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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aquatic surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquatic_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aerial</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aerial-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aerial subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aerial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Active flight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gliding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gliding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Gliding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gliding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soaring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soaring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Soaring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soaring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballooning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballooning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ballooning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballooning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrestrial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrestrial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Terrestrial</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terrestrial-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terrestrial subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terrestrial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jumping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jumping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Jumping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jumping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peristalsis_and_looping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peristalsis_and_looping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Peristalsis and looping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peristalsis_and_looping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sliding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sliding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Sliding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sliding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climbing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climbing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Climbing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climbing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Walking_and_running" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walking_and_running"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Walking and running</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walking_and_running-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Powered_cartwheeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powered_cartwheeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Powered cartwheeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powered_cartwheeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Subterranean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arboreal_locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arboreal_locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Arboreal locomotion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arboreal_locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Energetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Passive locomotion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Passive_locomotion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Passive locomotion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Passive_locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrozoans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrozoans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Hydrozoans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrozoans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mollusca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mollusca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Mollusca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mollusca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arachnids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arachnids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Arachnids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arachnids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crustaceans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crustaceans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Crustaceans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crustaceans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Animal transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Remoras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remoras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6.1</span> <span>Remoras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remoras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Angler_fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angler_fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6.2</span> <span>Angler fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angler_fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6.3</span> <span>Parasites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_between_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_between_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Changes between media</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changes_between_media-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changes between media subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changes_between_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Marine mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_during_the_life-cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_during_the_life-cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Changes during the life-cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_during_the_life-cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Food_procurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_procurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Food procurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_procurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantifying_body_and_limb_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantifying_body_and_limb_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Quantifying body and limb movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantifying_body_and_limb_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galleries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galleries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Galleries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galleries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal locomotion</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voortbeweging" title="Voortbeweging – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Voortbeweging" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حركة الحيوانات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة الحيوانات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="প্ৰাণীৰ চলন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰাণীৰ চলন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Локомоция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Локомоция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomoci%C3%B3_animal" title="Locomoció animal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Locomoció animal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokomoce_%C5%BEivo%C4%8Dich%C5%AF" title="Lokomoce živočichů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lokomoce živočichů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymsymudiad" title="Ymsymudiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymsymudiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortbewegung" title="Fortbewegung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fortbewegung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulgemine" title="Kulgemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kulgemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomoci%C3%B3n_animal" title="Locomoción animal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Locomoción animal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movkapablo" title="Movkapablo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Movkapablo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B4_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="جنبش جانوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنبش جانوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotion" title="Locomotion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Locomotion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Локомоци – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Локомоци" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%A9hand%C5%A9ko(locomotion)" title="Mũhandũko(locomotion) – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Mũhandũko(locomotion)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokomosi_hewan" title="Lokomosi hewan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lokomosi hewan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomozione_animale" title="Locomozione animale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Locomozione animale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89%C9%94n%C9%9B" title="Ɖɔnɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖɔnɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ლოკომოცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლოკომოცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81llatok_mozg%C3%A1sa" title="Állatok mozgása – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Állatok mozgása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Систем за движење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Систем за движење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergerakan_haiwan" title="Pergerakan haiwan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pergerakan haiwan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Амьтдын шилжилт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Амьтдын шилжилт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotie" title="Locomotie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Locomotie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%BB%E5%8B%95%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="移動運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="移動運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomo%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Locomoção – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Locomoção" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomo%C8%9Bie" title="Locomoție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Locomoție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Локомоция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Локомоция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Animal locomotion" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokomotion" title="Lokomotion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lokomotion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இடம்பெயர்தல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இடம்பெயர்தல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayvan_hareketi" title="Hayvan hareketi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hayvan hareketi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Локомоція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Локомоція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84_%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="حیوانی نقل مکانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیوانی نقل مکانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_chuy%E1%BB%83n_%E1%BB%9F_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Di chuyển ở động vật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Di chuyển ở động vật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Eadweard Muybridge study, see <a href="/wiki/Animal_Locomotion" title="Animal Locomotion"><i>Animal Locomotion</i></a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif/220px-Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif/330px-Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif/440px-Bioluminescent_beetle_Elateroidea_-_animated.gif 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Beetle_larva" class="mw-redirect" title="Beetle larva">beetle larva</a> performing a <a href="/wiki/Rectilinear_locomotion" title="Rectilinear locomotion">rectilinear locomotion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, <b>animal locomotion</b> is any of a variety of methods that <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> use to move from one place to another.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Running" title="Running">running</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swimming" title="Swimming">swimming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">jumping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flight" title="Flight">flying</a>, hopping, soaring and <a href="/wiki/Gliding" title="Gliding">gliding</a>. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing (some <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ballooning_(spider)" title="Ballooning (spider)">kiting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>), <a href="/wiki/Rolling" title="Rolling">rolling</a> (some <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a> and spiders) or riding other animals (<a href="/wiki/Phoresis" title="Phoresis">phoresis</a>). </p><p>Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">find food</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mating_system" title="Mating system">mate</a>, a suitable <a href="/wiki/Microhabitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Microhabitat">microhabitat</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Escape_response" title="Escape response">escape predators</a>. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example, <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migratory animals</a> that travel vast distances (such as the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic tern</a>) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to <a href="/wiki/Escape_reflex" title="Escape reflex">escape predators</a> are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast, locomotion. </p><p>The anatomical structures that animals use for movement, including <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leg" title="Leg">legs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">arms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">fins</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tail" title="Tail">tails</a> are sometimes referred to as <i>locomotory organs</i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>locomotory structures</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "locomotion" is formed in English from Latin <i>loco</i> "from a place" (ablative of <i>locus</i> "place") + <i>motio</i> "motion, a moving".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movement of whole body is called locomotion </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aquatic">Aquatic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Aquatic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion" title="Aquatic locomotion">Aquatic locomotion</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swimming">Swimming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Swimming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dolphinsurfresize.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dolphinsurfresize.jpg/220px-Dolphinsurfresize.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dolphinsurfresize.jpg/330px-Dolphinsurfresize.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dolphinsurfresize.jpg/440px-Dolphinsurfresize.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Dolphins surfing</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">fish locomotion</a></div> <p>In water, staying afloat is possible using buoyancy. If an animal's body is less dense than water, it can stay afloat. This requires little energy to maintain a vertical position, but requires more energy for locomotion in the horizontal plane compared to less buoyant animals. The <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a> encountered in water is much greater than in air. Morphology is therefore important for efficient locomotion, which is in most cases essential for basic functions such as <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">catching prey</a>. A fusiform, <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a>-like body form is seen in many aquatic animals,<sup id="cite_ref-Gaston_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaston-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dewar_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewar-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the mechanisms they use for locomotion are diverse. </p><p>The primary means by which <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> generate <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> is by oscillating the body from side-to-side, the resulting wave motion ending at a large <a href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">tail fin</a>. Finer control, such as for slow movements, is often achieved with thrust from <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fins">pectoral fins</a> (or front limbs in marine mammals). Some fish, e.g. the spotted ratfish (<i>Hydrolagus colliei</i>) and batiform fish (electric rays, sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and stingrays) use their pectoral fins as the primary means of locomotion, sometimes termed <a href="/wiki/Labriform_swimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Labriform swimming">labriform swimming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammals</a> oscillate their body in an up-and-down (dorso-ventral) direction. Other animals, e.g. penguins, diving ducks, move underwater in a manner which has been termed "aquatic flying".<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some fish propel themselves without a wave motion of the body, as in the slow-moving seahorses and <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnotus" title="Gymnotus">Gymnotus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sfakiotakis_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sfakiotakis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Cephalopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopoda">cephalopods</a>, use <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion#Jet_propulsion" title="Aquatic locomotion">jet propulsion</a> to travel fast, taking in water then squirting it back out in an explosive burst.<sup id="cite_ref-Young_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other swimming animals may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Though life on land originated from the seas, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several occasions, such as the fully aquatic <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a>, now very distinct from their terrestrial ancestors. </p><p>Dolphins sometimes ride on the <a href="/wiki/Bow_wave" title="Bow wave">bow waves</a> created by boats or surf on naturally breaking waves.<sup id="cite_ref-Fish_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fish-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benthic">Benthic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Benthic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scallop_jump.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Scallop_jump.svg/220px-Scallop_jump.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Scallop_jump.svg/330px-Scallop_jump.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Scallop_jump.svg/440px-Scallop_jump.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">Scallop</a> in jumping motion; these bivalves can also swim.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">Benthic</a> locomotion is movement by animals that live on, in, or near the bottom of aquatic environments. In the sea, many animals walk over the seabed. <a href="/wiki/Echinoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoderms">Echinoderms</a> primarily use their <a href="/wiki/Tube_feet" title="Tube feet">tube feet</a> to move about. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad that can create a vacuum through contraction of muscles. This, along with some stickiness from the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sea urchins also use their spines for benthic locomotion.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crabs typically walk sideways<sup id="cite_ref-Sleinis_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sleinis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (a behaviour that gives us the word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crabwise" class="extiw" title="wikt:crabwise"><i>crabwise</i></a>). This is because of the articulation of the legs, which makes a sidelong gait more efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Vidal-Gadea_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vidal-Gadea-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including <a href="/wiki/Raninidae" title="Raninidae">raninids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Libinia_emarginata" title="Libinia emarginata">Libinia emarginata</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mictyris_platycheles" title="Mictyris platycheles">Mictyris platycheles</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sleinis_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sleinis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some crabs, notably the <a href="/wiki/Portunidae" title="Portunidae">Portunidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matutidae" title="Matutidae">Matutidae</a>, are also capable of swimming,<sup id="cite_ref-Ng_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ng-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Portunidae" title="Portunidae">Portunidae</a> especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.<sup id="cite_ref-Weis_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weis-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A stomatopod, <i><a href="/wiki/Nannosquilla_decemspinosa" title="Nannosquilla decemspinosa">Nannosquilla decemspinosa</a></i>, can escape by rolling itself into a self-propelled wheel and somersault backwards at a speed of 72 rpm. They can travel more than 2 m using this unusual method of locomotion.<sup id="cite_ref-Srour_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srour-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aquatic_surface">Aquatic surface</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aquatic surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg/170px-Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg/255px-Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg/340px-Velella_Bae_an_Anaon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1086" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Velella" title="Velella">Velella</a></i> moves by sailing.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion_on_the_water_surface" title="Animal locomotion on the water surface">Animal locomotion on the water surface</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Velella" title="Velella">Velella</a></i>, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than <a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">sailing</a>. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. <i>Velella</i> sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an <a href="/wiki/Aerofoil" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerofoil">aerofoil</a>, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While larger animals such as ducks can move on water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. This surface locomotion takes advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> of water. Animals that move in such a way include the <a href="/wiki/Water_strider" class="mw-redirect" title="Water strider">water strider</a>. Water striders have legs that are <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a>, preventing them from interfering with the structure of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Gao_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gao-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another form of locomotion (in which the surface layer is broken) is used by the <a href="/wiki/Basilisk_lizard" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilisk lizard">basilisk lizard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographic_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographic-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aerial">Aerial</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aerial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active_flight">Active flight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Active flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg/220px-Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg/330px-Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg/440px-Gonepteryx_rhamni_Twisting_Wings_in_Courtship_Flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1304" data-file-height="1304" /></a><figcaption>A pair of <a href="/wiki/Gonepteryx_rhamni" title="Gonepteryx rhamni">brimstone butterflies</a> in flight. The female, above, is in fast forward flight with a small <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_attack" title="Angle of attack">angle of attack</a>; the male, below, is twisting his wings sharply upward to gain <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a> and fly up towards the female.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Flight" title="Flight">Flight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</a></div> <p>Gravity is the primary obstacle to <a href="/wiki/Flight" title="Flight">flight</a>. Because it is impossible for any organism to have a density as low as that of air, flying animals must generate enough <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift</a> to ascend and remain airborne. One way to achieve this is with <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>, which when moved through the air generate an upward <a href="/wiki/Lift_(force)" title="Lift (force)">lift force</a> on the animal's body. Flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest living flying animals being birds of around 20 kilograms.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other structural adaptations of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles;<sup id="cite_ref-Hedenstrom_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedenstrom-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there may also be physiological adaptations.<sup id="cite_ref-Sacktor_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sacktor-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Active flight has <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">independently</a> evolved at least four times, in the <a href="/wiki/Insect_flight" title="Insect flight">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">birds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>. Insects were the first taxon to evolve flight, approximately 400 million years ago (mya),<sup id="cite_ref-Selleh_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selleh-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by pterosaurs approximately 220 mya,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> birds approximately 160 mya,<sup id="cite_ref-NatureBird_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureBird-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> then bats about 60 mya.<sup id="cite_ref-Chiropteran_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chiropteran-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gliding">Gliding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gliding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aerial_locomotion_in_marine_animals" title="Aerial locomotion in marine animals">Aerial locomotion in marine animals</a></div> <p>Rather than active flight, some (semi-) arboreal animals reduce their rate of falling by <a href="/wiki/Gliding_(flight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gliding (flight)">gliding</a>. Gliding is heavier-than-air flight without the use of <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a>; the term "volplaning" also refers to this mode of flight in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mode of flight involves flying a greater distance horizontally than vertically and therefore can be distinguished from a simple descent like a parachute. Gliding has evolved on more occasions than active flight. There are examples of gliding animals in several major taxonomic classes such as the invertebrates (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gliding_ant" title="Gliding ant">gliding ants</a>), reptiles (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Banded_flying_snake" title="Banded flying snake">banded flying snake</a>), amphibians (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Flying_frog" title="Flying frog">flying frog</a>), mammals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sugar_glider" title="Sugar glider">sugar glider</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squirrel_glider" title="Squirrel glider">squirrel glider</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg/200px-Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg/300px-Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg/400px-Pink-wing_flying_fish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1864" /></a><figcaption>Flying fish taking off</figcaption></figure> <p>Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example, <a href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">flying fish</a>, octopus and squid. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft),<sup id="cite_ref-Piper_2007_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piper_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Piper_2007_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piper_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Flying_Fish,_Exocoetidae_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flying_Fish,_Exocoetidae-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second.<sup id="cite_ref-history_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several oceanic <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Todarodes_pacificus" class="mw-redirect" title="Todarodes pacificus">Pacific flying squid</a>, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Neon_flying_squid" title="Neon flying squid">neon flying squid</a> has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m (100 ft), at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s (37 ft/s; 25 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soaring">Soaring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soaring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soaring birds can maintain flight without wing flapping, using rising air currents. Many gliding birds are able to "lock" their extended wings by means of a specialized tendon.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soaring birds may alternate glides with periods of soaring in <a href="/wiki/Lift_(soaring)" title="Lift (soaring)">rising air</a>. Five principal types of lift are used:<sup id="cite_ref-Welch_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welch-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thermal" title="Thermal">thermals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ridge_lift" title="Ridge lift">ridge lift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lee_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee waves">lee waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convergence_zone" title="Convergence zone">convergences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_soaring" title="Dynamic soaring">dynamic soaring</a>. </p><p>Examples of soaring flight by birds are the use of: </p> <ul><li>Thermals and convergences by <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Vulture" title="Vulture">vultures</a></li> <li>Ridge lift by <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a> near cliffs</li> <li>Wave lift by migrating birds<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Dynamic effects near the surface of the sea by <a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ballooning">Ballooning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ballooning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ballooning_(spider)" title="Ballooning (spider)">Ballooning</a> is a method of locomotion used by spiders. Certain silk-producing <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight <a href="/wiki/Gossamer_(spider_silk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer (spider silk)">gossamer silk</a> for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-instar_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-instar-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrestrial">Terrestrial</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Terrestrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">Terrestrial locomotion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_foot_morphology" title="Comparative foot morphology">Comparative foot morphology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_4" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv/220px--Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="193" data-durationhint="14" data-mwtitle="Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="482" data-height="422" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="164" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="274" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="412" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_hopping_-_pone.0011197.s007.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="412" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pacific_leaping_blenny" title="Pacific leaping blenny">Pacific leaping blenny</a> <i>Alticus arnoldorum</i> hopping</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_5" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv/220px--Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="193" data-durationhint="17" data-mwtitle="Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="482" data-height="422" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="164" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="274" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="412" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5f/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv/Alticus_arnoldorum_climbing_up_a_vertical_piece_of_Plexiglas_-_pone.0011197.s009.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="412" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Pacific leaping blenny climbing up a vertical piece of Plexiglas</figcaption></figure> <p>Forms of locomotion on land include walking, running, hopping or <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">jumping</a>, dragging and crawling or slithering. Here friction and buoyancy are no longer an issue, but a strong <a href="/wiki/Skeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeletal">skeletal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscular" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscular">muscular</a> framework are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. Each step also requires much energy to overcome <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>, and animals can store <a href="/wiki/Elastic_potential_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastic potential energy">elastic potential energy</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendons</a> to help overcome this. <a href="/wiki/Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Balance</a> is also required for movement on land. Human <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infants</a> learn to <a href="/wiki/Crawling_(human)" title="Crawling (human)">crawl</a> first before they are able to stand on two feet, which requires good coordination as well as physical development. Humans are <a href="/wiki/Bipedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipedal">bipedal</a> animals, standing on two feet and keeping one on the ground at all times while <a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">walking</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Running" title="Running">running</a>, only one <a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">foot</a> is on the ground at any one time at most, and both leave the ground briefly. At higher speeds <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in movement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jumping">Jumping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Jumping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">Jumping</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_gray_squirrel_(Sciurus_carolinensis)_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg/270px-Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg" decoding="async" width="270" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg/405px-Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg/540px-Eastern_gray_squirrel_%28Sciurus_carolinensis%29_bounding_across_a_lawn_in_Central_Park_2018.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Gray squirrel (<i>Sciurus carolinensis</i>) in mid-leap</figcaption></figure> <p>Jumping (saltation) can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. Many terrestrial animals use jumping (including hopping or leaping) to escape predators or catch prey—however, relatively few animals use this as a primary mode of locomotion. Those that do include the <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo" title="Kangaroo">kangaroo</a> and other macropods, <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hare" title="Hare">hare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerboa" title="Jerboa">jerboa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hopping_mouse" title="Hopping mouse">hopping mouse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_rat" title="Kangaroo rat">kangaroo rat</a>. Kangaroo rats often leap 2 m<sup id="cite_ref-BLM_CA_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLM_CA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reportedly up to 2.75 m<sup id="cite_ref-Desert_Museum_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desert_Museum-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at speeds up to almost 3 m/s (6.7 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_Guide_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS_Guide-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can quickly change their direction between jumps.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_Guide_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS_Guide-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid locomotion of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder1979_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder1979-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its use of a "move-freeze" mode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroder1979_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroder1979-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frogs are, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Australian rocket frog, <i><a href="/wiki/Litoria_nasuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Litoria nasuta">Litoria nasuta</a></i>, can leap over 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), more than fifty times its body length.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Peristalsis"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg/170px-Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg/255px-Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg/340px-Leech_looping_locomotion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">Leech</a> moving by looping using its front and back suckers</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peristalsis_and_looping">Peristalsis and looping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Peristalsis and looping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other animals move in terrestrial habitats without the aid of legs. <a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">Earthworms</a> crawl by a <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>, the same rhythmic contractions that propel food through the digestive tract.<sup id="cite_ref-Quillan2000_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quillan2000-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_6" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv/220px--20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake,_Tasmania.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake,_Tasmania.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, flac"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv/20100214_Leech_climbing_door_at_Lake_Leake%2C_Tasmania.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Leech moving on a flat surface</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">Leeches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometer_moth" title="Geometer moth">geometer moth</a> caterpillars move by looping or inching (measuring off a length with each movement), using their paired circular and longitudinal muscles (as for peristalsis) along with the ability to attach to a surface at both anterior and posterior ends. One end is attached, often the thicker end, and the other end, often thinner, is projected forward peristaltically until it touches down, as far as it can reach; then the first end is released, pulled forward, and reattached; and the cycle repeats. In the case of leeches, attachment is by a sucker at each end of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Brusca_2016_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brusca_2016-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sliding">Sliding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sliding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to its low coefficient of friction, ice provides the opportunity for other modes of locomotion. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called <i>tobogganing</i>, which conserves energy while moving quickly. Some pinnipeds perform a similar behaviour called <i>sledding</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climbing">Climbing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Climbing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">climbing animals is in trees</a>; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbon</a> is specialized for <a href="/wiki/Arboreal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arboreal">arboreal</a> movement, travelling rapidly by <a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiation</a> (see <a href="#Climbing">below</a>). </p><p>Others living on rock faces such as in <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountains</a> move on steep or even near-vertical surfaces by careful balancing and leaping. Perhaps the most exceptional are the various types of mountain-dwelling <a href="/wiki/Goat_antelope" class="mw-redirect" title="Goat antelope">caprids</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Barbary_sheep" title="Barbary sheep">Barbary sheep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yak" title="Yak">yak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibex" title="Ibex">ibex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocky_mountain_goat" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocky mountain goat">rocky mountain goat</a>, etc.), whose adaptations can include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. Another case is the <a href="/wiki/Snow_leopard" title="Snow leopard">snow leopard</a>, which being a predator of such caprids also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities, such as ability to leap up to 17<span class="nowrap"> </span>m (50<span class="nowrap"> </span>ft). </p><p>Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a> using <a href="/wiki/Sucker_(zoology)" title="Sucker (zoology)">suckers</a>. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as <a href="/wiki/Gecko" title="Gecko">geckos</a> can also perform similar feats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walking_and_running">Walking and running</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Walking and running"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Species have different numbers of legs resulting in large differences in locomotion. </p><p>Modern birds, though classified as <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>, usually have only two functional legs, which some (e.g., ostrich, emu, kiwi) use as their primary, <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">Bipedal</a>, mode of locomotion. A few modern mammalian species are habitual bipeds, i.e., whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. These include the <a href="/wiki/Macropodidae" title="Macropodidae">macropods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dipodomyinae" title="Dipodomyinae">kangaroo rats and mice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springhare" class="mw-redirect" title="Springhare">springhare</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hopping_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Hopping mice">hopping mice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pangolin" title="Pangolin">pangolins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hominina" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominina">homininan</a> apes. Bipedalism is rarely found outside <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial animals</a>—though at least two types of <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, so they can use the remaining arms to camouflage themselves as a mat of algae or floating coconut.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15790846_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15790846-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are no three-legged animals—though some macropods, such as kangaroos, that alternate between resting their weight on their muscular tails and their two hind legs could be looked at as an example of <a href="/wiki/Tripedalism" title="Tripedalism">tripedal</a> locomotion in animals. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg/220px-Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg/330px-Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg/440px-Muz_PGI_1728-II-16_animated_v20150114.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption>Animation of a <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> tetrapod</figcaption></figure> <p>Many familiar animals are <a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">quadrupedal</a>, walking or running on four legs. A few birds use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Shoebill" title="Shoebill">shoebill</a> sometimes uses its wings to right itself after lunging at prey.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newly hatched <a href="/wiki/Hoatzin" title="Hoatzin">hoatzin</a> bird has claws on its thumb and first finger enabling it to dexterously climb tree branches until its wings are strong enough for sustained flight.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These claws are gone by the time the bird reaches adulthood. </p><p>A relatively few animals use five limbs for locomotion. <a href="/wiki/Prehensile" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehensile">Prehensile</a> quadrupeds may use their tail to assist in locomotion and when grazing, the kangaroos and other macropods use their tail to propel themselves forward with the four legs used to maintain balance. </p><p>Insects generally walk with six legs—though some insects such as <a href="/wiki/Nymphalidae" title="Nymphalidae">nymphalid butterflies</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> do not use the front legs for walking. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">Arachnids</a> have eight legs. Most arachnids lack <a href="/wiki/Extension_(kinesiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Extension (kinesiology)">extensor</a> muscles in the <a href="/wiki/Distal" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal">distal</a> joints of their appendages. Spiders and <a href="/wiki/Whipscorpion" class="mw-redirect" title="Whipscorpion">whipscorpions</a> extend their limbs hydraulically using the pressure of their <a href="/wiki/Hemolymph" title="Hemolymph">hemolymph</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sensenig2003_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sensenig2003-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Solifuge" class="mw-redirect" title="Solifuge">Solifuges</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Harvestmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvestmen">harvestmen</a> extend their knees by the use of highly elastic thickenings in the joint cuticle.<sup id="cite_ref-Sensenig2003_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sensenig2003-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">Scorpions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscorpion" title="Pseudoscorpion">pseudoscorpions</a> and some harvestmen have evolved muscles that extend two leg joints (the femur-patella and patella-tibia joints) at once.<sup id="cite_ref-Shultz2005_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz2005-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shultz1992_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shultz1992-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scorpion <i><a href="/wiki/Hadrurus_arizonensis" title="Hadrurus arizonensis">Hadrurus arizonensis</a></i> walks by using two groups of legs (left 1, right 2, Left 3, Right 4 and Right 1, Left 2, Right 3, Left 4) in a reciprocating fashion. This alternating tetrapod coordination is used over all walking speeds.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in <a href="/wiki/Metachronal_rhythm" title="Metachronal rhythm">metachronal rhythm</a>. Some echinoderms locomote using the many <a href="/wiki/Tube_feet" title="Tube feet">tube feet</a> on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases.<sup id="cite_ref-Dorit_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dorit-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_seastar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower seastar">sunflower seastar</a> (<i>Pycnopodia helianthoides</i>) pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the <a href="/wiki/Leather_star" title="Leather star">leather star</a> (<i>Dermasterias imbricata</i>), which can manage just 15 cm (6 in) in a minute.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some burrowing species from the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Astropecten" title="Astropecten">Astropecten</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Luidia" title="Luidia">Luidia</a></i> have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding" across the ocean floor. The sand star (<i><a href="/wiki/Luidia_foliolata" title="Luidia foliolata">Luidia foliolata</a></i>) can travel at a speed of 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) per minute.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 ft/min) using 15,000 tube feet.<sup id="cite_ref-noaa_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noaa-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many animals temporarily change the number of legs they use for locomotion in different circumstances. For example, many quadrupedal animals switch to bipedalism to reach low-level browse on trees. The genus of <i><a href="/wiki/Basiliscus_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basiliscus (genus)">Basiliscus</a></i> are arboreal lizards that usually use quadrupedalism in the trees. When frightened, they can drop to water below and run across the surface on their hind limbs at about 1.5 m/s for a distance of approximately 4.5 m (15 ft) before they sink to all fours and swim. They can also sustain themselves on all fours while "water-walking" to increase the distance travelled above the surface by about 1.3 <span class="nowrap"> </span>m.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When cockroaches run rapidly, they rear up on their two hind legs like bipedal humans; this allows them to run at speeds up to 50 body lengths per second, equivalent to a "couple hundred miles per hour, if you scale up to the size of humans."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When grazing, kangaroos use a form of pentapedalism (four legs plus the tail) but switch to hopping (bipedalism) when they wish to move at a greater speed. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/160px--Ostrich_running.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="160" height="120" data-durationhint="47" data-mwtitle="Ostrich_running.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/Ostrich_running.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/Ostrich_running.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/Ostrich_running.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/Ostrich_running.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/Ostrich_running.ogv/Ostrich_running.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bipedal ostrich</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/200px--2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="29" data-mwtitle="2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/68/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv/2013-05-09_15-20-00-Extatosoma-tiaratum.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hexapedal stick-insect</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/200px--Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="55" data-mwtitle="Evarcha_arcuata_(female),_Wollenberg,_Hesse,_Germany_-_20110429.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1024" data-height="576" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d9/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv/Evarcha_arcuata_%28female%29%2C_Wollenberg%2C_Hesse%2C_Germany_-_20110429.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Octopedal locomotion by a spider</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/200px--Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="112" data-durationhint="78" data-mwtitle="Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1080" data-height="606" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f9/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm/Red_millipede_crawling_on_a_wall.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Multi-legged millipede</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powered_cartwheeling">Powered cartwheeling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Powered cartwheeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Moroccan flic-flac spider (<i><a href="/wiki/Cebrennus_rechenbergi" title="Cebrennus rechenbergi">Cebrennus rechenbergi</a></i>) uses a series of rapid, acrobatic <a href="/wiki/Flic-flac" class="mw-redirect" title="Flic-flac">flic-flac</a> movements of its legs similar to those used by gymnasts, to actively propel itself off the ground, allowing it to move both down and uphill, even at a 40 percent incline.<sup id="cite_ref-king_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-king-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This behaviour is different than other huntsman spiders, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Carparachne_aureoflava" class="mw-redirect" title="Carparachne aureoflava">Carparachne aureoflava</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Namib_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Namib Desert">Namib Desert</a>, which uses passive <a href="/wiki/Cartwheeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartwheeling">cartwheeling</a> as a form of locomotion.<sup id="cite_ref-senck_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-senck-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flic-flac spider can reach speeds of up to 2 m/s using forward or back flips to evade threats.<sup id="cite_ref-scin_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scin-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyt_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subterranean">Subterranean</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Subterranean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some animals move through solids such as soil by burrowing using <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristalsis</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Earthworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthworms">earthworms</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Quillin_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quillin-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or other methods. In loose solids such as sand some animals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Golden_mole" title="Golden mole">golden mole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsupial_mole" title="Marsupial mole">marsupial mole</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pink_fairy_armadillo" title="Pink fairy armadillo">pink fairy armadillo</a>, are able to move more rapidly, "swimming" through the loose substrate. Burrowing animals include <a href="/wiki/Mole_(animal)" title="Mole (animal)">moles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_squirrels" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground squirrels">ground squirrels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">naked mole-rats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilefish" title="Tilefish">tilefish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mole_cricket" title="Mole cricket">mole crickets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arboreal_locomotion">Arboreal locomotion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Arboreal locomotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">arboreal locomotion</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG/250px-Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG/375px-Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG/500px-Gibbon_Hoolock_de_l%27ouest.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1927" data-file-height="1343" /></a><figcaption>A brachiating gibbon</figcaption></figure> <p>Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioural and ecological consequences as well as variations throughout different species.<sup id="cite_ref-Cartmill_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cartmill-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, many of these same principles may be applied to climbing without trees, such as on rock piles or mountains. The earliest known <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapod</a> with specializations that adapted it for climbing trees was <i><a href="/wiki/Suminia" title="Suminia">Suminia</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsid</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>, about 260 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in habitat, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Tree_snail" title="Tree snail">tree snail</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">Brachiation</a> (from <i>brachium</i>, Latin for "arm") is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms. During brachiation, the body is alternately supported under each forelimb. This is the primary means of locomotion for the small <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siamang" title="Siamang">siamangs</a> of southeast Asia. Some New World monkeys such as spider monkeys and muriquis are "semibrachiators" and move through the trees with a combination of leaping and brachiation. Some New World species also practice <a href="/wiki/Suspensory_behavior" title="Suspensory behavior">suspensory behaviors</a> by using their <a href="/wiki/Prehensile_tail" title="Prehensile tail">prehensile tail</a>, which acts as a fifth grasping hand.<sup id="cite_ref-Jurmain_etal2008_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jurmain_etal2008-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pandas are known to swig their heads laterally as they ascend vertical surfaces astonishingly utilizing their head as a propulsive limb in an anatomical way that was thought to only be practiced by certain species of birds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energetics">Energetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Energetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animal locomotion requires <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> to overcome various forces including <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, although the influence of these depends on the circumstances. In <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial</a> environments, gravity must be overcome whereas the drag of air has little influence. In aqueous environments, friction (or drag) becomes the major energetic challenge with gravity being less of an influence. Remaining in the aqueous environment, animals with natural <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> expend little energy to maintain a vertical position in a water column. Others naturally sink, and must spend energy to remain afloat. Drag is also an energetic influence in <a href="/wiki/Flight" title="Flight">flight</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamic">aerodynamically</a> efficient body shapes of flying <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> indicate how they have evolved to cope with this. Limbless organisms moving on land must energetically overcome surface friction, however, they do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's third law of motion</a> is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> (either <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> or <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Bie_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bie-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement. The <a href="/wiki/Bioenergetics#Overview" title="Bioenergetics">energetics</a> of locomotion involves the energy expenditure by animals in moving. Energy consumed in locomotion is not available for other efforts, so animals typically have evolved to use the minimum energy possible during movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Bie_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bie-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the case of certain behaviors, such as locomotion to escape a predator, performance (such as speed or maneuverability) is more crucial, and such movements may be energetically expensive. Furthermore, animals may use energetically expensive methods of locomotion when environmental conditions (such as being within a burrow) preclude other modes. </p><p>The most common metric of energy use during locomotion is the net (also termed "incremental") cost of transport, defined as the amount of energy (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Joules" class="mw-redirect" title="Joules">Joules</a>) needed above baseline metabolic rate to move a given distance. For aerobic locomotion, most animals have a nearly constant cost of transport—moving a given distance requires the same caloric expenditure, regardless of speed. This constancy is usually accomplished by changes in <a href="/wiki/Gait" title="Gait">gait</a>. The net cost of transport of swimming is lowest, followed by flight, with terrestrial limbed locomotion being the most expensive per unit distance.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of the speeds involved, flight requires the most energy per unit time. This does not mean that an animal that normally moves by running would be a more efficient swimmer; however, these comparisons assume an animal is specialized for that form of motion. Another consideration here is <a href="/wiki/Body_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Body mass">body mass</a>—heavier animals, though using more total energy, require less energy <i>per unit mass</i> to move. <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiologists</a> generally measure energy use by the amount of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> consumed, or the amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> produced, in an animal's <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terrestrial animals, the cost of transport is typically measured while they walk or run on a motorized treadmill, either wearing a mask to capture gas exchange or with the entire treadmill enclosed in a metabolic chamber. For small <a href="/wiki/Rodents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodents">rodents</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Peromyscus" title="Peromyscus">deer mice</a>, the cost of transport has also been measured during voluntary wheel running.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Energetics is important for explaining the evolution of foraging economic decisions in organisms; for example, a study of the African honey bee, <a href="/wiki/African_honey_bee" class="mw-redirect" title="African honey bee"><i>A. m. scutellata</i></a>, has shown that honey bees may trade the high <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> content of viscous <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> off for the energetic benefits of warmer, less concentrated nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolson_et_al,_2013_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolson_et_al,_2013-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Passive_locomotion">Passive locomotion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Passive locomotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation; such animals are vagile but not <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrozoans">Hydrozoans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Hydrozoans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physalia_physalis1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Physalia_physalis1.jpg/170px-Physalia_physalis1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="704" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Physalia_physalis1.jpg/255px-Physalia_physalis1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Physalia_physalis1.jpg/340px-Physalia_physalis1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><i>Physalia physalis</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_man_o%27_war" title="Portuguese man o' war">Portuguese man o' war</a> (<i>Physalia physalis</i>) lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called a "sail"), remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Because the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, it is moved by a combination of winds, currents, and tides. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the organism to briefly submerge.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mollusca">Mollusca</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mollusca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Janthina_janthina" title="Janthina janthina">violet sea-snail</a> (<i>Janthina janthina</i>) uses a buoyant foam raft stabilized by <a href="/wiki/Amphiphilic" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphiphilic">amphiphilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mucins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucins">mucins</a> to float at the sea surface.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arachnids">Arachnids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Arachnids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Wheel_spider" title="Wheel spider">wheel spider</a> (<i>Carparachne aureoflava</i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Huntsman_spider" title="Huntsman spider">huntsman spider</a> approximately 20 mm in size and native to the <a href="/wiki/Namib_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Namib Desert">Namib Desert</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>. The spider escapes parasitic <a href="/wiki/Spider_wasp" title="Spider wasp">pompilid wasps</a> by flipping onto its side and <a href="/wiki/Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems" title="Rotating locomotion in living systems">cartwheeling</a> down sand <a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">dunes</a> at speeds of up to 44 turns per second.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the spider is on a sloped dune, its rolling speed may be 1 metre per second.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> climbs as high as it can, stands on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards ("tiptoeing"),<sup id="cite_ref-lab_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lab-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then releases several silk threads from its <a href="/wiki/Spinneret_(spider)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinneret (spider)">spinnerets</a> into the air. These form a triangle-shaped parachute that carries the spider on updrafts of winds, where even the slightest breeze transports it. The Earth's <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electric field</a> may also provide lift in windless conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insects">Insects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Insects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Cicindela_dorsalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cicindela dorsalis">Cicindela dorsalis</a></i>, the eastern beach tiger beetle, is notable for its ability to leap into the air, loop its body into a rotating wheel and roll along the sand at a high speed using wind to propel itself. If the wind is strong enough, the larva can cover up to 60 metres (200 ft) in this manner. This remarkable ability may have evolved to help the larva escape predators such as the <a href="/wiki/Thynnidae" title="Thynnidae">thynnid wasp</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Methocha" title="Methocha">Methocha</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-WPWL_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WPWL-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Members of the largest subfamily of cuckoo wasps, <a href="/wiki/Chrysidinae" title="Chrysidinae">Chrysidinae</a>, are generally <a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Kleptoparasite">kleptoparasites</a>, laying their eggs in host nests, where their larvae consume the host egg or larva while it is still young. Chrysidines are distinguished from the members of other subfamilies in that most have flattened or concave lower abdomens and can curl into a defensive ball when attacked by a potential host, a process known as conglobation. Protected by hard chitin in this position, they are expelled from the nest without injury and can search for a less hostile host. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">Fleas</a> can jump vertically up to 18 cm and horizontally up to 33 cm;<sup id="cite_ref-Crosby_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crosby-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, although this form of locomotion is initiated by the flea, it has little control of the jump—they always jump in the same direction, with very little variation in the trajectory between individual jumps.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crustaceans">Crustaceans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Crustaceans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although <a href="/wiki/Stomatopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatopod">stomatopods</a> typically display the standard locomotion types as seen in <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">true shrimp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lobsters" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobsters">lobsters</a>, one species, <i><a href="/wiki/Nannosquilla_decemspinosa" title="Nannosquilla decemspinosa">Nannosquilla decemspinosa</a></i>, has been observed flipping itself into a crude wheel. The species lives in shallow, sandy areas. At low tides, <i>N. decemspinosa</i> is often stranded by its short rear legs, which are sufficient for locomotion when the body is supported by water, but not on dry land. The mantis shrimp then performs a forward flip in an attempt to roll towards the next tide pool. <i>N. decemspinosa</i> has been observed to roll repeatedly for 2 m (6.6 ft), but they typically travel less than 1 m (3.3 ft). Again, the animal initiates the movement but has little control during its locomotion.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_transport">Animal transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Animal transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phoresis" title="Phoresis">Phoresis</a></div> <p>Some animals change location because they are attached to, or reside on, another animal or moving structure. This is arguably more accurately termed "animal transport". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Remoras">Remoras</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Remoras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg/175px-Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg/263px-Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg/350px-Echeneis_naucrates_Indonesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Some remoras, such as this <i><a href="/wiki/Echeneis_naucrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Echeneis naucrates">Echeneis naucrates</a></i>, may attach themselves to scuba divers.</div></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Remora" title="Remora">Remoras</a> are a family (<i>Echeneidae</i>) of <a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">ray-finned fish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They grow to 30–90 cm (0.98–2.95 ft) long, and their distinctive first <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">dorsal fins</a> take the form of a modified oval, <a href="/wiki/Sucker_(zoology)" title="Sucker (zoology)">sucker-like organ</a> with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats. They swim well on their own, with a sinuous, or curved, motion. When the remora reaches about 3 cm (1.2 in), the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a <a href="/wiki/Swim_bladder" title="Swim bladder">swim bladder</a>. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, <a href="/wiki/Manta_ray" title="Manta ray">manta rays</a>, whales, turtles, and <a href="/wiki/Dugong" title="Dugong">dugongs</a>. Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and <a href="/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">swordfish</a>, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_sunfish" title="Ocean sunfish">ocean sunfish</a>, swordfish, and <a href="/wiki/Sailfish" title="Sailfish">sailfish</a>. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection, and also feeds on materials dropped by the host. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Angler_fish">Angler fish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Angler fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some species of <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">anglerfish</a>, when a male finds a female, he bites into her skin, and releases an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male becomes dependent on the female host for survival by receiving nutrients via their shared circulatory system, and provides sperm to the female in return. After fusing, males increase in volume and become much larger relative to free-living males of the species. They live and remain reproductively functional as long as the female lives, and can take part in multiple spawnings. This extreme <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a> ensures, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. Multiple males can be incorporated into a single individual female with up to eight males in some species, though some taxa appear to have a one male per female rule.<sup id="cite_ref-doran_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doran-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gould_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parasites">Parasites</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Parasites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a> are transported by their hosts. For example, endoparasites such as <a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">tapeworms</a> live in the alimentary tracts of other animals, and depend on the host's ability to move to distribute their eggs. Ectoparasites such as <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> can move around on the body of their host, but are transported much longer distances by the host's locomotion. Some ectoparasites such as <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a> can opportunistically hitch a ride on a fly (<a href="/wiki/Phoresis_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoresis (biology)">phoresis</a>) and attempt to find a new host.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_between_media">Changes between media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Changes between media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some animals locomote between different media, e.g., from aquatic to aerial. This often requires different modes of locomotion in the different media and may require a distinct transitional locomotor behaviour. </p><p>There are a large number of semi-aquatic animals (animals that spend part of their life cycle in water, or generally have part of their anatomy underwater). These represent the major taxa of mammals (e.g., beaver, otter, polar bear), birds (e.g., penguins, ducks), reptiles (e.g., anaconda, bog turtle, marine iguana) and amphibians (e.g., salamanders, frogs, newts). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some fish use multiple modes of locomotion. <a href="/wiki/Walking_fish" title="Walking fish">Walking fish</a> may swim freely or at other times "walk" along the ocean or river floor, but not on land (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Flying_gurnard" title="Flying gurnard">flying gurnard</a>—which does not actually fly—and batfishes of the family Ogcocephalidae). <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_fish" title="Amphibious fish">Amphibious fish</a>, are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. These fish use a range of terrestrial locomotory modes, such as <a href="/wiki/Lateral_undulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral undulation">lateral undulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripod" title="Tripod">tripod</a>-like walking (using paired <a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">fins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tail" title="Tail">tail</a>), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate multiple combinations of <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fin">pectoral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelvic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic">pelvic</a> and tail fin movement. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudskippers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mudskippers">mudskippers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Walking_catfish" title="Walking catfish">walking catfish</a>. <a href="/wiki/Flying_fish" title="Flying fish">Flying fish</a> can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 m,<sup id="cite_ref-Piper_2007_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piper_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Piper_2007_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piper_2007-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Flying_Fish,_Exocoetidae_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flying_Fish,_Exocoetidae-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can travel at speeds of more than 70 km/h (43 mph).<sup id="cite_ref-history_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maximum altitude is 6 m (20 ft) above the surface of the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-fin_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fin-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some accounts have them landing on ships' decks.<sup id="cite_ref-history_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_mammals">Marine mammals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Marine mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg/250px-PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg/375px-PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg/500px-PacificWhiteSidedDolphine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="1092" /></a><figcaption>Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising</figcaption></figure> <p>When swimming, several marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and pinnipeds, frequently leap above the water surface whilst maintaining horizontal locomotion. This is done for various reasons. When travelling, jumping can save dolphins and porpoises energy as there is less friction while in the air.<sup id="cite_ref-Weihs_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weihs-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of travel is known as "porpoising".<sup id="cite_ref-Weihs_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weihs-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other reasons for dolphins and porpoises performing porpoising include orientation, social displays, fighting, <a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-verbal communication">non-verbal communication</a>, entertainment and attempting to dislodge <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In pinnipeds, two types of porpoising have been identified. "High porpoising" is most often near (within 100 m) the shore and is often followed by minor course changes; this may help seals get their bearings on beaching or rafting sites. "Low porpoising" is typically observed relatively far (more than 100 m) from shore and often aborted in favour of anti-predator movements; this may be a way for seals to maximize sub-surface vigilance and thereby reduce their vulnerability to sharks<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some whales raise their (entire) body vertically out of the water in a behaviour known as "breaching". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds">Birds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some semi-aquatic birds use terrestrial locomotion, surface swimming, underwater swimming and flying (e.g., ducks, swans). <a href="/wiki/Diving_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving birds">Diving birds</a> also use diving locomotion (e.g., dippers, auks). Some birds (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Ratites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratites">ratites</a>) have lost the primary locomotion of flight. The largest of these, <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>, when being pursued by a predator, have been known to reach speeds over 70 km/h (43 mph),<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (31 mph), which makes the ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal:<sup id="cite_ref-DesertUSA_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DesertUSA-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart2006_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart2006-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ostriches can also locomote by swimming.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called <i>tobogganing</i>, which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain. To get onto land, penguins sometimes propel themselves upwards at a great speed to leap out the water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_during_the_life-cycle">Changes during the life-cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Changes during the life-cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle. <a href="/wiki/Barnacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Barnacles">Barnacles</a> are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters. They have two <a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">nektonic</a> (active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile</a> (non-motile) suspension feeders. Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_7" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/260px-seek%3D20-American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="260" height="195" data-durationhint="37" data-mwtitle="American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm/American_paddlefish_filter_feeding.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Paddlefish ram suspension-feeding zooplankton in aquarium</figcaption></figure> <p>Animals locomote for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_procurement">Food procurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Food procurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals use locomotion in a wide variety of ways to procure food. Terrestrial methods include <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambush predation</a>, social predation and <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a>. Aquatic methods include <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeders" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter feeders">filterfeeding</a>, grazing, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot feeding. Other methods include <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoidism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantifying_body_and_limb_movement">Quantifying body and limb movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Quantifying body and limb movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Study_of_animal_locomotion" title="Study of animal locomotion">Study of animal locomotion</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Study_of_animal_locomotion" title="Study of animal locomotion">study of animal locomotion</a> is a branch of biology that investigates and quantifies how animals move. It is an application of <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a>, used to understand how the movements of animal limbs relate to the motion of the whole animal, for instance when walking or flying.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-takeoff-landing-berg_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takeoff-landing-berg-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Galleries">Galleries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Galleries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275594942">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center .gallery{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left .gallery{justify-content:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right .gallery{justify-content:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery.gallery.gallery{line-height:1.35em;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{outline:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-left"><div class="title"><div>Swimming in major groups of formerly terrestrial animals</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Coypu (Rodentia)"><img alt="Coypu (Rodentia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG/200px-Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG/300px-Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG/400px-Schwimmender_Nutria_Walzbach_Weingarten_2011.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Coypu" class="mw-redirect" title="Coypu">Coypu</a> (Rodentia)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Frog (Anura)"><img alt="Frog (Anura)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG/200px-Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG/300px-Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG/400px-Schwimmender_Frosch_Nahaufnahme.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">Frog</a> (Anura)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sperm_whale_pod.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sperm whales (Cetacea)"><img alt="Sperm whales (Cetacea)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sperm_whale_pod.jpg/200px-Sperm_whale_pod.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sperm_whale_pod.jpg/300px-Sperm_whale_pod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sperm_whale_pod.jpg/400px-Sperm_whale_pod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5115" data-file-height="2586" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">Sperm whales</a> (Cetacea)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gentoo penguin (Aves)"><img alt="Gentoo penguin (Aves)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/200px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/300px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg/400px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Nagasaki_Penguin_Aquarium_-swimming_underwater-8a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gentoo_penguin" title="Gentoo penguin">Gentoo penguin</a> (Aves)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_Iguana_swimming,_Fernandina,_Punta_Espinosa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine iguana (Reptilia)"><img alt="Marine iguana (Reptilia)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg/200px-Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg/300px-Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg/400px-Marine_Iguana_swimming%2C_Fernandina%2C_Punta_Espinosa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3404" data-file-height="2184" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Marine_iguana" title="Marine iguana">Marine iguana</a> (Reptilia)</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1275594942"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-left"><div class="title"><div>Flight in major groups</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta)"><img alt="Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg/250px-Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg/375px-Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg/500px-Australian_Emperor_in_flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Magpie goose (Aves)"><img alt="Magpie goose (Aves)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg/250px-Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg/375px-Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg/500px-Magpie_Goose_taking_off.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Magpie goose (Aves)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera)"><img alt="Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/250px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/375px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/500px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera)</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_feet_and_legs" title="Bird feet and legs">Bird feet and legs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">Feather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinesis_(biology)" title="Kinesis (biology)">Kinesis (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microswimmer" title="Microswimmer">Microswimmer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement of Animals</a></i> (book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_skin_in_locomotion" title="Role of skin in locomotion">Role of skin in locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">Sessile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxis" title="Taxis">Taxis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EB-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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(2003) <i>Principles of Animal Locomotion</i>. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08678-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08678-8">0-691-08678-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_locomotion&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Animal_locomotion" class="extiw" title="commons:Animal locomotion">Animal locomotion</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olfacts.nl/index_bestanden/Page9.html">Beetle Orientation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120310072128/http://www.olfacts.nl/index_bestanden/Page9.html">Archived</a> 2012-03-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100726231603/http://www.dukenews.duke.edu/2005/12/locomotiontheory.html">Unified Physics Theory Explains 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Template:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Template talk:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fins,_limbs_and_wings" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fins, limbs and wings"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fins,_limbs_and_wings105" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fin" title="Fin">Fins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_locomotion" title="Aquatic locomotion">Aquatic locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_fin" title="Cephalopod fin">Cephalopod fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Fish locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fin_and_flipper_locomotion" title="Fin and flipper locomotion">Fin and flipper locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caudal_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudal fin">Caudal fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_fin" title="Dorsal fin">Dorsal fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">Fish fin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flipper_(anatomy)" title="Flipper (anatomy)">Flipper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcopterygii" title="Sarcopterygii">Lobe-finned fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinopterygii" title="Actinopterygii">Ray-finned fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectoral_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral fins">Pectoral fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_fin" title="Pelvic fin">Pelvic fin</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fin and limb"><img alt="Fin and limb" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/140px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg/210px-Crossopterygii_fins_tetrapod_legs.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">biped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_biped" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative biped">facultative biped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripedal">triped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">quadruped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_limb" title="Cephalopod limb">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod#Limbs" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly" title="Dactyly">dactyly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">Digit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webbed_foot" title="Webbed foot">Webbed foot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Flying and gliding animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_wing_development" title="Bat wing development">Bat wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_wing" title="Bird wing">Bird wing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keel_(bird_anatomy)" title="Keel (bird anatomy)">keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Skeletal_system" title="Bird anatomy">skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_feather" title="Flight feather">feathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_wing" title="Insect wing">Insect wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterosaur#Wings" title="Pterosaur">Pterosaur wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingspan" title="Wingspan">Wingspan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Evolution of fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Evolution of cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogy_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogy (biology)">Analogous structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homologous structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gait" title="Gait">Gait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">Robot locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_(fruit)" title="Samara (fruit)">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">Terrestrial locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradeoffs_for_locomotion_in_air_and_water" title="Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water">Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems" title="Rotating locomotion in living systems">Rotating locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undulatory_locomotion" title="Undulatory locomotion">Undulatory locomotion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_locomotion_on_land199" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Locomotion" title="Template:Locomotion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Locomotion" title="Template talk:Locomotion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Locomotion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Locomotion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_locomotion_on_land199" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">Animal locomotion on land</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gait" title="Gait">Gait</a> class</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legged</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">Arboreal locomotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">Brachiation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_walking" title="Hand walking">Hand-walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">Jumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knuckle-walking" title="Knuckle-walking">Knuckle-walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Running" title="Running">Running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">Walking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legless</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_movement" title="Concertina movement">Concertina movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undulatory_locomotion" title="Undulatory locomotion">Undulatory locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectilinear_locomotion" title="Rectilinear locomotion">Rectilinear locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems" title="Rotating locomotion in living systems">Rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidewinding" title="Sidewinding">Sidewinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion#Limbless_locomotion" title="Terrestrial locomotion">Other modes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_foot_morphology" title="Comparative foot morphology">Comparative foot morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">Arthropod leg</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foot structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digitigrade" title="Digitigrade">Digitigrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantigrade" title="Plantigrade">Plantigrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ungulate" title="Ungulate">Unguligrade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by limb</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unipedalism" title="Unipedalism">Uniped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">Biped</a> (<a href="/wiki/Facultative_bipedalism" title="Facultative bipedalism">Facultative</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripedalism" title="Tripedalism">Triped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">Quadruped</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canine_gait" title="Canine gait">Canine gait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_gait" title="Horse gait">Horse gait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gait_(human)" title="Gait (human)">Human gait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion_on_the_water_surface" title="Animal locomotion on the water surface">Animal locomotion on the water surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_locomotion" title="Fish locomotion">Fish locomotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals" title="Flying and gliding animals">Volant animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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