Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1739885660"> <meta name="title" content="Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress"> <meta name="description" content="Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) are regarded as critical tools for overcoming ongoing and prospective crop productivity challenges. MONPs with distinct physiochemical characteristics boost crop production and resistance to abiotic stresses such as drought. They have recently been used to improve plant growth, physiology, and yield of a variety of crops grown in drought-stressed settings. Additionally, they mitigate drought-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the aggregation of osmolytes, which results in enhanced osmotic adaptation and crop water balance. These roles of MONPs are based on their physicochemical and biological features, foliar application method, and the applied MONPs concentrations. In this review, we focused on three important metal oxide nanoparticles that are widely used in agriculture: titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and iron oxide (Fe3O4). The impacts of various MONPs forms, features, and dosages on plant growth and development under drought stress are summarized and discussed. Overall, this review will contribute to our present understanding of MONPs’ effects on plants in alleviating drought stress in crop plants." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/plants-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Nadiyah M. Alabdallah"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Md. Mahadi Hasan"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Inès Hammami"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Azzah Ibrahim Alghamdi"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Dikhnah Alshehri"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Hanan Ali Alatawi"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Review"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Plants 2021, Vol. 10, Page 1730"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2021-08-21"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/plants10081730"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) are regarded as critical tools for overcoming ongoing and prospective crop productivity challenges. MONPs with distinct physiochemical characteristics boost crop production and resistance to abiotic stresses such as drought. They have recently been used to improve plant growth, physiology, and yield of a variety of crops grown in drought-stressed settings. Additionally, they mitigate drought-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the aggregation of osmolytes, which results in enhanced osmotic adaptation and crop water balance. These roles of MONPs are based on their physicochemical and biological features, foliar application method, and the applied MONPs concentrations. In this review, we focused on three important metal oxide nanoparticles that are widely used in agriculture: titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and iron oxide (Fe3O4). The impacts of various MONPs forms, features, and dosages on plant growth and development under drought stress are summarized and discussed. Overall, this review will contribute to our present understanding of MONPs’ effects on plants in alleviating drought stress in crop plants." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="nanoparticles" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="abiotic stress" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="hydrogen peroxide" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="malonaldehyde" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="oxidative stress" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2223-7747"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Plants"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2021-08-21"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="10"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="8"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Review" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="1730" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2223-7747"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Plants"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2021/8"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2021/08/21"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="10"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="8"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1730"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Alabdallah, Nadiyah M."> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hasan, Md. 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MONPs with distinct physiochemical characteristics boost crop production and resistance to abiotic stresses such as drought. They have recently been used to improve plant growth, physiology, and yield of a variety of crops grown in drought-stressed settings. Additionally, they mitigate drought-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the aggregation of osmolytes, which results in enhanced osmotic adaptation and crop water balance. These roles of MONPs are based on their physicochemical and biological features, foliar application method, and the applied MONPs concentrations. In this review, we focused on three important metal oxide nanoparticles that are widely used in agriculture: titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and iron oxide (Fe3O4). The impacts of various MONPs forms, features, and dosages on plant growth and development under drought stress are summarized and discussed. Overall, this review will contribute to our present understanding of MONPs’ effects on plants in alleviating drought stress in crop plants." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001-550.jpg?1629516378" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); 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Plants under Drought Stress </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop5576622' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Nadiyah M. 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width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop5576624' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Inès Hammami</div><div id="profile-card-drop5576624" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Inès Hammami</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/UnpQQ1NrT3hRL09yYXJ1SGhuclJ3MzFTNEIrVnBsN25sM2Z0dEZ2c0Vuaz0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=In%C3%A8s%20Hammami" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=In%C3%A8s%20Hammami&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=In%C3%A8s%20Hammami" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup><span style="display: inline; 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margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="5576625" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#58773b363c753b3f317734773d3539313475282a372c3d3b2c3137367b6868693a6e696868683c686e68616868683b686d68606a6968606868696c6c3e686c686d696c6c3e696a6868"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop5576626' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Dikhnah Alshehri</div><div id="profile-card-drop5576626" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Dikhnah Alshehri</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/993068?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Dikhnah%20Alshehri" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Dikhnah%20Alshehri&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Dikhnah%20Alshehri" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 3</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="5576626" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#aa85c9c4ce87c9cdc385c685cfc7cbc3c687dad8c5decfc9dec3c5c4899a9a9a9f9c9e9a929b9d9ac99a9b9ac99b9c9ace989e9b9b9b9a9ecb9a9b9a9a9b9b9ecb9b9d9a9f"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop5576627' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Hanan Ali Alatawi</div><div id="profile-card-drop5576627" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Hanan Ali Alatawi</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1667978?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Hanan%20Ali%20Alatawi" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Hanan%20Ali%20Alatawi&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hanan%20Ali%20Alatawi" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 3</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="5576627" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#ba95d9d4de97d9ddd395d695dfd7dbd3d697cac8d5cedfd9ced3d5d4998a8a8a838c828a8e8a838bd98bdc8a8b88828bde8bd98e8c8ade8ad98bde8e8c8bd88a83"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3476-5821" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1739885660" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 74191, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Plants</em> <b>2021</b>, <em>10</em>(8), 1730; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081730">https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081730</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 8 July 2021</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 10 August 2021</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 11 August 2021</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 21 August 2021</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/plants/special_issues/Metals_Metalloids ">Metals, Metalloids, Metal-Based Nanoparticles – Effects, Responses and Novel Technologies</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-618803" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-618803" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-618803" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/pdf?version=1629516305" data-name="Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress" data-journal="plants">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png?1629516378" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) is represented schematically. Created with Biorender.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png?1629516378" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) induced drought stress tolerance in plants through a general mechanism. Created with Biorender.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/review_report">Review Reports</a> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2223-7747/10/8/1730/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) are regarded as critical tools for overcoming ongoing and prospective crop productivity challenges. MONPs with distinct physiochemical characteristics boost crop production and resistance to abiotic stresses such as drought. They have recently been used to improve plant growth, physiology, and yield of a variety of crops grown in drought-stressed settings. Additionally, they mitigate drought-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the aggregation of osmolytes, which results in enhanced osmotic adaptation and crop water balance. These roles of MONPs are based on their physicochemical and biological features, foliar application method, and the applied MONPs concentrations. In this review, we focused on three important metal oxide nanoparticles that are widely used in agriculture: titanium dioxide (TiO<sub>2</sub>), zinc oxide (ZnO), and iron oxide (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>). The impacts of various MONPs forms, features, and dosages on plant growth and development under drought stress are summarized and discussed. Overall, this review will contribute to our present understanding of MONPs’ effects on plants in alleviating drought stress in crop plants.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a>; <a href="/search?q=abiotic+stress">abiotic stress</a>; <a href="/search?q=hydrogen+peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>; <a href="/search?q=malonaldehyde">malonaldehyde</a>; <a href="/search?q=oxidative+stress">oxidative stress</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-plants-10-01730' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>By 2050, the world population is expected to reach nearly 9.6 billion people, requiring a 70–100% increase in agricultural productivity to fulfill the world’s food needs [<a href="#B1-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B2-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">2</a>]. However, decreasing fertile area, water scarcity, the effects of global warming, and the low efficacy of present fertilizers and pesticides exacerbate abiotic stresses on crops, lowering their yields. Drought, for example, costs billions of dollars in crop yield loss each year [<a href="#B3-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">3</a>,<a href="#B4-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. As a result, decreasing food production is a serious concern. Drought-tolerant crop varieties have taken a long time to develop, yet there are still few economically feasible vigorous drought-tolerant species [<a href="#B3-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">3</a>,<a href="#B4-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B6-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. Simultaneously, public anxiety about the safety of the transgenic crop is high [<a href="#B7-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. Thus, innovative technologies that protect the plants from drought stress are required to ensure food security in a safe and sustainable manner.</div><div class='html-p'>Nanotechnology has been commonly applied in the food, medical, and agricultural industries throughout the world [<a href="#B8-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Numerous metallic nanoparticles (MONPs), such as titanium dioxide (TiO<sub>2</sub>), iron oxide (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), and zinc oxide (ZnO), have gained considerable attention in recent years due to their environmentally favorable use in agriculture. MONPs can be synthesized in a variety of ways, including green, chemical, and physical processes. However, green synthesis of MONPs has been extensively utilized in the agricultural sector [<a href="#B9-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. MONPs have been shown to have positive impacts on crop growth in recent years. These effects varied according to the form, origin, and size of the MONPs, as well as the plant species and the time of MONPs exposure to crops [<a href="#B10-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">11</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>Recently, MONPs have been used to increase plant tolerance to harsh environments. MONPs have been utilized to protect plants from oxidative stress by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POX) [<a href="#B12-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. MONPs have the potential to reduce the detrimental impact of drought on plant physiological functions by lowering malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) contents and maintaining photosynthetic systems [<a href="#B12-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B13-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. Under drought stress, they play a role in signaling pathways, defense, metabolism, and regulatory activities. For example, TiO<sub>2</sub> nanoparticles (TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs) decreased oxidative damage and lipid peroxidation in response to drought stress, as shown by reduced H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and MDA concentrations [<a href="#B14-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. MONPs can penetrate chloroplasts and react with the photosystem II reaction center, hence increasing electron transmission, oxygen evolution, and light absorption in chloroplasts under drought-induced oxidative stress [<a href="#B15-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. Despite their commercial significance and prevalence in a variety of commercial products, there is obviously a rising public concern about the toxicological and environmental impacts of MONPs [<a href="#B16-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. Excessive MONPs caused physiological abnormalities and oxidative stress in crops, resulting in a decrease in gas exchange characteristics and antioxidant enzyme activities [<a href="#B17-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">17</a>,<a href="#B18-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B19-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B20-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">20</a>]. Numerous studies found that MONPs reduced the mitotic index and disrupted cell division phases in the root tips and altered the gene expressions associated with root growth [<a href="#B21-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B22-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">23</a>]. MONPs cause indirect toxicities by altering the growth medium and soil bacterial communities, also causing co-contaminants to be absorbed by plants [<a href="#B24-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">24</a>,<a href="#B25-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">25</a>]. MONPs could increase or decrease crop growth and yield, and they can be transferred into the food chain with unknown consequences to humans and animals [<a href="#B17-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">17</a>,<a href="#B20-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B26-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">26</a>,<a href="#B27-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. Therefore, MONPs may not be widely used in agriculture.</div><div class='html-p'>There have been a number of research studies on the synthesis and characterization of MONPs, as well as their role in abiotic stress tolerance, but only a few reports have been published that summarize the green synthesis of MONPs and drought stress tolerance in plants. Furthermore, the current study highlights recent improvements in the use of MONPs itself, whether given directly through hydroponics, or through the soil, to boost plant growth and drought stress tolerance in a variety of plant environments.</div></section><section id='sec2-plants-10-01730' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Synthesis and Characterization of Metal Oxide Nanoparticle</h2><div class='html-p'>The conventional methods for producing MONPs are based on physical and chemical processes that involve the use of dangerous and expensive substances, which require a large amount of energy and have a detrimental impact on the environment [<a href="#B9-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. The green synthesis of MONPs has received a lot of attention recently since it is an innovative method for developing engineered materials [<a href="#B28-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. In comparison to conventional chemical and/or physical processes, green synthesis of MONPs by various organisms (algae, fungi, bacteria, plants, etc.) provides a dependable, limited, and environmentally sustainable option [<a href="#B10-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B28-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. During biosynthesis, the green production of MONPs results in the development of capped nanostructures with proteins/biomolecules from the organisms. Such capping agents inhibit the aggregation of nanoparticles and play a significant role in the nanosystem’s stabilization [<a href="#B11-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B29-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. Green synthesis of MONPs is illustrated schematically in <a href="#plants-10-01730-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>The green synthesis of MONPs can be done using simple and cost-effective methods that do not pollute the environment [<a href="#B28-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. TiO<sub>2</sub> nanoparticles (TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs) offer a wide range of uses in the environmental, industrial, and medicinal sectors [<a href="#B30-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. The non-toxic TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs exhibit strong oxidation potential, show considerable photo-catalytic activity, and have unusual optical and chemical stability. Additionally, they have antimicrobial and antibacterial catalytic properties, which enable them to be used in a variety of industrial applications, including photocatalysts, catalyst supports, and pigments [<a href="#B31-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">32</a>]. TiO<sub>2</sub> exhibited improved biocompatibility and stability, most likely as a result of the capping agent coated on the surface [<a href="#B31-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. Green synthesized TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs have been synthesized mostly using fungi, bacteria, and plants (<a href="#plants-10-01730-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>). In general, X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have been used to characterize TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs.</div><div class='html-p'>ZnO nanoparticles (ZnONPs) have been extensively employed in the formulation of sunscreen lotions and cosmetics and are also used as biocidal agents/disinfectants due to their UV absorption capacity and excellent photostability [<a href="#B61-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">61</a>,<a href="#B62-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">62</a>,<a href="#B63-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">63</a>]. Additionally, they show antibacterial and anticancer properties [<a href="#B64-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">64</a>,<a href="#B65-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">65</a>]. ZnONPs (16–108 nm) with antibacterial activity were synthesized using plant <span class='html-italic'>Parthenium hysterophorous</span> [<a href="#B54-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">54</a>]. Although ZnONPs are stable and affordable to synthesize, aggregation of chemically derived NPs can cause their instability and expansion in size due to their high surface energy. Capping with modifying agents or surfactants such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyethylene oxide (PEO), and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) results in their significant size reduction contributing to the stability of nanoparticles [<a href="#B66-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">66</a>,<a href="#B67-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">67</a>,<a href="#B68-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">68</a>]. Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs) have prospective applications in a variety of biomedical fields, including delivery of drug, cancer diagnosis, treatment, and the imaging of nuclear magnetic resonance [<a href="#B69-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">69</a>,<a href="#B70-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">70</a>]. Apart from the conventional chemical approaches, there is a growing trend in the utilization of green methods to synthesize Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs. To limit their growth of the NPs, polymers, organic capping agents, or structural hosts are utilized. Phenolic compounds act as capping agents, improving colloidal solution stability and preventing nanoparticle aggregation. One of the non-toxic, naturally occurring polyphenolic substances derived from plants is tannins. Herrera-Becerra et al. [<a href="#B71-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">71</a>] used tannins to create green synthesized magnetic hematite (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) nanoparticles with a diameter of only about 10 nm and a pH of 10. Using the <span class='html-italic'>Plantago</span> spp. peel extract of <span class='html-italic'>Malus domestica</span> as a capping agent, Venkateswarlu et al. [<a href="#B58-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">58</a>] were able to synthesis spherical Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs with an average diameter of 50 nm, while aqueous leaf extract of <span class='html-italic'>Tridax procumbens</span> was used to make capped Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> with a diameter of 80–100 nm [<a href="#B59-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">59</a>]. Comprehensive surface characterization approaches such as surface characteristics, chemical properties, and spatial patterns of functional groups are utilized to gain a deeper understanding of surface properties [<a href="#B72-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs are investigated using a variety of fundamental techniques, including FTIR spectroscopy, XRD, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), TEM, and TGA analysis [<a href="#B55-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">55</a>,<a href="#B56-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">56</a>,<a href="#B57-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">57</a>,<a href="#B58-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">58</a>].</div></section><section id='sec3-plants-10-01730' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Mode of Action of Metal Oxide (MONPs) Nanoparticles under Drought Stress</h2><div class='html-p'>Drought is a common abiotic source of stress that drastically reduces crop yield in arid environments [<a href="#B6-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">6</a>,<a href="#B73-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">73</a>,<a href="#B74-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. Water is necessary for plant viability and nutrient transport. The viability of plants is harmed by water shortages or drought [<a href="#B4-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B75-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">75</a>]. The use of various MONPs can be used to alleviate water scarcity (<a href="#plants-10-01730-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>).</div><div class='html-p'>MONPs, which are detailed under the section heading below, have been shown to improve plant drought stress tolerance. </div><section id='sec3dot1-plants-10-01730' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs Nanoparticles Mediated Drought Stress Tolerance</h4><div class='html-p'>TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs are one of the most frequently utilized nanoparticles, with applications in cosmetics and skincare, antibacterial air-cleaning goods, and wastewater decomposition [<a href="#B76-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">76</a>,<a href="#B77-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">77</a>]. Due to the photocatalytic capabilities, the majority of studies using TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs at the foliar level have shown a beneficial effect on plants. According to Jaberzadeh et al. [<a href="#B78-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">78</a>], exposure to low concentrations of TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs could significantly reduce the detrimental impact of drought in wheat. Under drought stress conditions, TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs increased plant height, ear weight, ear and seed number, yield, biomass, and harvest index [<a href="#B78-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">78</a>]. In addition, TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs enhanced substantially gluten and starch content under drought stress [<a href="#B79-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">79</a>]. </div><div class='html-p'>The exogenous application of TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs resulted in an increase in wheat shoot fresh and dry weight, as well as an increase in photosynthetic pigments in wheat [<a href="#B80-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">80</a>] and <span class='html-italic'>Linum usitatissimum</span> [<a href="#B81-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">81</a>] under drought stress. Activating photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism may boost <span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> plant growth. TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs is a form of photocatalyst that can hydrolyze light into oxygen, electrons, and protons. The generated electron and proton are then transferred to a plant’s electron transfer chain during the light reaction stage, thereby increasing the rate of photosynthesis [<a href="#B81-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">81</a>]. The enhancement of secondary metabolites like phenolic compounds by MONPs has been recognized as a strategy for alleviating abiotic stress. TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs had a considerable impact on secondary metabolites in a drought environment; namely, when <span class='html-italic'>Lallemantia iberica</span> was subjected to moderate drought stress, TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs caused a considerable rise in phenolic compounds as well as total flavonoid content [<a href="#B82-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">82</a>]. It has been reported that TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs reduce the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and MDA contents in <span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> [<a href="#B83-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">83</a>] (<a href="#plants-10-01730-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>). </div><div class='html-p'>Antioxidant activity of enzymes such as CAT and APX were greatly elevated in plants treated with TiO<sub>2</sub>NPs under drought stress, showing that the defensive strategy has been activated by the plants [<a href="#B83-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">83</a>].</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-plants-10-01730' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. ZnONPs Mediated Drought Stress Tolerance</h4><div class='html-p'>Zn influences the structure, function, and performance of a wide range of enzymes [<a href="#B87-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">87</a>]. There is also substantial proof that ZnONPs boost crop production and biomass accumulation when plants are subjected to drought stress. For instance, Dhoke et al. [<a href="#B92-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">92</a>] examined the influence of ZnONPs on the growth of <span class='html-italic'>Vigna radiata</span> seedlings and found that the application of the ZnONPs boosted the root biomass and above-ground tissues. Photosynthesis has an impact on plant growth, productivity, and drought tolerance, and it is regarded to be the foundation of life on Earth. Taken together with stomatal conductance (<span class='html-italic'>g<sub>s</sub></span>), it is the most important step in the production of crop yield [<a href="#B93-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">93</a>]. ZnONPs were found to have a beneficial effect under drought stress. These nanoparticles increased photosynthetic activity, chlorophyll content, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency in maize seedlings [<a href="#B89-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">89</a>]. ZnONPs assisted in the stabilization of the chloroplast and mitochondrial ultrastructures of water-stressed <span class='html-italic'>Zea mays</span>, hence increasing photosynthetic efficiency [<a href="#B89-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">89</a>]. This could be due to the osmolyte accumulation such as proline and sugars required for the osmotic adjustment function [<a href="#B89-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">89</a>]. Additionally, it may contribute to the maintenance of cell membrane integrity and the increase in relative water content (RWC), which may represent plant metabolic functions. Thus, the authors proposed a nanotechnology-based technique for increasing plant growth and yield. Dimkpa et al. [<a href="#B87-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">87</a>] found that ZnONPs can hasten <span class='html-italic'>Sorghum bicolor</span> growth, increase yield, enrich edible grains with key elements such as zinc, and improve nitrogen uptake during drought stress conditions. ZnONPs increased grain nitrogen translocation by 84% compared to the drought control and recovered total N levels. In addition, ZnONPs application to drought-affected seedlings increased overall K uptake (16–30%) and grain K uptake (123%) in comparison to the drought control [<a href="#B87-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">87</a>]. Foroutan et al. [<a href="#B90-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">90</a>] showed that ZnONPs treatment could significantly increase drought tolerance in distinct <span class='html-italic'>M. peregrina</span> species during water deficit conditions by increasing the antioxidant polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activities and osmoprotectant content (<a href="#plants-10-01730-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>). In comparison to the control, foliar application of ZnONPs reduced oxidative stress and increased leaf SOD and POD activities [<a href="#B88-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">88</a>]. Increased antioxidant enzyme activity and decreased oxidative stress indicators in wheat leaves may represent a stress tolerance mechanism under stressful conditions [<a href="#B88-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">88</a>]. SOD assists in the detoxification of superoxide (O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>) under drought-induced oxidative stress by activating dismutation reaction and converting it to O<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Finally, these antioxidant enzymes act harmoniously to prevent the generation of damaging ROS. </div></section><section id='sec3dot3-plants-10-01730' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.3. Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs-Mediated Drought-Stress Tolerance</h4><div class='html-p'>A variety of physiological processes in plants, such as the synthesis of chlorophyll content, photosynthetic activity, and metabolism, are influenced by iron levels in the environment [<a href="#B91-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">91</a>]. Numerous findings suggest that Fe-based NPs promote plant development in non-stress conditions. Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs have beneficial impacts on plant development even at relatively low doses. Iron nanoparticles application may be an effective technique for increasing iron absorption through the roots of plants and increasing their stability during drought stress. Alidoust and Isoda [<a href="#B94-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">94</a>] conducted research on the impact of Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs on <span class='html-italic'>Glycine max</span>. A foliar application of Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>NP coated with citric acid resulted in considerable increases in root length and photosynthetic rate [<a href="#B92-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">92</a>]. <span class='html-italic'>Fragaria × ananassa</span> plantlets treated with Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs were more effective than untreated plantlets in dealing with drought stress conditions. Mozafari et al. [<a href="#B91-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">91</a>] showed that Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs with sizes ranging from 40 to 53 nm considerably improved the plant growth, relative water content, and photosynthetic pigments of a <span class='html-italic'>Fragaria × ananassa</span> under drought conditions. Additionally, Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs application increased the <span class='html-italic'>Fragaria × ananassa</span> membrane stability index, resulting in higher activities of SOD and POD enzymes and a lower quantity of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. By increasing the effectiveness of redox processes and/or activating H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>-metabolizing enzymes, Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs may be used to reduce or eliminate H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> production. Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>NPs-treated <span class='html-italic'>Oryza sativa</span> plants experienced a rise in their biomass, antioxidant enzyme activities, photosynthetic efficiency, and nutrient uptake during drought stress [<a href="#B12-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. These findings suggest that increasing the amount of iron applied to plants in the form of nanoparticles could be beneficial to their growth and physiology. </div></section></section><section id='sec4-plants-10-01730' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Conclusions and Future Perspective</h2><div class='html-p'>Drought stress is responsible for the majority of crop production decreases globally. MONPs must be given major study priority due to their capability to promote drought stress tolerance in agricultural crops. The purpose of this review was to discuss the use of MONPs to boost plant development in drought-stressed conditions, as well as their potential application in agricultural production. A significant step in the application of nanotechnology in sustainable farming will be a move from testing/using MONPs in plants to creating MONPs based on agricultural demands. Nevertheless, MONPs mobility and environmental impact should be extensively studied to ensure their safe usage in agricultural production. To further comprehend how the MONPs increased plant productivity and drought stress tolerance, the elements such as the size and concentration of these nanoparticles and the cultivation technique must be all specified or explained.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, N.M.A. and M.M.H.; methodology, M.M.H., D.A. and I.H.; software, M.M.H., A.I.A.; validation, N.M.A., M.M.H. and I.H.; formal analysis, I.H. and H.A.A.; investigation, M.M.H.; resources, N.M.A. and M.M.H.; data curation, I.H., A.I.A. and D.A.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.A. and M.M.H.; writing—review and editing, M.M.H. and N.M.A.; visualization, M.M.H. and N.M.A.; supervision, M.M.H.; project administration, M.M.H. and N.M.A.; funding acquisition, N.M.A., D.A., H.A.A. and A.I.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors did not receive any external funding.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-plants-10-01730' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Rodrigues, S.M.; Demokritou, P.; Dokoozlian, N.; Hendren, C.O.; Karn, B.; Mauter, M.S.; Sadik, O.A.; Safarpour, M.; Unrine, J.M.; Viers, J.; et al. Nanotechnology for sustainable food production: Promising opportunities and scientific challenges. <span class='html-italic'>Environ. Sci. Nano</span> <b>2017</b>, <span class='html-italic'>4</span>, 767–781. 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[<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Effect+of+%CE%B3Fe2O3+nanoparticles+on+photosynthetic+characteristic+of+soybean+(Glycine+max+(L.)+Merr.):+Foliar+spray+versus+soil+amendment&author=Alidoust,+D.&author=Isoda,+A.&publication_year=2013&journal=Acta+Physiol.+Plant&volume=35&pages=3365%E2%80%933375&doi=10.1007/s11738-013-1369-8" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-013-1369-8" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li></ol></section><section id='FiguresandTables' type='display-objects'><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="plants-10-01730-f001"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f001"> <img alt="Plants 10 01730 g001 550" data-large="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png" data-original="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png" data-lsrc="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 1.</b> The green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) is represented schematically. Created with Biorender.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f001" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 1.</b> The green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) is represented schematically. Created with Biorender.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Plants 10 01730 g001" data-large="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png" data-original="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png" data-lsrc="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g001.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="plants-10-01730-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f002"> <img alt="Plants 10 01730 g002 550" data-large="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png" data-original="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png" data-lsrc="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) induced drought stress tolerance in plants through a general mechanism. Created with Biorender.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_plants-10-01730-f002" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 2.</b> Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) induced drought stress tolerance in plants through a general mechanism. Created with Biorender.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Plants 10 01730 g002" data-large="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png" data-original="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png" data-lsrc="/plants/plants-10-01730/article_deploy/html/images/plants-10-01730-g002.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-table-wrap" id="plants-10-01730-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td" > <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href='#table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t001'> <img alt="Table" data-lsrc="https://www.mdpi.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) synthesized from different biological substrates. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id ="table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t001" > <div class="html-caption" ><b>Table 1.</b> Metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) synthesized from different biological substrates.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Metal Oxide Nanoparticles (MONPs)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Biological Substrate</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Name of Source</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Size (nm)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Shape</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >References</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><b>TiO<sub>2</sub></b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Fungi</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Aspergillus flavus</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >62–74</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >spherical/oval</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B33-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">33</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Bacteria</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Aeromonas hydrophila</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >28–54</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B34-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">34</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Bacillus mycoides</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >40–60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >polymorphic</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B35-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">35</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Lactobacillus</span> sp.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10–70</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B36-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">36</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Cicer arietinum</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >14</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B37-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">37</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Citrus sinensis</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >19</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tetragonal</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B38-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">38</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Annona squamosa</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >23</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Polydisperse</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B39-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">39</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Ocimum basilicum</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >50</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Hexagonal</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B40-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">40</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Solanum trilobatum</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >70</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B41-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">41</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Jatropha curcas</span> L.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >25–100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B42-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">42</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Moringa oleifera</span> Lam.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B43-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">43</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><b>ZnO</b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Algae</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Sargassum murticum</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >30–57</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B44-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">44</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Bacteria</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Lactobacillus sporoge</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5–15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Hexagonal</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B45-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">45</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Staphylococcus aureus</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10–15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Acicular</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B46-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">46</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Acinetobacter schindleri</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >20–100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B47-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">47</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Azadirachta indica</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >18</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B48-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">48</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Citrus paradise</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >19</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Polyhedron</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B49-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">49</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Solanum nigrum</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >30</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Hexagonal</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B50-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">50</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Aloe barbadensis</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >25–40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B51-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">51</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Vitex negundo</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >75–80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B52-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">52</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Lycopersicon esculentum</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >40–100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B53-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">53</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Parthenium hysterophorous</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >16–108</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B54-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">54</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><b>Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub></b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Bacteria</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Klebsiella oxytoca</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2–5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B55-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">55</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Actinobacter</span> spp.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B56-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">56</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Vitis vinifera</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >30</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B57-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">57</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Plantago</span> spp.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >>50</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Spherical</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B58-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">58</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Tridax procumbens</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >80–100</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Irregular spheres</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B59-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">59</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Punica granatum</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >100–200</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >-</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B60-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">60</a>]</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div><div class="html-table-wrap" id="plants-10-01730-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td" > <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href='#table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t002'> <img alt="Table" data-lsrc="https://www.mdpi.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/8/1730/display" href="#table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> Effects of application of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) on drought stress in crop plants. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id ="table_body_display_plants-10-01730-t002" > <div class="html-caption" ><b>Table 2.</b> Effects of application of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) on drought stress in crop plants.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Metal Oxide Nanoparticles (MONPs)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Plant Species</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Concentration of Applied Metal Oxide Nanoparticles</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Drought Level</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Effects</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Outcome</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >References</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><b>TiO<sub>2</sub></b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Wheat (<span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> L. cv. Pishtaz)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.1, 4.3, and 6.6 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Withheld water</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased plant height, ear weight, ear number, seed number, final yield, biomass, harvest index, and starch contents</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased drought stress tolerance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B78-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">78</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Lallemantia iberica</span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.6 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >75% and 35% of Field Capacity (FC)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Significant increase in phenolic content and total flavonoid and antioxidant activity</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Alleviated drought stress</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B82-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">82</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Wheat (<span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> L. cv. Pishgam)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0, 10.9, 21.7, and 43.4 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >PEG—induced drought stress (−0.4 and −0.8 MPa)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased germination percentage, germination energy, germination rate, root length, shoot length, root fresh weight, shoot fresh weight, and vigor index</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Decreased negative effects of drought stress on wheat plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B80-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">80</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Basil (<span class='html-italic'>Ocimum basilicum</span> L.)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.1 and 6.6 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—40%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Improved relative water content, catalase activity, and anthocyanin content</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Enhanced drought tolerance in basil plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B84-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">84</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Wheat (<span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> L. cv. Pishgam)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10.8, 21.7, and 43.7 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—75% and 50%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Enhanced relative water content (RWC), enhanced total chlorophyll, carotenoids, stomatal conductance, transpiration, CAT activity, APX activity. Significantly reduced H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and MDA content</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Protected oxidative damage from drought stress</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B83-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">83</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cotton (<span class='html-italic'>Gossypium barbadense</span> L.)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.5, 1.0, 2.1 and 4.3 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Withheld water</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased total phenolics, soluble proteins, free amino acids, proline content, and antioxidant capacity</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased drought tolerance in cotton plants</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B85-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">85</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Linum usitatissimum</span> cv. Olajonzon</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0, 0.2, 2.1, and<br>10.8 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—50%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Enhanced chlorophyll and carotenoids contents. Decreased MDA and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> content</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Prevented oxidative injury and increased drought tolerance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B81-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">81</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><b>ZnO</b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Solanum melongena</span> L. cv. Soma</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0, 1.0, and 2.1 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >60% of crop evapotranspiration (ETc)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased membrane stability index (MSI), relative water content (RWC), and photosynthetic efficiency</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Improved drought-tolerant cultivar</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B86-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">86</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Sorghum bicolor</span> var. 251</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.02, 0.06, and 0.1 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—40%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Improved grain (22–183%) yield, improved (84%) grain N translocation</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased drought stress tolerance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B87-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">87</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >(<span class='html-italic'>Triticum aestivum</span> var. <span class='html-italic'>Lassani—2008</span>)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >(0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.1 mmol/L)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—70% and 35%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased leaf chlorophyll contents, SOD, and POD activities</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Higher drought tolerance in a wheat variety</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B88-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">88</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Zea mays</span> L. cv. Jidan 27</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2.1 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—45%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased photosynthetic pigment, photosynthetic rate, water use efficiency, UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, phosphoglucoisomerase, and cytoplasmic invertase</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Alleviated drought stress by increasing photosynthetic capacity</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B89-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">89</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><b>Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub></b></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Moringa peregrina</span> (Forssk.)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10.8 and 21.1 mmol/L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—50%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Enhanced POD and PPO activities</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mitigated drought stress by increasing antioxidant activity</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B90-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">90</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Strawberry (<span class='html-italic'>Fragaria × ananassa</span> Duch.)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >40–53 nanometer size</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0, 5, and 10%) of polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased pigment levels, relative water content, membrane-stability index and decreased MDA and H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> content</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Improved drought tolerance by alleviating oxidative injury</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B91-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">91</a>]</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-italic'>Oryza sativa</span> cv. Super Basmati Rice</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Combined application oxide and hydrogel nanoparticles (0.5, 1.08, 2.1 mmol/L)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Field capacity (FC)—35%</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Increased biomass, antioxidant enzyme activities, photosynthesis efficiency, nutrient acquisition</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Improved drought tolerance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >[<a href="#B12-plants-10-01730" class="html-bibr">12</a>]</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div></section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Publisher’s Note:</b> MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2021 by the authors. 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Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress. <em>Plants</em> <b>2021</b>, <em>10</em>, 1730. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081730 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Alabdallah NM, Hasan MM, Hammami I, Alghamdi AI, Alshehri D, Alatawi HA. Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress. <em>Plants</em>. 2021; 10(8):1730. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081730 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Alabdallah, Nadiyah M., Md. Mahadi Hasan, Inès Hammami, Azzah Ibrahim Alghamdi, Dikhnah Alshehri, and Hanan Ali Alatawi. 2021. "Green Synthesized Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Mediate Growth Regulation and Physiology of Crop Plants under Drought Stress" <em>Plants</em> 10, no. 8: 1730. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081730 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Alabdallah, N. M., Hasan, M. M., Hammami, I., Alghamdi, A. 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