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id="toc-Estrogens_and_progesterone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxytocin_and_vasopressin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxytocin_and_vasopressin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Oxytocin and vasopressin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxytocin_and_vasopressin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonprimate_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonprimate_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Nonprimate species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonprimate_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_orientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> <b>Sexual motivation</b> is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>. In most mammalian species, <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormone" title="Sex hormone">sex hormones</a> control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_sexual_motivation">Measuring sexual motivation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measuring sexual motivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sexual motivation can be measured using a variety of different techniques. Self-report measures, such as the Sexual Desire Inventory, are commonly used to detect levels of sexual motivation in humans. Self-report techniques such as the <a href="/wiki/Bogus_pipeline" title="Bogus pipeline">bogus pipeline</a> can be used to ensure individuals do not falsify their answers to represent socially desirable results. Sexual motivation can also be implicitly examined through frequency of sexual behaviour, including <a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hormones">Hormones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hormones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testosterone">Testosterone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Testosterone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png/350px-Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png/525px-Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png/700px-Rhythmicity_of_serum_testosterone_in_human_males.png 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>According to data from the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Zhejiang_University" title="Journal of Zhejiang University">Journal of Zhejiang University–Science</a>, male testosterone levels exhibit a rhythm that corresponds to recent sexual activity.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">Testosterone</a> appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation in male primates, including humans. The elimination of testosterone in adulthood has been shown to reduce sexual motivation in both male humans and male primates.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Male humans who had their testicular function suppressed with a <a href="/wiki/GnRH_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="GnRH antagonist">GnRH antagonist</a> displayed decreases in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">sexual desire</a> and masturbation two weeks following the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-wallen_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research from male <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkeys">rhesus monkeys</a> suggests testosterone functions to increase sexual motivation, thereby motivating males to compete for access to sexual partners. It is postulated that the motivating effects of testosterone in male rhesus monkeys promotes successful <a href="/wiki/Sexual_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual competition">sexual competition</a> and may be particularly important motivating tools for low ranking males.<sup id="cite_ref-wallen_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important to note that elimination of testosterone in primates does not reduce the ability to copulate; rather, it reduces the motivation to copulate. </p><p>Testosterone levels in males have been shown to vary according to the ovulating state of females. Males who were exposed to scents of ovulating women recorded higher testosterone levels than males who were exposed to scents of nonovulating women.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being exposed to female ovulating cues may increase testosterone, which in turn may increase males' motivation to engage in, and initiate, sexual behaviour. Ultimately, these higher levels of testosterone may increase the <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_success" title="Reproductive success">reproductive success</a> of males exposed to female ovulation cues. </p><p>The relationship between testosterone and female sexual motivation is somewhat ambiguous. Research suggests <a href="/wiki/Androgens" class="mw-redirect" title="Androgens">androgens</a>, such as testosterone, are not sufficient by themselves to prompt sexual motivation in females. In particular, studies with rhesus macaques have observed testosterone was not significantly associated with variations in level of sexual motivation in females.<sup id="cite_ref-wallen_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some research with nonhuman primates suggests a role for androgens in female sexual behaviour. Adrenalectomized female rhesus monkeys displayed diminished female sexual receptivity.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later studies revealed this diminished sexual receptivity was specific to the elimination of androgens that can be converted to estrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also suggested that levels of testosterone are related to the type of relationship in which one is involved. Men involved in <a href="/wiki/Polyamorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyamorous">polyamorous</a> relationships display higher levels of testosterone than men involved in either a single partner relationship or single men.<sup id="cite_ref-anders_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anders-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polyamorous women have both higher levels of testosterone and score higher on measures of sexual desire than women who are single or women who are in single-partner relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-anders_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anders-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Estrogens_and_progesterone">Estrogens and progesterone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Estrogens and progesterone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a> typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behaviour for females in mammalian species, though the relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood. In particular, estrogens have been shown to correlate positively with increases in female sexual motivation, and progesterone has been associated with decreases in female sexual motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29287282_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29287282-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ziegler_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziegler-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Periovulatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Periovulatory">periovulatory</a> period of the female <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual cycle</a> is often associated with increased female receptivity and sexual motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziegler_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziegler-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this stage in the cycle, estrogens are elevated in the female and progesterone levels are low. At this time, mating is more likely to result in female <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>. </p><p>Females at different stages of their menstrual cycle have been shown to display differences in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">sexual attraction</a>. Heterosexual females not using birth control pills who are ovulating (high levels of estrogens) have a preference for the scent of males with low levels of <a href="/wiki/Fluctuating_asymmetry" title="Fluctuating asymmetry">fluctuating asymmetry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ovulating heterosexual females also display preferences toward masculine faces and report greater sexual attraction to males other than their current partner.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From an evolutionary perspective, increases in estrogens during <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertile</a> periods in females may direct sexual motivation toward males with preferential genes (the <a href="/wiki/Good_genes_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Good genes hypothesis">good genes hypothesis</a>). </p><p>Following natural or surgically induced <a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">menopause</a>, many women experience declines in sexual motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Menopause is associated with a rapid decline of estrogen, as well as a steady rate of decline of androgens.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decline of estrogen and androgen levels is believed to account for the lowered levels of sexual desire and motivation in postmenopausal women, although the direct relationship is not well understood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxytocin_and_vasopressin">Oxytocin and vasopressin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Oxytocin and vasopressin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hormones <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> are implicated in regulating both male and female sexual motivation. Oxytocin is released at <a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">orgasm</a> and is associated with both sexual pleasure and the formation of emotional bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiller_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiller-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on the pleasure model of sexual motivation, the increased sexual pleasure that occurs following oxytocin release may encourage motivation to engage in future sexual activities. Emotional closeness can be an especially strong predictor of sexual motivation in females and insufficient oxytocin release may subsequently diminish sexual arousal and motivation in females. </p><p>High levels of vasopressin can lead to decreases in sexual motivation for females.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiller_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiller-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A link between vasopressin release and aggression has been observed in females, which may impair female sexual arousal and sexual motivation by leading to feelings of neglect and hostility toward a sexual partner.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In males, vasopressin is involved in the <a href="/wiki/Arousal_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Arousal phase">arousal phase</a>. Vasopressin levels have been shown to increase during erectile response in male sexual arousal, and decrease back to baseline following <a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">ejaculation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase of vasopressin during erectile response may be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiller_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiller-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonprimate_species">Nonprimate species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nonprimate species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hormonal influences of sexual motivation are much more clearly understood for nonprimate females. Suppression of estrogen receptors in the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial nucleus">ventromedial nucleus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> in female rats has been observed to reduce female proceptivity and receptivity.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proceptivity and receptivity in the female rat are indicators of sexual motivation, thus indicating a direct relationship between estrogen levels and sexual motivation. In addition, female rats receiving doses of estrogen and progesterone were more likely to exert effort at gaining sexual attention from a male rat.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The willingness of the female rats to access males was considered a direct measure of the females' levels of sexual motivation. </p><p>An increase in vasopressin has been observed in female rats which have just given birth. Vasopressin is associated with aggressive and hostile behaviours, and is postulated to decrease sexual motivation in females. Vasopressin administered in the female rat brain has been observed to result in an immediate decrease in sexual motivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiller_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiller-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_orientation">Sexual orientation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sexual orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little research has been conducted on the effect of hormones on sexual motivation for same-sex sexual contact. One study observed the relationship between sexual motivation in <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bisexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bisexual">bisexual</a> women and period-related changes in circulating estrogen concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesbian women who were at the estrogen peak of their fertile cycle reported increased sexual motivation for sexual contact with women, whereas bisexual women reported only a slight increase in same-sex motivated sexual contact during peak estrogen levels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Both lesbian and bisexual women showed decreases in sexual motivation for other-sex sexual contact at peak estrogen levels, with greater changes in the bisexual group than the lesbian group.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_research">Clinical research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Clinical research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Men">Men</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Men"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Testosterone is critical for sexual desire, function, and arousal in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27436075_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27436075-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid29704917_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29704917-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aromatization" title="Aromatization">Aromatization</a> of testosterone into the <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a> appears to be partially responsible for the effects of testosterone on sexual desire and function in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21074215_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21074215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23484454_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23484454-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/5%CE%B1-Reductase" title="5α-Reductase">5α-Reduction</a> of testosterone into the more potent androgen <a href="/wiki/Dihydrotestosterone" title="Dihydrotestosterone">dihydrotestosterone</a> (DHT) may have a small contribution to the effects of testosterone on sexual desire and function in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28472278_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28472278-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on <a href="/wiki/Animal_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal research">animal research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> of DHT including the <a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">neurosteroids</a> and weak estrogens <a href="/wiki/3%CE%B1-androstanediol" class="mw-redirect" title="3α-androstanediol">3α-androstanediol</a> and <a href="/wiki/3%CE%B2-androstanediol" class="mw-redirect" title="3β-androstanediol">3β-androstanediol</a> may be involved in sexual function in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7803627_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7803627-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18093638_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18093638-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22231829_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22231829-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Men experience <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">sexual dysfunction</a> at testosterone levels of below 300 ng/dL, with men that have levels of testosterone of approximately 200 ng/dL often experiencing such problems.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complete loss of <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testicular</a> testosterone production resulting in testosterone levels within the castrate range (95% decrease, to 15 ng/dL on average) with <a href="/wiki/Orchiectomy" title="Orchiectomy">surgical</a> or <a href="/wiki/GnRH_modulator" class="mw-redirect" title="GnRH modulator">medical castration</a> causes profound sexual dysfunction in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11121992_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11121992-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid29289377_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29289377-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined marked suppression of testicular testosterone production resulting in testosterone levels of just above the castrate/female range (70 to 80% decrease, to 100 ng/dL on average) and marked <a href="/wiki/Androgen_receptor" title="Androgen receptor">androgen receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">antagonism</a> with high-dosage <a href="/wiki/Cyproterone_acetate" title="Cyproterone acetate">cyproterone acetate</a> monotherapy causes profound sexual dysfunction in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11121992_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11121992-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1838080_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1838080-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of men with medical castration and add-back of multiple dosages of testosterone to restore testosterone levels (to a range of about 200 to 900 ng/dL) showed that testosterone dose-dependently restored sexual desire and erectile function in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24024838_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24024838-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-dosage monotherapy with an androgen receptor antagonist such as <a href="/wiki/Bicalutamide" title="Bicalutamide">bicalutamide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enzalutamide" title="Enzalutamide">enzalutamide</a>, which preserves testosterone and estradiol levels, has a minimal to moderate negative effect on sexual desire and erectile function in men in spite of strong blockade of the androgen receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11121992_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11121992-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12603397_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12603397-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16706554_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16706554-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid24739897_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24739897-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Estradiol supplementation maintains greater sexual desire in men with surgical or medical castration.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23484454_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23484454-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/High-dose_estrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="High-dose estrogen">High-dose estrogen</a> therapy, which results in marked or complete suppression of testicular testosterone production such that testosterone levels are within the castrate range (95% decrease, to less than 50 ng/dL), causes decreased sexual desire and function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23484454_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23484454-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20459370_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20459370-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid2670515_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2670515-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been used to suppress sex drive in men with <a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">paraphilias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_offender" title="Sex offender">sex offenders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guay2009_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guay2009-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MorganMorgan1984_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MorganMorgan1984-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, sexual function and activity appear to be significantly better with high-dose estrogen therapy than with surgical castration.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21074215_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21074215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23484454_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23484454-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of men with medical castration and add-back testosterone to restore testosterone levels, with or without the <a href="/wiki/Aromatase_inhibitor" title="Aromatase inhibitor">aromatase inhibitor</a> <a href="/wiki/Anastrozole" title="Anastrozole">anastrozole</a>, showed that prevention of the conversion of testosterone into estradiol partially prevented restoration of sexual desire and erectile dysfunction by testosterone in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24024838_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24024838-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this was not the case in another study with a similar design that used the aromatase inhibitor <a href="/wiki/Testolactone" title="Testolactone">testolactone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men with <a href="/wiki/Aromatase_deficiency" title="Aromatase deficiency">aromatase deficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_insensitivity_syndrome" title="Estrogen insensitivity syndrome">estrogen insensitivity syndrome</a>, and hence <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrogen deficiency">estrogen deficiency</a>, appear to have normal sexual desire, function, and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21074215_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21074215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, estradiol supplementation in some men with aromatase deficiency increased sexual desire and activity but not in other men with aromatase deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21074215_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21074215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17824171_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17824171-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment with the <a href="/wiki/Antiestrogen" title="Antiestrogen">antiestrogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Selective_estrogen_receptor_modulator" title="Selective estrogen receptor modulator">selective estrogen receptor modulator</a> (SERM) <a href="/wiki/Tamoxifen" title="Tamoxifen">tamoxifen</a> has been found to decrease sexual desire in men treated with it for <a href="/wiki/Male_breast_cancer" title="Male breast cancer">male breast cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20955264_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20955264-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other studies have not found or reported decreased sexual function in men treated with SERMs including tamoxifen, <a href="/wiki/Clomifene" title="Clomifene">clomifene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raloxifene" title="Raloxifene">raloxifene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toremifene" title="Toremifene">toremifene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22512993_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22512993-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21079217_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21079217-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5%CE%B1-Reductase_inhibitor" title="5α-Reductase inhibitor">5α-Reductase inhibitors</a>, which block the conversion of testosterone into DHT, result in a slightly increased risk of sexual dysfunction with an incidence of decreased libido and erectile dysfunction of about 3 to 16%.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27672412_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27672412-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23173718_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23173718-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28472278_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28472278-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of healthy men with multiple dosages of <a href="/wiki/Testosterone_enanthate" title="Testosterone enanthate">testosterone enanthate</a>, with or without the 5α-reductase inhibitor <a href="/wiki/Dutasteride" title="Dutasteride">dutasteride</a>, showed that dutasteride did not significantly influence changes in sexual desire and function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22396515_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22396515-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28472278_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28472278-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of men with high-dosage bicalutamide therapy, with or without the 5α-reductase inhibitor dutasteride, showed that dutasteride did not significantly influence sexual function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27330919_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27330919-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined high-dosage bicalutamide therapy plus dutasteride showed less sexual dysfunction than medical castration similarly to high-dosage bicalutamide monotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26702991_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26702991-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Treatment of men with very high-dosage DHT (a non-aromatizable androgen), which resulted in an increase in DHT levels by approximately 10-fold and complete suppression of testosterone and estradiol levels, showed that none of the measures of sexual function were significantly changed with the exception of a mild but significant decrease in sexual desire.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21079217_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21079217-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid24751323_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24751323-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28472278_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28472278-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of hypogonadal men with the aromatizable <a href="/wiki/Testosterone_undecanoate" title="Testosterone undecanoate">testosterone undecanoate</a> and the non-aromatizable <a href="/wiki/Mesterolone" title="Mesterolone">mesterolone</a> showed that testosterone undecanoate produced better improvements in mood, libido, erection, and <a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">ejaculation</a> than did mesterolone.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21074215_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21074215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21079217_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21079217-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the dosage of mesterolone could have been suboptimal.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21079217_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21079217-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Estradiol seems to be the most important hormone for sexual desire in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28895561_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28895561-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boudesseul_Gildersleeve_Haselton_&_Bègue_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudesseul_Gildersleeve_Haselton_&_Bègue-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Periovulatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Periovulatory">Periovulatory</a> levels of estradiol increase sexual desire in postmenopausal women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on animal research, <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a> may also be involved in sexual function in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17431228_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17431228-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18374402_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18374402-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid26944462_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26944462-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very limited clinical research suggests that progesterone does not increase sexual desire and may decrease it.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26944460_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26944460-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There is little support for the notion that physiological levels of testosterone are important for sexual desire in women, although supraphysiological levels of testosterone can increase sexual desire in women similarly to the high levels in men.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is little to no correlation between total testosterone levels within the normal physiological range and sexual desire in premenopausal women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sexual desire is not increased in women with <a href="/wiki/Polycystic_ovary_syndrome" title="Polycystic ovary syndrome">polycystic ovary syndrome</a> (PCOS) in spite of <a href="/wiki/Hyperandrogenism" title="Hyperandrogenism">high testosterone levels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women with PCOS actually experience an improvement in sexual desire following treatment of their condition, likely due improved psychological functioning (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Body_image" title="Body image">body image</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sexual desire is not decreased in women with <a href="/wiki/Complete_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome" title="Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome">complete androgen insensitivity syndrome</a> (CAIS) relative to unaffected women in spite of a completely non-functional androgen receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic reviews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analyses</a> of research on variation during the menstrual cycle of women's sexual activity with partners and the effects of the use of the <a href="/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">combined oral contraceptive pill</a> (COCP) by women on their sexual desire show that sexual desire is self-reported to be unchanged in most women taking COCPs, but also conclude that the effects of COCPs on women's sexual desire is not well-studied and that women experience increased sexual activity with partners in the last third of the <a href="/wiki/Follicular_phase" title="Follicular phase">follicular phase</a> of the menstrual cycle and at ovulation (when levels of <a href="/wiki/Endogeny_(biology)" title="Endogeny (biology)">endogenous</a> estradiol and <a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">luteinizing hormones</a> are heightened) as compared with the <a href="/wiki/Luteal_phase" title="Luteal phase">luteal phase</a> and during <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid23320933_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23320933-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22788250_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22788250-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boudesseul_Gildersleeve_Haselton_&_Bègue_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boudesseul_Gildersleeve_Haselton_&_Bègue-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost all combined birth control pills contain the potently <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>-active estrogen <a href="/wiki/Ethinylestradiol" title="Ethinylestradiol">ethinylestradiol</a>, and the typical doses of ethinylestradiol present in combined birth control pills increase <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormone-binding_globulin" title="Sex hormone-binding globulin">sex hormone-binding globulin</a> (SHBG) levels by 2- to 4-fold and consequently decrease free testosterone levels by 40 to 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-HumansOrganization2007_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HumansOrganization2007-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cross-sectional research has shown that SHBG is inversely correlated with sexual desire in premenopausal women.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There are conflicting reports on the effects of combined birth control pills on sexual function in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27622561_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27622561-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Progestogen-only_birth_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Progestogen-only birth control">Progestogen-only birth control</a>, such as with <a href="/wiki/Depot_medroxyprogesterone_acetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate">depot medroxyprogesterone acetate</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Etonogestrel_birth_control_implant" class="mw-redirect" title="Etonogestrel birth control implant">etonogestrel birth control implant</a>, has shown mixed effects on sexual desire and function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26944460_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26944460-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid20827250_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20827250-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Androgen receptor antagonists such as flutamide and bicalutamide cause little to no decrease in sexual desire in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29211888_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29211888-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21117864_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21117864-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11815724_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11815724-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Low dosages of testosterone that result in physiological levels of testosterone (< 50 ng/dL) do not increase sexual desire in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High dosages of testosterone that result in supraphysiological levels of testosterone (> 50 ng/dL) significantly increase sexual desire in women, with levels of testosterone of 80 to 150 ng/dL "slightly" increasing sexual desire.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further higher dosages of testosterone may result in greater effects on sexual desire in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High dosages of testosterone (with levels of > 50 ng/dL) have a risk of <a href="/wiki/Masculinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculinization">masculinization</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Acne" title="Acne">acne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hirsutism" title="Hirsutism">hair growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voice_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice changes">voice changes</a>) with long-term therapy in women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High dosages of testosterone but not low dosages of testosterone enhance the effects of low dosages of estrogens on sexual desire.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26589379_49-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26589379-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27785108_28-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27785108-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tibolone" title="Tibolone">Tibolone</a>, a combined estrogen, progestin, and androgen, may increase sex drive to a greater extent than standard estrogen–progestogen therapy in postmenopausal women.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7752950_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7752950-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid9881330_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9881330-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11973439_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11973439-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18488873_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18488873-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_individuals">Transgender individuals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transgender individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Testosterone therapy increases sexual desire and arousal in <a href="/wiki/Transgender_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender men">transgender men</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28945902_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28945902-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27084565_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27084565-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estradiol and <a href="/wiki/Antiandrogen" title="Antiandrogen">antiandrogen</a> therapy increase sexual desire and arousal in <a href="/wiki/Transgender_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender women">transgender women</a> after a temporary decrease.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_odour_and_sexual_attraction" title="Body odour and sexual attraction">Body odour and sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoactive_sexual_desire_disorder" title="Hypoactive sexual desire disorder">Hypoactive sexual desire disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">Pheromone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire_and_intimate_relationships" title="Sexual desire and intimate relationships">Sexual desire and intimate relationships</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_impacts_of_cars" title="Societal impacts of cars">Societal impacts of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_sexual_behaviour" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_sexual_behavior" title="Template:Animal sexual behavior"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_sexual_behavior" title="Template talk:Animal sexual behavior"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_sexual_behavior" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal sexual behavior"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_sexual_behaviour" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexual behaviour</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">reproductive system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">hormonal motivation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtship_display" title="Courtship display">Courtship display</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_ornament" title="Biological ornament">sexual ornamentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">handicap principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisherian_runaway" title="Fisherian runaway">Fisherian runaway</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_system" title="Mating system">Mating systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_call" title="Mating call">mating call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding" title="Mate guarding">mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_plug" title="Mating plug">mating plug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">lek mating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloacal_kiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloacal kiss">cloacal kiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocopulation" title="Pseudocopulation">pseudocopulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation#Fertilisation_in_animals" title="Fertilisation">Fertilisation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">external</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_competition" title="Sperm competition">sperm competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traumatic_insemination" title="Traumatic insemination">traumatic insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penile_spines" title="Penile spines">penile spines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_reproduction" title="Modes of reproduction">Modes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promiscuity" title="Promiscuity">promiscuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_animals" title="Polyandry in animals">polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_animals" title="Polygyny in animals">polygyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygynandry" title="Polygynandry">polygynandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semelparity_and_iteroparity" title="Semelparity and iteroparity">semelparity and iteroparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_breeder" title="Opportunistic breeder">opportunistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckold" title="Cuckold">cuckoldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_breeder" title="Seasonal breeder">seasonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_synchrony" title="Reproductive synchrony">synchrony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogamy" title="Oogamy">oogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_bimaturism" title="Sexual bimaturism">bimaturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_coercion_among_animals" title="Sexual coercion among animals">coercion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_conflict" title="Sexual conflict">Sexual conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interlocus_sexual_conflict" title="Interlocus sexual conflict">interlocus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intralocus_sexual_conflict" title="Intralocus sexual conflict">intralocus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Interspecies breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-reproductive_sexual_behavior_in_animals" title="Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals">Non-reproductive behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour#Invertebrates" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Invertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod#Reproduction_and_development" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab#Reproduction_and_lifecycle" title="Crab">crab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider#Reproduction_and_life_cycle" title="Spider">spider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion#Reproduction" title="Scorpion">scorpion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beetle#Mating" title="Beetle">beetle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect#Reproduction_and_development" title="Insect">insect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly#Life_cycle" title="Butterfly">butterfly</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod#Reproduction_and_life_cycle" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octopus#Reproduction" title="Octopus">octopus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria#Sexual" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone#Lifecycle" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jellyfish#Reproduction" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral#Sexual" title="Coral">coral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm#Reproduction" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_of_gastropods" title="Mating of gastropods">Gastropods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophallation" title="Apophallation">apophallation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_dart" title="Love dart">love dart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge#Reproduction" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li>Worms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earthworm#Reproduction" title="Earthworm">earthworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitoky" title="Epitoky">epitoky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penis_fencing" title="Penis fencing">penis fencing</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fish_reproduction" title="Fish reproduction">Fish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)#Spawning_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawning strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_fish" title="Polyandry in fish">Polyandry in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eel_life_history" title="Eel life history">Eels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">Salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seahorse#Reproduction" title="Seahorse">Seahorse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark#Life_history" title="Shark">Sharks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amphibian#Reproduction" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_amphibians" title="Sexual selection in amphibians">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_amphibians" title="Sexual selection in amphibians">frogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog#Reproduction" title="Frog">Frog reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salamander#Reproduction_and_development" title="Salamander">Salamanders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reptile#Reproduction" title="Reptile">Reptiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_scaled_reptiles" title="Sexual selection in scaled reptiles">Sexual selection in scaled reptiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_scaled_reptiles" title="Sexual selection in scaled reptiles">lizards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_scaled_reptiles" title="Sexual selection in scaled reptiles">snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_side-blotched_lizard" title="Common side-blotched lizard">side-blotched lizard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia#Reproduction_and_parenting" title="Crocodilia">Crocodilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuatara#Reproduction" title="Tuatara">Tuatara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird#Breeding" title="Bird">Birds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird#Breeding" title="Bird">Breeding behaviour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction_and_life_cycle_of_the_golden_eagle" title="Reproduction and life cycle of the golden eagle">golden eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">seabirds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_displaying_homosexual_behavior" title="List of birds displaying homosexual behavior">Homosexual behavior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mammalian_reproduction" title="Mammalian reproduction">Mammals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_mammals" title="Sexual selection in mammals">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)" title="Rut (mammalian reproduction)">rut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_displaying_homosexual_behavior" title="List of mammals displaying homosexual behavior">Homosexual behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Life_history" title="Canidae">Canid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_wild_dog#Social_and_reproductive_behaviour" title="African wild dog">African wild dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coyote#Social_and_reproductive_behaviors" title="Coyote">coyote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingo#Reproduction" title="Dingo">dingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canine_reproduction#Copulation" title="Canine reproduction">domestic dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf#Reproduction_and_development" title="Wolf">gray wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_fox#Reproduction_and_development" title="Red fox">red fox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin#Reproduction_and_sexuality" title="Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant#Sexual_behaviour" title="Elephant">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_badger#Reproduction_and_development" title="European badger">European badger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">Felidae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lion#Reproduction_and_life_cycle" title="Lion">lion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger#Reproduction" title="Tiger">tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah#Reproduction" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat#Reproduction" title="Cat">domestic cat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossa_(animal)#Breeding" title="Fossa (animal)">Fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus#Reproduction" title="Hippopotamus">Hippopotamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotted_hyena#Reproduction_and_development" title="Spotted hyena">Spotted hyena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsupial#Reproductive_system" title="Marsupial">Marsupial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kangaroo#Sexual_behavior" title="Kangaroo">kangaroo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinniped#Reproductive_behavior" title="Pinniped">Pinnipeds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walrus#Reproduction" title="Walrus">walrus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Primates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonobo#Sociosexual_behaviour" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla#Reproduction_and_parenting" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_baboon#Reproduction_and_parenting" title="Olive baboon">olive baboon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandrill#Mating" title="Mandrill">mandrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur#Breeding_and_reproduction" title="Ring-tailed lemur">ringtailed lemur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_swelling" title="Sexual swelling">sexual swelling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raccoon#Reproduction" title="Raccoon">Raccoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodent#Mating_strategies" title="Rodent">Rodent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-beaked_echidna#Reproduction" title="Short-beaked echidna">Short-beaked echidna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sex" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_(biology)" title="Template talk:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sex" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological<br />terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">parasexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Sex organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile-vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile-vaginal intercourse">Penile-vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a 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