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<span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Periglacial_loess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periglacial_loess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Periglacial loess</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periglacial_loess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-glacial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-glacial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Non-glacial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-glacial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fertility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large_areas_of_loess_deposits_and_soils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large_areas_of_loess_deposits_and_soils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Large areas of loess deposits and soils</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Large_areas_of_loess_deposits_and_soils-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Large areas of loess deposits and soils subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Large_areas_of_loess_deposits_and_soils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.1</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Argentina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>Argentina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Loess</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8_%D8%B7%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A" title="راسب طفالي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="راسب طفالي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D1%81_(%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0)" title="Лёс (горная парода) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лёс (горная парода)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D1%8D%D1%81" title="Лёэс – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лёэс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%8C%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Льос – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Льос" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spra%C5%A1" title="Spraš – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Spraš" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8ss" title="Løss – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Løss" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C5%ADso" title="Leŭso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leŭso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA" title="بادرفت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بادرفت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%93ss" title="Lœss – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lœss" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%A9%ED%86%A0" title="황토 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="황토" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Լյոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լյոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8" title="लोयस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लोयस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les" title="Les – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Les" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%A1" title="לס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ლიოსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლიოსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81" title="Лесс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лесс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gweres" title="Gweres – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gweres" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D1%81%D1%81" title="Лёсс – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Лёсс" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liosas" title="Liosas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Liosas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6sz" title="Lösz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lösz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ലോയസ്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലോയസ്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ss" title="Löss – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Löss" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%84%E5%9C%9F" title="黄土 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="黄土" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6s" title="Lös – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Lös" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8ss" title="Løss – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Løss" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8ss" title="Løss – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Løss" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%93ss" title="Lœss – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lœss" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyoss" title="Lyoss – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Lyoss" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6%C3%9F" title="Löß – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Löß" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Less" title="Less – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Less" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loesse" title="Loesse – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Loesse" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess" title="Loess – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Loess" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Лес – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лес" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sediment of accumulated wind-blown dust</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the geologic material. For the statistical technique, see <a href="/wiki/Local_regression" title="Local regression">local regression</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LoessVicksburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LoessVicksburg.jpg/220px-LoessVicksburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LoessVicksburg.jpg/330px-LoessVicksburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/LoessVicksburg.jpg/440px-LoessVicksburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Loess in <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg, Mississippi</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>loess</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɜː/: r-less 'ur' in 'nurse'">ɜː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Löss</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[lœs]</a></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Clastic_rock" title="Clastic rock">clastic</a>, predominantly <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>-sized <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ten percent of Earth's land area is covered by loesses or similar <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VasiljevicEtAl2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VasiljevicEtAl2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A loess is a <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">aeolian</a> (windborne) sediment, defined as an accumulation of 20% or less of <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> with a balance of roughly equal parts <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> and silt (with a typical <a href="/wiki/Grain_size" title="Grain size">grain size</a> from 20 to 50 micrometers),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often loosely cemented by <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. Usually, they are <a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity" title="Homogeneity and heterogeneity">homogeneous</a> and highly <a href="/wiki/Porosity#Porosity_in_earth_sciences_and_construction" title="Porosity">porous</a> and have vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical <a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">bluffs</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loess_landscape_china.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Loess_landscape_china.jpg/220px-Loess_landscape_china.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Loess_landscape_china.jpg/330px-Loess_landscape_china.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Loess_landscape_china.jpg/440px-Loess_landscape_china.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Loess near <a href="/wiki/Hunyuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunyuan">Hunyuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Datong" title="Datong">Datong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, China</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg/220px-L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg/330px-L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg/440px-L%C3%B6ss_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4376" data-file-height="3680" /></a><figcaption>Loess from the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> lowlands near <a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a> with calcareous concretions</figcaption></figure> <p>Loesses are <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homogeneous" class="extiw" title="wikt:homogeneous">homogeneous</a>; <a href="/wiki/Porosity#Porosity_in_earth_sciences_and_construction" title="Porosity">porous</a>; <a href="/wiki/Friable" class="mw-redirect" title="Friable">friable</a>; pale yellow or <a href="/wiki/Buff_(color)" class="mw-redirect" title="Buff (color)">buff</a>; slightly <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coherent" class="extiw" title="wikt:coherent">coherent</a>; typically, non-<a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">stratified</a>; and often <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a>. Loess grains are <a href="/wiki/Rounding_(sediment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounding (sediment)">angular</a>, with little polishing or rounding, and composed of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, or other <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> crystals. Loesses have been described as rich, dust-like soil.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loess deposits may become very thick: at more than a hundred meters in areas of Northwestern China and tens of meters in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a> United States. Loesses generally occur as blanket deposits that cover hundreds of square kilometers. The deposits are often tens of meters thick. Loesses often have steep or vertical faces.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the grains are angular, loesses will often stand in banks for many years without <a href="/wiki/Slump_(geology)" title="Slump (geology)">slumping</a>. This type of soil has "vertical cleavage", and thus, it can be easily excavated to form cave dwellings, which is a popular method of making <a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">human habitations</a> in some parts of China. However, loesses can readily erode. </p><p>In several areas of the world, loess <a href="/wiki/Ridge" title="Ridge">ridges</a> have formed that had been aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Prevailing_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Prevailing wind">prevailing winds</a> during the last <a href="/wiki/Glacial_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial maximum">glacial maximum</a>. These are called "<a href="/wiki/Paha_(landform)" title="Paha (landform)">paha</a> ridges" in America and "greda ridges" in Europe. The formation of these loess <a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">dunes</a> has been explained as a combination of wind and <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>loess</i>, with connotations of origin by wind-deposited accumulation, was introduced into English from the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Löss</i></span>, which can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Swiss German</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> with the English word <i>loose</i> and the German word <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">los</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was first applied to the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> River valley loesses around 1821.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_research">History of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "Löß" was first described in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> by <a href="/wiki/Karl_C%C3%A4sar_von_Leonhard" title="Karl Cäsar von Leonhard">Karl Cäsar von Leonhard</a> (1823–1824),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had reported yellowish brown, silty deposits along the Rhine valley near <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> (1834) brought the term into widespread usage, observing similarities between "loess" and its derivatives along the loess bluffs in the Rhine and in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, it was thought that the yellowish brown silt-rich sediment was of <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a> origin and had been deposited by large rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">aeolian</a> origin of the loesses was recognized later (Virlet D'Aoust 1857),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly due to the convincing observations of loesses in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Richthofen" title="Ferdinand von Richthofen">Ferdinand von Richthofen</a> (1878).<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tremendous number of papers have been published since then, focusing on the formation of loesses and on loess/<a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">paleosol</a> (older soil buried under deposits) sequences as the archives of climate and environment change.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These water conservation works have been carried out extensively in China, and the research of loesses in China has been ongoing since 1954. [33] </p><p>Much effort was put into setting up regional and local loess <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphies</a> and their correlations (Kukla 1970, 1975, 1977).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, even the chronostratigraphical position of the last interglacial soil correlating with marine <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> substage 5e was a matter of debate, due to the lack of robust and reliable numerical dating, as summarized, for example, by Zöller et al. (1994)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Frechen et al. (1997)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the Austrian and Hungarian loess stratigraphy, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence" title="Thermoluminescence">thermoluminescence</a> (TL), <a href="/wiki/Optically_stimulated_luminescence" title="Optically stimulated luminescence">optically stimulated luminescence</a> (OSL), and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating have been available, providing the possibility for dating the time of loess (dust) depositions, i.e., the time elapsed since the last exposure of the mineral grains to daylight.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the past decade, <a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">luminescence dating</a> has significantly improved by new methodological improvements, especially the development of single <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aliquot" class="extiw" title="wikt:aliquot">aliquot</a> regenerative (SAR) protocols (Murray & Wintle 2000)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in reliable ages (or age estimates) with an accuracy of up to 5 and 10% for the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial">last glacial</a> record.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, luminescence dating has also become a robust dating technique for penultimate and antepenultimate glacial loess (e.g. Thiel et al. 2011,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schmidt et al. 2011)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing for a reliable correlation of loess/palaeosol sequences for at least the last two interglacial/glacial cycles throughout Europe and the Northern Hemisphere (Frechen 2011).<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the numerical dating provides the basis for quantitative loess research applying more sophisticated methods to determine and understand high-resolution proxy data including the palaeodust content of the atmosphere, variations of the atmospheric circulation patterns and wind systems, palaeoprecipitation, and palaeotemperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides luminescence dating methods, the use of radiocarbon dating in loess has increased during the past decades. Advances in methods of analyses, instrumentation, and refinements to the radiocarbon calibration curve have made it possible to obtain reliable ages from loess deposits for the last 40–45 ka. However, the use of this method relies on finding suitable in situ organic material in deposits such as charcoal, seeds, earthworm granules, or snail shells.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luvos_Heilerde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Luvos_Heilerde.jpg/220px-Luvos_Heilerde.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Luvos_Heilerde.jpg/330px-Luvos_Heilerde.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Luvos_Heilerde.jpg/440px-Luvos_Heilerde.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2982" data-file-height="2483" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_clay" title="Medicinal clay">Medicinal clay</a> produced by <a href="/wiki/Luvos" title="Luvos">Luvos</a>. The clay is composed of loess with a fineness grade of 1.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Pye (1995),<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> four fundamental requirements are necessary for the formation of loess: a dust source, adequate wind energy to transport the dust, a suitable accumulation area, and a sufficient amount of time.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periglacial_loess">Periglacial loess</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Periglacial loess"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">Periglacial</a> (glacial) loess is derived from the floodplains of <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a> <a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">braided rivers</a> that carried large volumes of glacial meltwater and sediments from the annual melting of continental ice sheets and mountain ice caps during the spring and summer. During the autumn and winter, when the melting of the ice sheets and ice caps ceased, the flow of meltwater down these rivers either ceased or was greatly reduced. As a consequence, large parts of the formerly submerged and unvegetated floodplains of these braided rivers dried out and were exposed to the wind. Because the floodplains consist of sediment containing a high content of glacially ground flour-like <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, they were highly susceptible to winnowing of their silts and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a> by the wind. Once entrained by the wind, particles were then deposited downwind. The loess deposits found along both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_embayment" title="Mississippi embayment">Mississippi River alluvial valley</a> are a classic example of periglacial loess.<sup id="cite_ref-MuhsOthers2003a_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MuhsOthers2003a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-esp.cr.usgs.gov_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esp.cr.usgs.gov-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>, loess and loess-like sediments were formed in periglacial environments on mid-continental <a href="/wiki/Shield_(geology)" title="Shield (geology)">shield</a> areas in Europe and Siberia as well as on the margins of high mountain ranges like in <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> and on semi-arid margins of some lowland deserts as in China.<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, periglacial loess is also known as <a href="/wiki/Brickearth" title="Brickearth">brickearth</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-glacial">Non-glacial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Non-glacial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non-glacial loess can originate from <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dune_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Dune field">dune fields</a>, <a href="/wiki/Playa_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Playa lake">playa lakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a>. </p><p>Some types of nonglacial loess are:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Desert</a> loess produced by aeolian attrition of quartz grains;<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">Volcanic</a> loess in Ecuador and Argentina;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">Tropical</a> loess in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a> loess in Spain;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">Trade wind</a> loess in Venezuela and Brazil;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticyclonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticyclonic">Anticyclonic</a> loess in Argentina.</li></ul> <p>The thick Chinese loess deposits are non-glacial loess having been blown in from deserts in northern China.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loess covering the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> is considered to be non-glacial desert loess.<sup id="cite_ref-MuhsOthers2003a_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MuhsOthers2003a-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-glacial desert loess is also found in Australia<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-esp.cr.usgs.gov_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-esp.cr.usgs.gov-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fertility">Fertility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fertility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loess tends to develop into very rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, it is some of the most agriculturally productive terrain in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soils underlain by loess tend to be excessively drained. The fine grains <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weather</a> rapidly due to their large surface area, making soils derived from loess rich. The fertility of loess soils is due largely to a high <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a> (the ability of the soil to retain nutrients) and <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a> (the air-filled space in the soil). The fertility of loess is not due to organic matter content, which tends to be rather low, unlike tropical soils which derive their fertility almost wholly from organic matter. </p><p>Even well managed loess <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">farmland</a> can experience dramatic <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of well over 2.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup> per year. In China, the <a href="/wiki/Loess_Plateau" title="Loess Plateau">loess deposits</a> which give the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> its color have been farmed and have produced phenomenal yields for over one thousand years. Winds pick up loess particles contributing to the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Dust" title="Asian Dust">Asian Dust</a> pollution problem. The largest deposit of loess in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> which is the <a href="/wiki/Loess_Hills" title="Loess Hills">Loess Hills</a> along the border of <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, has survived <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">poor farming practices</a>. For almost 150 years, this loess deposit was farmed with <a href="/wiki/Mouldboard_plough" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouldboard plough">mouldboard ploughs</a> and tilled in the fall, both intensely erosive practices. At times it suffered erosion rates of over 10 kilograms per square meter per year. Today this loess deposit is worked as low till or <a href="/wiki/No_till" class="mw-redirect" title="No till">no till</a> in all areas and is aggressively <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terraced</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Large_areas_of_loess_deposits_and_soils">Large areas of loess deposits and soils</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Large areas of loess deposits and soils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Asia">Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An area of multiple loess deposits spans from southern <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> up to <a href="/wiki/Almaty" title="Almaty">Almaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Loess_Plateau" title="Loess Plateau">Loess Plateau</a> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">黄土高原</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">黃土高原</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Huángtǔ Gāoyuán</span></i>), also known as the Huangtu Plateau, is a <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a> that covers an area of some 640,000 km<sup>2</sup> around the upper and middle reaches of China's <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>. The Yellow River was so named because the loess forming its banks gave a yellowish tint to the water.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soil of this region has been called the "most highly erodible soil on earth".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Loess Plateau and its dusty <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> cover almost all of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> provinces; the <a href="/wiki/Ningxia_Hui_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region">Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region</a>, and parts of others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Loess deposits of varying thickness (decimeter to several tens of meters) are widely distributed over the European continent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The northern European loess belt stretches from southern England and northern France to Germany, Poland and the southern Ukraine and deposits are characterized by strong influences of <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South-eastern European loess is mainly deposited in plateau-like situations in the <a href="/wiki/Danube_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube basin">Danube basins</a>, likely derived from the Danube River system.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In south-western Europe, relocated loess derivatives are mostly restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebro Valley">Ebro Valley</a> and central Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif/220px-Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif/330px-Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Distribution_of_loess_in_North_America.gif 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the distribution of loess in the United States<sup id="cite_ref-usgs_muhs_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usgs_muhs-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Loess" title="Special:EditPage/Loess">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Loess_Hills" title="Loess Hills">Loess Hills</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a> owe their fertility to the <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a> <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoils</a> built by 10,000 years of post-glacial accumulation of organic-rich <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a> as a consequence of a persistent <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a>. When the valuable <a href="/wiki/A_horizon" class="mw-redirect" title="A horizon">A-horizon</a> topsoil is eroded or degraded, the underlying loess soil is infertile, and requires the addition of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> in order to support <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. </p><p>The loess along the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg, Mississippi</a>, consists of three layers. The <i>Peoria Loess</i>, <i>Sicily Island Loess</i>, and <i>Crowley's Ridge Loess</i> accumulated at different periods of time during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>. Ancient soils, called <a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">paleosols</a>, have developed on the top of the <a href="/wiki/Sicily_Island,_Louisiana" title="Sicily Island, Louisiana">Sicily Island</a> Loess and <a href="/wiki/Crowley%27s_Ridge" title="Crowley's Ridge">Crowley's Ridge</a> Loess. The lowermost loess, the Crowley's Ridge Loess, accumulated during the late <a href="/wiki/Illinoian_(stage)" title="Illinoian (stage)">Illinoian Stage</a>. The middle loess, Sicily Island Loess, accumulated during the early <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_glaciation" title="Wisconsin glaciation">Wisconsin Stage</a>. The uppermost loess, the Peoria Loess in which the modern soil has developed, accumulated during the late Wisconsin Stage. Animal remains include terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mastodon" title="Mastodon">mastodons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MillerOthers1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerOthers1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Extensive areas of loess occur in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Plains" title="Canterbury Plains">Canterbury Plains</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on the <a href="/wiki/Banks_Peninsula" title="Banks Peninsula">Banks Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basis of loess stratigraphy was introduced by <a href="/wiki/John_Hardcastle" title="John Hardcastle">John Hardcastle</a> in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (September 2020)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Argentina">Argentina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Argentina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArgentinaLoess.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/ArgentinaLoess.JPG/220px-ArgentinaLoess.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/ArgentinaLoess.JPG/330px-ArgentinaLoess.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/ArgentinaLoess.JPG/440px-ArgentinaLoess.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Outcrop" title="Outcrop">outcrop</a> of loess in <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Much of <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> is covered by loess. Two areas of loess are usually distinguished in Argentina: the neotropical loess north of <a href="/wiki/30th_parallel_south" title="30th parallel south">latitude 30° S</a> and the pampean loess.<sup id="cite_ref-Sagayo_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sagayo-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The neotropical loess is made of silt or silty clay. Relative to the pampean loess the neotropical loess is poor in <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. The source region for this loess is thought by some scientists to be areas of <a href="/wiki/Fluvio-glacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvio-glacial">fluvio-glacial</a> deposits the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andean</a> foothills formed by the <a href="/wiki/Patagonian_Ice_Sheet" title="Patagonian Ice Sheet">Patagonian Ice Sheet</a>. Other researchers stress the importance of <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">volcanic material</a> in the neotropical loess.<sup id="cite_ref-Sagayo_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sagayo-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pampean loess is sandy or made of silty sand.<sup id="cite_ref-Sagayo_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sagayo-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rde" title="Börde">Börde</a> – Fertile plain – North German loess regions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A4u" title="Gäu">Gäue</a> – landscape type<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span> – South German loess regions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a> – Soil composed of similar proportions of sand and silt, and somewhat less clay</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Attribution</dt></dl> <p>This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference "Loess in Europe: Guest Editorial".<sup id="cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Frechen_2011-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frechen_2011_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrechen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Frechen, M (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.00">"Loess in Europe: Guest Editorial"</a>. <i>E&G Quaternary Science Journal</i>. <b>60</b> (1): 3–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3285%2Feg.60.1.00">10.3285/eg.60.1.00</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=E%26G+Quaternary+Science+Journal&rft.atitle=Loess+in+Europe%3A+Guest+Editorial&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-5&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3285%2Feg.60.1.00&rft.aulast=Frechen&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3285%252Feg.60.1.00&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VasiljevicEtAl2011-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VasiljevicEtAl2011_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasiljevicMarkovicHoseSmalley2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vasiljevic, D. A.; Markovic, S. B.; Hose, T. A.; Smalley, I.; O'Hara-Dhand, K.; Basarin, B.; Lukic, T.; Vujicic, M. D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/ags/article/viewFile/1328/1091">"Loess Towards (Geo) Tourism – Proposed Application on Loess in Vojvodina Region (North Serbia)"</a>. <i>Acta Geographica Slovenica</i> (in Slovenian). <b>51</b> (2): 390–406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3986%2FAGS51305">10.3986/AGS51305</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Geographica+Slovenica&rft.atitle=Loess+Towards+%28Geo%29+Tourism+%E2%80%93+Proposed+Application+on+Loess+in+Vojvodina+Region+%28North+Serbia%29&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=390-406&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3986%2FAGS51305&rft.aulast=Vasiljevic&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Markovic%2C+S.+B.&rft.au=Hose%2C+T.+A.&rft.au=Smalley%2C+I.&rft.au=O%27Hara-Dhand%2C+K.&rft.au=Basarin%2C+B.&rft.au=Lukic%2C+T.&rft.au=Vujicic%2C+M.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fojs.zrc-sazu.si%2Fags%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F1328%2F1091&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmalleyDerbyshire1990" class="citation book cs1">Smalley, I. 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"The definition of 'ice-sheet' and 'mountain' loess". <i>Area 22</i>. pp. 300–01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+definition+of+%27ice-sheet%27+and+%27mountain%27+loess&rft.btitle=Area+22&rft.pages=300-01&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Smalley&rft.aufirst=I.+J.&rft.au=Derbyshire%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977" class="citation book cs1">Donahue, Miller, Shickluna (1977). <i>Soils: An Introduction to Soils and Plant Growth</i> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soils%3A+An+Introduction+to+Soils+and+Plant+Growth&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Donahue&rft.au=Miller&rft.au=Shickluna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pearson Prentice Hall - World Studies - Europe and Russia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neuendorf, K.E.K., J.P. Mehl Jr., and J.A. Jackson, 2005, <i>Glossary of Geology.</i> <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, 779 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-27951-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-27951-2">3-540-27951-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=loess">"loess"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=loess&rft.pub=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dloess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346022/loess">"loess (sedimentary deposit)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gec.cr.usgs.gov/archive/eolian/task2.shtml">the original</a> on 2013-02-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eolian+History+of+North+America%3A+Task+2%2C+Understand+the+paleoclimatic+significance+of+loess&rft.pub=USGS&rft.date=2013-02-06&rft.au=Muhs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgec.cr.usgs.gov%2Farchive%2Feolian%2Ftask2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillerOthers1-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillerOthers1_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, B.J., G.C. Lewis, J.J. Alford, and W.J. Day, 1985, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/18934817/1984-Louisiana-Loess-Fieldtrip-Guidebook"><i>Loesses in Louisiana and at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Guidebook, Friends of the Pleistocene Field Trip, 12-14 April, 1985.</i></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=LA_Agricultural_Experimental_Station&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LA Agricultural Experimental Station (page does not exist)">LA Agricultural Experimental Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University" title="Louisiana State University">Louisiana State University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton Rouge">Baton Rouge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. 126 pp.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Wilson" class="citation web cs1">John Wilson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/canterbury-region/page-3">"Canterbury Region"</a>. Encyclopedia of New Zealand<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canterbury+Region&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.au=John+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fteara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fcanterbury-region%2Fpage-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEileen_McSaveney" class="citation web cs1">Eileen McSaveney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/photograph/10750/loess-deposits-banks-peninsula">"Glaciers and glaciation - Retreating ice and the glacier legacy"</a>. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glaciers+and+glaciation+-+Retreating+ice+and+the+glacier+legacy&rft.pub=Te+Ara+-+the+Encyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.au=Eileen+McSaveney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.TeAra.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fphotograph%2F10750%2Floess-deposits-banks-peninsula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smalley, I.J., Davin, J.E. 1980. The First Hundred Years-A Historical Bibliography of New Zealand Loess. New Zealand Soil Bureau Bibliographic Report 28, 166pp.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*Hardcastle, J. 1890. On the Timaru loess as a climate register. Transcations & Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 23, 324-332 (on line: Royal Society of New Zealand <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz">http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz</a>; reproduced in Loess Letter supplement 23, November 1988).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sagayo-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sagayo_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sagayo_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sagayo_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagayo1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sagayo, José Manuel (1995). "The Argentine neotropical loess: An overview". <i>Quaternary Science Reviews</i>. <b>14</b> (7–8). Pergamon: 755–766. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995QSRv...14..755S">1995QSRv...14..755S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0277-3791%2895%2900050-X">10.1016/0277-3791(95)00050-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+Argentine+neotropical+loess%3A+An+overview&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=7%E2%80%938&rft.pages=755-766&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0277-3791%2895%2900050-X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995QSRv...14..755S&rft.aulast=Sagayo&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALoess" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Smalley, I. J. (editor) 1975. <i>Loess Lithology & Genesis</i>. Benchmark Geology 26. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross 454pp.</li> <li>Smalley, I. J. 1980. <i>Loess: A Partial Bibliography</i>. Geobooks/Elsevier. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0%2B86094%2B036%2B5" title="Special:BookSources/0+86094+036+5">0 86094 036 5</a>. 103pp.</li> <li>Rozycki, S. Z. 1991. <i>Loess and Loess-like Deposits</i>. Ossolineum Wroclaw <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-04-03745-9" title="Special:BookSources/83-04-03745-9">83-04-03745-9</a>. 187pp.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loess&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loess" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:loess">loess</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Loess" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Loess">Loess</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1920 <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i> article <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Loess" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Loess">Loess</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>2006, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511201317/http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_printview.php?BiotID=357">The Secret of China's Vast Loess Plateau</a></i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suburban_Emergency_Management_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suburban Emergency Management Project (page does not exist)">Suburban Emergency Management Project</a>, Chicago, Illinois.</li> <li>2007, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=35690">New European Loess Map.</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_Centre_for_Environmental_Research" title="Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research">Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, Germany.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/larson/loess.html">Glacial Deposits: Loess and Till.</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Illinois_State_Museum" title="Illinois State Museum">Illinois State Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Illinois" title="Springfield, Illinois">Springfield, Illinois</a>.</li> <li>Briedis. C.A., 2006, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905190943/http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/sections/quat/loessthick-map.shtml"><i>Loess Thickness Map (of Illinois).</i></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Illinois_State_Geological_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illinois State Geological Survey (page does not exist)">Illinois State Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Champaign,_Illinois" title="Champaign, Illinois">Champaign, Illinois</a>.</li> <li>Heinrich, P.V., 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325233831/http://www.lgs.lsu.edu/deploy/uploads/Loess%20Map%20of%20LA.pdf"><i>Loess map of Louisiana.</i></a>, Public Information Series. no. 12, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Geological_Survey" title="Louisiana Geological Survey">Louisiana Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton Rouge">Baton Rouge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.</li> <li>Prior, J.C., and D.J. Quade, nd, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080521133019/http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/browse/loess/loess.htm"><i>The Loess Hills: A Geologic View.</i></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iowa_Geological_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iowa Geological Survey (page does not exist)">Iowa Geological Survey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iowa_Department_of_Natural_Resources" title="Iowa Department of Natural Resources">Department of Natural Resources</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iowa_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa City">Iowa City</a>, Iowa.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, 1999, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/info/loess/">Geology of the Loess Hills, Iowa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, 2006, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513165050/http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/info/eolian/task2.html">Eolian History of North America</a></i> Why is loess important to study?</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080626123416/http://www.nfinity.com/~exile/loesspg.htm"><i>The Loess Hills of Western Iowa</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mojeroztocze.pl/index.php/galeria?func=viewcategory&catid=3"><i>The Loess Hills of Roztocze in Poland</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110102213203/http://www.mojeroztocze.pl/index.php/galeria?func=viewcategory&catid=3">Archived</a> 2011-01-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_type" title="Template:Soil type"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_type" title="Template talk:Soil type"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soil_type" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soil type"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources" title="World Reference Base for Soil Resources">World Reference Base<br /> for Soil Resources</a> (1998–)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrisol" title="Acrisol">Acrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alisols">Alisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andosol" title="Andosol">Andosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrosol" title="Anthrosol">Anthrosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psamment" title="Psamment">Arenosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcisol" title="Calcisol">Calcisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambisol" title="Cambisol">Cambisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernozem" title="Chernozem">Chernozem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryosols">Cryosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durisol" title="Durisol">Durisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferralsols" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferralsols">Ferralsols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvisol" title="Fluvisol">Fluvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleysol" title="Gleysol">Gleysols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypsisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsisols">Gypsisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastanozem" title="Kastanozem">Kastanozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptosol" title="Leptosol">Leptosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixisol" title="Lixisol">Lixisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luvisol" title="Luvisol">Luvisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisol" title="Nitisol">Nitisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeozem" title="Phaeozem">Phaeozems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planosol" title="Planosol">Planosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plinthosol" title="Plinthosol">Plinthosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Podzols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regosol" title="Regosol">Regosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retisol" title="Retisol">Retisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonchak" title="Solonchak">Solonchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solonetz" title="Solonetz">Solonetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnosol" title="Stagnosol">Stagnosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technosol" title="Technosol">Technosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrisol" title="Umbrisol">Umbrisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfisol" title="Alfisol">Alfisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andisol" title="Andisol">Andisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aridisol" title="Aridisol">Aridisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entisol" title="Entisol">Entisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelisol" title="Gelisol">Gelisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inceptisol" title="Inceptisol">Inceptisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollisol" title="Mollisol">Mollisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxisol" title="Oxisol">Oxisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Spodosols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultisol" title="Ultisol">Ultisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FAO_soil_classification" title="FAO soil classification">FAO soil classification</a> (1974–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System" title="Unified Soil Classification System">Unified Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System" title="AASHTO Soil Classification System">AASHTO Soil Classification System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiel_p%C3%A9dologique" title="Référentiel pédologique">Référentiel pédologique</a> (French classification system)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_system_of_soil_classification" title="Canadian system of soil classification">Canadian system of soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Soil_Classification" title="Australian Soil Classification">Australian Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification" title="Polish Soil Classification">Polish Soil Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="1938 USDA soil taxonomy">1938 USDA soil taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_soils" title="List of U.S. state soils">List of U.S. state soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types" title="List of vineyard soil types">List of vineyard soil types</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic soil types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claypan" title="Claypan">Claypan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardpan" title="Hardpan">Hardpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gypcrust" title="Gypcrust">Gypcrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">Caliche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">Parent material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laimosphere" title="Laimosphere">Laimosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_soil" title="Bulk soil">Bulk soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_goo" title="Blue goo">Blue goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brickearth" title="Brickearth">Brickearth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_earth" title="Brown earth">Brown earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_grassland" title="Calcareous grassland">Calcareous grassland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_earth" title="Dark earth">Dark earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_quicksand" title="Dry quicksand">Dry quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplex_soil" title="Duplex soil">Duplex soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluvium" title="Eluvium">Eluvium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansive_clay" title="Expansive clay">Expansive clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth" title="Fuller's earth">Fuller's earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic_soil" title="Hydrophobic soil">Hydrophobic soil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Loess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar soil">Lunar soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">Mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">Muskeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">Paleosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_farmland" title="Prime farmland">Prime farmland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quicksand" title="Quicksand">Quicksand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentine_soil" title="Serpentine soil">Serpentine soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spodic_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Spodic soil">Spodic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagnogley" title="Stagnogley">Stagnogley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaqueous_soil" title="Subaqueous soil">Subaqueous soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takir_(soil)" title="Takir (soil)">Takir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_rossa_(soil)" title="Terra rossa (soil)">Terra rossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_peat" title="Tropical peat">Tropical peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yedoma" title="Yedoma">Yedoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_soil" title="Category:Types of soil">Types of soil</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geotechnical_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geotechnical_engineering" title="Template:Geotechnical engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geotechnical_engineering" title="Template talk:Geotechnical engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geotechnical_engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geotechnical engineering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geotechnical_engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Offshore_geotechnical_engineering" title="Offshore geotechnical engineering">Offshore geotechnical engineering</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_investigation" title="Geotechnical investigation">Investigation</a> <br />and<br />instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Field (<i>in situ</i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Core_sample.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/20px-Core_sample.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/30px-Core_sample.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/40px-Core_sample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cone_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/20px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/30px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/40px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Cone_penetration_test" title="Cone penetration test">Cone penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geo-electrical_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/20px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/30px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/40px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geo-electrical_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geo-electrical sounding (page does not exist)">Geo-electrical sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:In_situ_permeameter_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/20px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/30px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/40px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">Permeability test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pore_pressure_measurement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/20px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/30px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/40px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> Pore pressure measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piezometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezometer">Piezometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well#Classification" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/20px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/30px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/40px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Soil_consolidation" title="Soil consolidation">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory <br />testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content#Measurement" title="Water content">Water content tests</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Loess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Sensitivity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures <br />(<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Shoring structures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep foundation">Deep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">Effective stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_earth_pressure" title="Lateral earth pressure">Lateral earth pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/<br />problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_wave" title="S wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a> * <a href="/wiki/Stress_distribution_in_soil" title="Stress distribution in soil">Stress distribution in soil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis <br />software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=STABL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="STABL (page does not exist)">STABL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geoprofessions" title="Geoprofessions">Related fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" 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