconsin: J. Coster-Mullen. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/298514167">298514167</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atom+Bombs%3A+The+Top+Secret+Inside+Story+of+Little+Boy+and+Fat+Man&rft.place=Waukesha%2C+Wisconsin&rft.pub=J.+Coster-Mullen&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F298514167&rft.aulast=Coster-Mullen&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettDuncan1969" class="citation book cs1">Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). <i>Atomic Shield, 1947–1952</i>. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07187-5"><bdi>0-520-07187-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3717478">3717478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Shield%2C+1947%E2%80%931952&rft.place=University+Park&rft.series=A+History+of+the+United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3717478&rft.isbn=0-520-07187-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Nichols, Kenneth David</a> (1987). <i>The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made</i>. New York: William Morrow and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X"><bdi>0-688-06910-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15223648">15223648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Trinity%3A+A+Personal+Account+of+How+America%27s+Nuclear+Policies+Were+Made&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=William+Morrow+and+Company&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F15223648&rft.isbn=0-688-06910-X&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPais1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Pais" title="Abraham Pais">Pais, Abraham</a> (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0"><i>Inward Bound</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198519974" title="Special:BookSources/0198519974"><bdi>0198519974</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inward+Bound&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0198519974&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finwardboundofmat00pais_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhaling2009" class="citation book cs1">Whaling, Ward (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140531133917/http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/bacher-robert-f.pdf"><i>Robert F. Bacher 1905–2004</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Biographical Memoir. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/bacher-robert-f.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 31, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+F.+Bacher+1905%E2%80%932004&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=Biographical+Memoir&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Whaling&rft.aufirst=Ward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Fbacher-robert-f.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Bacher" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/robert-bachers-interview-part-1">1983 Audio Interview with Robert Bacher by Martin Sherwin</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Bacher,+Robert">Annotated bibliography for Robert Bacher from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828133646/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FBacher%2C+Robert">Archived</a> August 28, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/27978">Oral History interview transcript with Robert Bacher on 30 June 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/27979">Oral History interview transcript with Robert Bacher on 13 February 1986, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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id="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">Presidents of the American Physical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1899–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Augustus_Rowland" title="Henry Augustus Rowland">Henry Augustus Rowland</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Gordon_Webster" title="Arthur Gordon Webster">Arthur Gordon Webster</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Barus" title="Carl Barus">Carl Barus</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Leamington_Nichols" title="Edward Leamington Nichols">Edward Leamington Nichols</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crew" title="Henry Crew">Henry Crew</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Magie" title="William Francis Magie">William Francis Magie</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Osgood_Peirce" title="Benjamin Osgood Peirce">Benjamin Osgood Peirce</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Merritt" title="Ernest Merritt">Ernest Merritt</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Andrews Millikan</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Bumstead" title="Henry A. Bumstead">Henry A. Bumstead</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sweetman_Ames" title="Joseph Sweetman Ames">Joseph Sweetman Ames</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Lyman_IV" title="Theodore Lyman IV">Theodore Lyman</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Corwin_Mendenhall" title="Thomas Corwin Mendenhall">Thomas Corwin Mendenhall</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Miller" title="Dayton Miller">Dayton Miller</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taylor_Compton" title="Karl Taylor Compton">Karl Taylor Compton</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gale_(astrophysicist)" title="Henry Gale (astrophysicist)">Henry Gale</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Foote" title="Paul D. Foote">Paul D. Foote</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Floyd K. Richtmyer</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_M._Randall" title="Harrison M. Randall">Harrison M. Randall</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_James_Briggs" title="Lyman James Briggs">Lyman James Briggs</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Torrence_Tate_Sr." title="John Torrence Tate Sr.">John Torrence Tate Sr.</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zeleny" title="John Zeleny">John Zeleny</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stewart" title="George W. Stewart">George Stewart</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hull" title="Albert W. Hull">Albert W. Hull</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Jeffrey_Dempster" title="Arthur Jeffrey Dempster">Arthur Jeffrey Dempster</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fletcher" title="Harvey Fletcher">Harvey Fletcher</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee Alvin DuBridge</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Christian_Lauritsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Christian Lauritsen">Charles Christian Lauritsen</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">H. Bethe</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Thayer_Birge" title="Raymond Thayer Birge">Raymond Thayer Birge</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">E. Wigner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_V._Houston" title="William V. Houston">William V. Houston</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harry_Williams" title="John Harry Williams">John Harry Williams</a> (1963)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Bacher</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Walter Alvarez</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Mills Purcell</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_M._Morse" title="Philip M. Morse">Philip M. Morse</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edward_Mayer" title="Joseph Edward Mayer">Joseph Edward Mayer</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pief_Panofsky" title="Pief Panofsky">Pief Panofsky</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_M._Branscomb" title="Lewis M. Branscomb">Lewis M. Branscomb</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Arthur Leonard Schawlow</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Logsdon Fitch</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Krumhansl" title="James A. Krumhansl">James A. Krumhansl</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Merzbacher" title="Eugen Merzbacher">Eugen Merzbacher</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_M._Henley" title="Ernest M. Henley">Ernest M. Henley</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Langenberg" title="Donald N. Langenberg">Donald N. Langenberg</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar Patel</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">J.R. Schrieffer</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sessler" title="Andrew Sessler">Andrew Sessler</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Jerome Isaac Friedman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Langer" title="James S. Langer">James S. Langer</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Trilling" title="George Trilling">George Trilling</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Brinkman" title="William F. Brinkman">William F. Brinkman</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bienenstock" title="Arthur Bienenstock">Arthur Bienenstock</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_A._Murray" title="Cherry A. Murray">Cherry A. Murray</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Callan" title="Curtis Callan">Curtis Callan</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barry Barish</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Byer" title="Robert L. Byer">Robert L. Byer</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Turner" title="Michael S. Turner">Michael S. Turner</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Beasley" title="Malcolm Beasley">Malcolm R. Beasley</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aronson" title="Sam Aronson">Sam Aronson</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Neal" title="Homer Neal">Homer Neal</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Greene_(physicist)" title="Laura Greene (physicist)">Laura Greene</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Falcone" title="Roger Falcone">Roger Falcone</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">David Gross</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Bucksbaum" title="Philip H. Bucksbaum">Philip H. Bucksbaum</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates Jr.</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Hellman" title="Frances Hellman">Frances Hellman</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosner" title="Robert Rosner">Robert Rosner</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Robert Bacher</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Robert_Bacher" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Robert Bacher">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1349434#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1349434#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1349434#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000114521753">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/93683094">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1718219/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJppyGq9rYTph8Qxjhhj4q">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1038713811">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85374121">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35885106">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p07302774X">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/3019383">Norway</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=88677">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:bacher.robert-fox">zbMATH</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd1038713811.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/079379745">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10568529">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w60r9rfr">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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