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href="#Marriages_and_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Marriages and children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriages_and_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_the_Atlanta_compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_the_Atlanta_compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Politics and the Atlanta compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_the_Atlanta_compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wealthy_friends_and_benefactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wealthy_friends_and_benefactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Wealthy friends and benefactors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wealthy_friends_and_benefactors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wealthy friends and benefactors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wealthy_friends_and_benefactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Henry_Huttleston_Rogers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_Huttleston_Rogers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Henry Huttleston Rogers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_Huttleston_Rogers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anna_T._Jeanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anna_T._Jeanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Anna T. Jeanes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anna_T._Jeanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Julius_Rosenwald" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julius_Rosenwald"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Julius Rosenwald</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julius_Rosenwald-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Up_from_Slavery_to_the_White_House" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Up_from_Slavery_to_the_White_House"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span><i>Up from Slavery</i> to the White House</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Up_from_Slavery_to_the_White_House-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <i>Up from Slavery</i> to the White House subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Up_from_Slavery_to_the_White_House-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dinner_at_the_White_House" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dinner_at_the_White_House"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Dinner at the White House</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dinner_at_the_White_House-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_memorials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_memorials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Honors and memorials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_memorials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representation_in_other_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representation_in_other_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Representation in other media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representation_in_other_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Online editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Booker T. Washington</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%86" title="بوكر تي واشنطن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بوكر تي واشنطن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D8%AA%DB%8C._%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%AA%D9%86" title="بوکر تی. واشینگتن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوکر تی. واشینگتن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%80.%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%A8" title="બુકર ટી.વોશિંગ્ટન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="બુકર ટી.વોશિંગ્ટન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%80%EC%BB%A4_T._%EC%9B%8C%EC%8B%B1%ED%84%B4" title="부커 T. 워싱턴 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="부커 T. 워싱턴" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%84%D5%A5%D6%80_%D5%8E%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Բուքեր Վաշինգտոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բուքեր Վաշինգտոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="बुकर टी वाशिंगटन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बुकर टी वाशिंगटन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A8_%D7%98%D7%99._%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="בוקר טי. וושינגטון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בוקר טי. וושינגטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბუკერ ვაშინგტონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბუკერ ვაშინგტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukers_Va%C5%A1ingtons" title="Bukers Vašingtons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bukers Vašingtons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF._%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BA" title="ബുക്കർ ടി. വാഷിങ്ടൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബുക്കർ ടി. വാഷിങ്ടൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80._%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8" title="बूकर टी. वॉशिंग्टन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बूकर टी. वॉशिंग्टन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%96%E3%83%83%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BBT%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E3%83%B3" title="ブッカー・T・ワシントン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ブッカー・T・ワシントン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_Taliaferro_Washington" title="Booker Taliaferro Washington – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Booker Taliaferro Washington" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D9%BC%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%BC%D9%86" title="بوکر ټي واشنګټن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بوکر ټي واشنګټن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_Washington" title="Booker Washington – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Booker Washington" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Вашингтон, Букер Тальяферро – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вашингтон, Букер Тальяферро" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF._%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="బుకర్ టి. వాషింగ్టన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బుకర్ టి. వాషింగ్టన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A2._%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Букер Т. Вашингтон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Букер Т. Вашингтон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Букер Вашингтон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Букер Вашингтон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Booker T. Washington" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%85%8B%C2%B7T%C2%B7%E8%8F%AF%E7%9B%9B%E9%A0%93" title="布克·T·華盛頓 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="布克·T·華盛頓" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q319871#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Booker_T._Washington" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Booker_T._Washington&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American educator, author, orator and adviser (1856–1915)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Booker T. Washington</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/220px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/330px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/440px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="3313" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Washington in 1905</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Booker Taliaferro Washington</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1856-04-05</span>)</span>April 5, 1856<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale%27s_Ford,_Virginia" title="Hale's Ford, Virginia">Hale's Ford, Virginia</a>, U.S.</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 14, 1915<span style="display:none">(1915-11-14)</span> (aged 59)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Normal_and_Agricultural_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute">Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Wayland_Seminary" title="Wayland Seminary">Wayland Seminary</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupations</th><td class="infobox-data role"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>Educator</li> <li>author</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American civil rights">African-American civil rights</a> leader</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Smith_Washington" title="Fannie Smith Washington">Fannie N. Smith</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1882; died 1884)<wbr /></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Olivia_A._Davidson" title="Olivia A. Davidson">Olivia A. Davidson</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1886; died 1889)<wbr /></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Murray_Washington" title="Margaret Murray Washington">Margaret Murray</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1893)<wbr /></div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">Portia M. Washington Pittman <p>Ernest Davidson Washington </p> Booker T. Washington, Jr.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg/150px-Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg/225px-Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg/300px-Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="291" data-file-height="41" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Booker Taliaferro Washington</b> (April 5, 1856 – November 14, 1915) was an American educator, author, and orator. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the primary leader in the African-American community and of the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Black_elite#United_States" title="Black elite">Black elite</a>. </p><p>Born into slavery on April 5, 1856, in Hale's Ford, Virginia, Washington was <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">freed</a> when U.S. troops reached the area during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. As a young man, Booker T. Washington worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute and attended college at <a href="/wiki/Wayland_Seminary" title="Wayland Seminary">Wayland Seminary</a>. In 1881, he was named as the first leader of the new <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Institute">Tuskegee Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">institute for black higher education</a>. He expanded the college, enlisting students in construction of buildings. Work at the college was considered fundamental to students' larger education. He attained national prominence for his <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta compromise">Atlanta Address of 1895</a>, which attracted the attention of politicians and the public. Washington played a dominant role in black politics, winning wide support in the black community of the South and among more liberal whites. Washington wrote an autobiography, <i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i>, in 1901, which became a major text. In that year, he <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_dinner_at_the_White_House" title="Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House">dined</a> with <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>, which was the first time a black person publicly met the president on equal terms. After an illness, he died in <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a> on November 14, 1915. </p><p>Washington was a key proponent of African-American businesses and one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>. Washington mobilized a nationwide coalition of middle-class blacks, church leaders, and white philanthropists and politicians, with the goal of building the community's economic strength and pride by focusing on self-help and education. Washington had the ear of the powerful in the America of his day, including presidents. He used the nineteenth-century American political system to manipulate the media, raise money, develop strategy, network, distribute funds, and reward a <a href="/wiki/Cadre_(politics)" title="Cadre (politics)">cadre</a> of supporters. Because of his influential leadership, the timespan of his activity, from 1880 to 1915, has been called the Age of Booker T. Washington. Washington called for Black progress through education and entrepreneurship, rather than trying to challenge directly the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> and the disenfranchisement of Black voters in the South. Furthermore, he supported <a href="/wiki/Racial_uplift" title="Racial uplift">racial uplift</a>, but secretly also supported court challenges to segregation and to restrictions on voter registration. Black activists in the North, led by <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, disagreed with him and opted to set up the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> to work for political change. </p><p>After his death in 1915, he came under heavy criticism for accommodating <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>, despite his claims that his long-term goal was to end the disenfranchisement of African Americans, the vast majority of whom still lived in the South. Decades after Washington's death in 1915, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> of the 1950s took a more active and progressive approach, which was also based on new grassroots organizations based in the South. Washington's legacy has been controversial in the civil rights community. However, a revisionist view appeared in the late twentieth century that interpreted his actions positively. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington,_3c,_1956_issue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg/290px-Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg/435px-Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg/580px-Booker_T_Washington%2C_3c%2C_1956_issue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>On the 100th anniversary of his birth, April 5, 1956, the US Post office issued a <a href="/wiki/Commemorative_stamp" title="Commemorative stamp">commemorative stamp</a> depicting the birthplace of Booker T. Washington in <a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Virginia" title="Franklin County, Virginia">Franklin County, Virginia</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Booker was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> woman on the plantation of James Burroughs in southwest Virginia, near <a href="/wiki/Hale%27s_Ford,_Virginia" title="Hale's Ford, Virginia">Hale's Ford</a> in <a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Virginia" title="Franklin County, Virginia">Franklin County</a>. He never knew the day, month, and year of his birth<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (although evidence emerged after his death that he was born on April 5, 1856).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor did he ever know his father, said to be a <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white</a> man who resided on a neighboring plantation. The man played no financial or emotional role in Washington's life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington19062_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington19062-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From his earliest years, Washington was known simply as "Booker", with no middle or surname, in the practice of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190634_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190634-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother, her relatives and his siblings struggled with the demands of slavery. He later wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>I cannot remember a single instance during my childhood or early boyhood when our entire family sat down to the table together, and God's blessing was asked, and the family ate a meal in a civilized manner. On the plantation in Virginia, and even later, meals were gotten to the children very much as dumb animals get theirs. It was a piece of bread here and a scrap of meat there. It was a cup of milk at one time and some potatoes at another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington19069_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington19069-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When he was nine, Booker and his family in Virginia gained freedom under the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> as U.S. troops occupied their region. Booker was thrilled by the formal day of their <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a> in early 1865: </p> <blockquote><p>As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom.... [S]ome man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper—the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190619–21_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190619–21-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After emancipation Jane took her family to the free state of West Virginia to join her husband, Washington Ferguson, who had escaped from slavery during the war and settled there. The illiterate boy Booker began painstakingly to teach himself to read and attended school for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190627_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190627-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At school, Booker was asked for a surname for registration. He chose the family name of Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190634_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190634-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still later he learned from his mother that she had originally given him the name "Booker <a href="/wiki/Taliaferro" title="Taliaferro">Taliaferro</a>" at the time of his birth, but his second name was not used by the master.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190635_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190635-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon learning of his original name, Washington immediately readopted it as his own, and became known as Booker Taliaferro Washington for the rest of his life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190635_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190635-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Booker loved books: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Negro worshipped books. We wanted books, more books. The larger the books were the better we like[d] them. We thought the mere possession and the mere handling and the mere worship of books was going, in some inexplicable way, to make great and strong and useful men of our race.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkebook_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkebook-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Higher_education">Higher education</h2></div> <p>Washington worked in salt furnaces and coal mines in West Virginia for several years to earn money. At age 16, he made his way east—mostly on foot—to <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hampton Institute">Hampton Institute</a>, a school established in Virginia to educate <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">freedmen</a> and their descendants, where he also worked as a janitor to pay for his studies.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington arrived to campus with very little money; and his entrance exam was to clean a room.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon graduating from Hampton at age 19, Washington briefly returned home to West Virginia. He later attended <a href="/wiki/Wayland_Seminary" title="Wayland Seminary">Wayland Seminary</a> in Washington, D.C. in 1878.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tuskegee_Institute">Tuskegee Institute</h2></div> <p>In 1881, the Hampton Institute president <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._Armstrong" title="Samuel C. Armstrong">Samuel C. Armstrong</a> recommended Washington, then age 25, to become the first leader of <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute</a> (later Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University), the new <a href="/wiki/Normal_school" title="Normal school">normal school</a> (teachers' college) in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>. The new school opened on July 4, 1881, initially using a room donated by <a href="/wiki/Butler_Chapel_A.M.E._Zion_Church_(Tuskegee,_Alabama)" title="Butler Chapel A.M.E. Zion Church (Tuskegee, Alabama)">Butler Chapel A.M.E. Zion Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_Alabama_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_Alabama-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin:auto"> <tbody><tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg/220px-Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg/330px-Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg/440px-Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The Oaks – Booker T. Washington's house at <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg/220px-History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg/330px-History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg/440px-History_class_at_Tuskegee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>A history class conducted at the Tuskegee Institute in 1902</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The next year, Washington purchased a former plantation to be developed as the permanent site of the campus. Under his direction, his students literally built their own school: making bricks, constructing classrooms, barns and outbuildings; and growing their own crops and raising livestock; both for learning and to provide for most of the basic necessities.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both men and women had to learn trades as well as academics. The Tuskegee faculty used all the activities to teach the students basic skills to take back to their mostly rural black communities throughout the South. The main goal was not to produce farmers and tradesmen, but teachers of farming and trades who could teach in the new lower schools and colleges for blacks across the South. The school expanded over the decades, adding programs and departments, to become the present-day Tuskegee University.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title=" (January 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver,_1940_issue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg/290px-Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg/435px-Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg/580px-Booker_T_Washington_stamps_signed_by_George_Washington_Carver%2C_1940_issue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption>B.T. Washington stamps autographed by Carver</figcaption></figure> <p>The Oaks, "a large comfortable home," was built on campus for Washington and his family.<sup id="cite_ref-nps.oaks_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nps.oaks-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They moved into the house in 1900. Washington lived there until his death in 1915. His widow, Margaret, lived at The Oaks until her death in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1896 when Washington reviewed the study conducted by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a> about the infection plaguing the soybean crop he invited Carver to head the Agriculture Department at Tuskegee, where they became close friends.<sup id="cite_ref-Macintosh_on_Carver_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macintosh_on_Carver-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carver later autographed commemorative stamps issued in 1940 in Washington's honor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_career">Later career</h2></div> <p>Washington led Tuskegee for more than 30 years after becoming its leader. As he developed it, adding to both the curriculum and the facilities on the campus, he became a prominent national leader among African Americans, with considerable influence with wealthy white philanthropists and politicians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington expressed his vision for his race through the school. He believed that by providing needed skills to society, African Americans would play their part, leading to acceptance by white Americans. He believed that blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by acting as responsible, reliable American citizens. Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, President <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> and most of his cabinet visited Booker Washington. By his death in 1915, Tuskegee had grown to encompass more than 100 well-equipped buildings, roughly 1,500 students, 200 faculty members teaching 38 trades and professions, and an endowment of approximately $2 million (~$43.6 million in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_entry_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_entry-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington helped develop other schools and colleges. In 1891 he lobbied the West Virginia legislature to locate the newly authorized <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Colored_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="West Virginia Colored Institute">West Virginia Colored Institute</a> (today <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State University</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Charleston_metropolitan_area,_West_Virginia" title="Charleston metropolitan area, West Virginia">Kanawha Valley</a> of West Virginia near Charleston. He visited the campus often and spoke at its first commencement exercise.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston,_c._1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg/170px-Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg/255px-Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg/340px-Booker_T._Washington_by_Francis_Benjamin_Johnston%2C_c._1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4621" data-file-height="5623" /></a><figcaption>Washington circa 1895, by <a href="/wiki/Frances_Benjamin_Johnston" title="Frances Benjamin Johnston">Frances Benjamin Johnston</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Washington was a dominant figure of the African-American community, then still overwhelmingly based in the South, from 1890 to his death in 1915. His <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Address of 1895</a> received national attention. He was a popular spokesman for African-American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, Washington was generally perceived as a supporter of education for freedmen and their descendants in the post-Reconstruction, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow-era</a> South. He stressed basic education and training in manual and <a href="/wiki/Domestic_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic labor">domestic labor</a> trades because he thought these represented the skills needed in what was still a rural economy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the final twenty years of his life, he maintained his standing through a nationwide network of supporters including black educators, ministers, editors, and businessmen, especially those who supported his views on social and educational issues for blacks. He also gained access to top national white leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, raised large sums, was consulted on race issues, and was awarded honorary degrees from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1896 and <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> in 1901.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_entry_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_entry-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Late in his career, Washington was criticized by civil rights leader and NAACP founder W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Address as the "Atlanta Compromise", because it suggested that African Americans should work for, and submit to, white political rule.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Du Bois insisted on full civil rights, due process of law, and increased political representation for African Americans which, he believed, could only be achieved through activism and higher education for African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that "the <a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>" would lead the race. Du Bois labeled Washington, "the Great Accommodator."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington responded that confrontation could lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome racism in the long run.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While promoting moderation, Washington contributed secretly and substantially to mounting legal challenges activist African Americans launched against segregation and disenfranchisement of blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1957_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1957-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title=" (January 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In his public role, he believed he could achieve more by skillful accommodation to the social realities of the age of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington's work on education helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many major white <a href="/wiki/Philanthropist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philanthropist">philanthropists</a>. He became a friend of such self-made men as <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a> magnate <a href="/wiki/Henry_Huttleston_Rogers" title="Henry Huttleston Rogers">Henry Huttleston Rogers</a>; Sears, Roebuck and Company President <a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a>; and <a href="/wiki/George_Eastman" title="George Eastman">George Eastman</a>, inventor of roll film, founder of <a href="/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a>, and developer of a major part of the photography industry. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, including Hampton and Tuskegee institutes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He also gave lectures to raise money for the school. On January 23, 1906, he lectured at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hall" title="Carnegie Hall">Carnegie Hall</a> in New York in the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute_Silver_Anniversary_Lecture" title="Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture">Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture</a>. He spoke along with prominent orators of the day, including <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hodges_Choate" title="Joseph Hodges Choate">Joseph Hodges Choate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curtis_Ogden" title="Robert Curtis Ogden">Robert Curtis Ogden</a>; it was the start of a capital campaign to raise $1,800,000 (~$45.8 million in 2023) for the school.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The schools which Washington supported were founded primarily to produce teachers, as education was critical for the black community following emancipation. Freedmen strongly supported literacy and education as the keys to their future. When graduates returned to their largely impoverished rural southern communities, they still found few schools and educational resources, as the white-dominated state legislatures consistently underfunded black schools in their segregated system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To address those needs, in the 20th century, Washington enlisted his philanthropic network to create matching funds programs to stimulate construction of numerous rural public schools for black children in the South. Working especially with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a> from Chicago, Washington had Tuskegee architects develop model school designs. The <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Fund" title="Rosenwald Fund">Rosenwald Fund</a> helped support the construction and operation of more than 5,000 schools and related resources for the education of blacks throughout <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a> in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The local schools were a source of communal pride; African-American families gave labor, land and money to them, to give their children more chances in an environment of poverty and segregation. A major part of Washington's legacy, the model rural schools continued to be constructed into the 1930s, with matching funds for communities from the <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Fund" title="Rosenwald Fund">Rosenwald Fund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title=" (January 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Washington also contributed to the Progressive Era by forming the National Negro Business League. It encouraged entrepreneurship among black businessmen, establishing a national network.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title=" (January 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>His autobiography, <i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a>,</i> first published in 1901,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington1901_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington1901-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is still widely read in the early 21st century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriages_and_children">Marriages and children</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Booker_T._Washington.jpg/170px-Booker_T._Washington.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Booker_T._Washington.jpg/255px-Booker_T._Washington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Booker_T._Washington.jpg/340px-Booker_T._Washington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1699" data-file-height="2114" /></a><figcaption>Booker T. Washington with his third wife Margaret and two sons, Ernest, left and Booker T. Jr., right</figcaption></figure> <p>Washington was married three times. In his autobiography <i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i>, he gave all three of his wives credit for their contributions at Tuskegee. His first wife <a href="/wiki/Fannie_(Fanny)_Smith_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Fannie (Fanny) Smith Washington">Fannie N. Smith</a> was from <a href="/wiki/Malden,_West_Virginia" title="Malden, West Virginia">Malden, West Virginia</a>, the same <a href="/wiki/Kanawha_River" title="Kanawha River">Kanawha River</a> Valley town where Washington had lived from age nine to sixteen. He maintained ties there all his life, and Smith was a student of his when he taught in Malden. He helped her gain entrance into the Hampton Institute. Washington and Smith were married in the summer of 1882, a year after he became principal there. They had one child, <a href="/wiki/Portia_Washington_Pittman" title="Portia Washington Pittman">Portia M. Washington</a>, born in 1883. Fannie died in May 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1885, the widower Washington married again, to <a href="/wiki/Olivia_A._Davidson" title="Olivia A. Davidson">Olivia A. Davidson</a> (1854–1889). Born free in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free woman of color</a> and a father who had been freed from slavery, she moved with her family to the free state of Ohio, where she attended common schools. Davidson later studied at Hampton Institute and went North to study at the <a href="/wiki/Framingham_State_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Framingham State College">Massachusetts State Normal School</a> at <a href="/wiki/Framingham,_Massachusetts" title="Framingham, Massachusetts">Framingham</a>. She taught in Mississippi and Tennessee before going to Tuskegee to work as a teacher. Washington recruited Davidson to Tuskegee, and promoted her to vice-principal. They had two sons, Booker T. Washington Jr. and Ernest Davidson Washington, before she died in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1893, Washington married <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Murray_Washington" title="Margaret Murray Washington">Margaret James Murray</a>. She was from Mississippi and had graduated from <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Historically black college">historically black college</a>. They had no children together, but she helped rear Washington's three children. Murray outlived Washington and died in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics_and_the_Atlanta_compromise">Politics and the Atlanta compromise</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington_reading_an_excerpt_from_his_1895_Atlanta_Compromise_speech.mp3" title="File:Booker T. Washington reading an excerpt from his 1895 Atlanta Compromise speech.mp3">"The Atlanta Compromise"</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="210" data-mwtitle="Booker_T._Washington_reading_an_excerpt_from_his_1895_Atlanta_Compromise_speech.mp3" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a5/Booker_T._Washington_reading_an_excerpt_from_his_1895_Atlanta_Compromise_speech.mp3/Booker_T._Washington_reading_an_excerpt_from_his_1895_Atlanta_Compromise_speech.mp3.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Booker_T._Washington_reading_an_excerpt_from_his_1895_Atlanta_Compromise_speech.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The opening of Booker T. Washington's "<a href="/wiki/Atlanta_compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta compromise">Atlanta compromise</a>" speech to the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta</a> <a href="/wiki/Cotton_States_and_International_Exposition_(1895)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotton States and International Exposition (1895)">Cotton States and International Exposition</a>, recorded in 1908</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Washington's 1895 <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">Atlanta Exhibition address</a> was viewed as a "revolutionary moment"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauerlein2004106_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauerlein2004106-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by both African Americans and whites across the country. At the time <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> supported him, but they grew apart as Du Bois sought more action to remedy disfranchisement and improve educational opportunities for blacks. After their falling out, Du Bois and his supporters referred to Washington's speech as the "Atlanta Compromise" to express their criticism that Washington was too accommodating to white interests.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington advocated a "go slow" approach to avoid a harsh white backlash.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBauerlein2004106_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauerlein2004106-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has been criticized for encouraging many youths in the South to accept sacrifices of potential political power, civil rights, and higher education.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPole1974888_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPole1974888-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington believed that African Americans should "concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois190341–59_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois190341–59-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He valued the "industrial" education, as it provided critical skills for the jobs then available to the majority of African Americans at the time, as most lived in the South, which was overwhelmingly rural and agricultural. He thought these skills would lay the foundation for the creation of stability that the African-American community required in order to move forward. He believed that in the long term, "blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by showing themselves to be responsible, reliable American citizens". His approach advocated for an initial step toward equal rights, rather than full equality under the law, gaining economic power to back up black demands for political equality in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPole1974107_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPole1974107-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed that such achievements would prove to the deeply prejudiced white America that African Americans were not "'naturally' stupid and incompetent".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouch200596_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouch200596-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington_Lecture,_1906.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG/170px-Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG/255px-Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG/340px-Booker_T._Washington_Lecture%2C_1906.JPG 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Washington giving a speech at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hall" title="Carnegie Hall">Carnegie Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, 1909</figcaption></figure> <p>Well-educated blacks in the North lived in a different society and advocated a different approach, in part due to their perception of wider opportunities. Du Bois wanted blacks to have the same "classical" <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">liberal arts education</a> as upper-class whites did,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with voting rights and civic equality. The latter two had been ostensibly granted since 1870 by constitutional amendments after the Civil War. He believed that an elite, which he called the <a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>, would advance to lead the race to a wider variety of occupations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903189_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903189-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Du Bois and Washington were divided in part by differences in treatment of African Americans in the North versus the South; although both groups suffered discrimination, the mass of blacks in the South were far more constrained by legal segregation and <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchisement</a>, which totally excluded most from the political process and system. Many in the North objected to being 'led', and authoritatively spoken for, by a Southern accommodationist strategy which they considered to have been "imposed on them [Southern blacks] primarily by Southern whites".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPole1974980_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPole1974980-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Clarence_E._Walker" title="Clarence E. Walker">Clarence E. Walker</a> wrote that, for <a href="/wiki/White_Southerners" title="White Southerners">white Southerners</a>, </p> <blockquote><p>Free black people were 'matter out of place'. Their emancipation was an affront to southern white freedom. Booker T. Washington did not understand that his program was perceived as subversive of a natural order in which black people were to remain forever subordinate or unfree.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Both Washington and Du Bois sought to define the best means post-Civil War to improve the conditions of the African-American community through education.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture#Sports" title="African-American culture">Sports</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Blacks were solidly <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Republican_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States Republican Party">Republican</a> in this period, having gained emancipation and suffrage with President Lincoln and his party. Fellow Republican President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> defended African Americans' newly won freedom and civil rights in the South by passing laws and using federal force to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, which had committed violence against blacks for years to suppress voting and discourage education. After Federal troops left in 1877 at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, many paramilitary groups worked to suppress black voting by violence. From 1890 to 1908 Southern states <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> most blacks and many poor whites through constitutional amendments and statutes that created barriers to voter registration and voting. Such devices as <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a> and subjective <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a> sharply reduced the number of blacks in voting rolls. By the late nineteenth century, Southern white Democrats defeated some biracial Populist-Republican coalitions and regained power in the state legislatures of the former Confederacy; they passed laws establishing <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a>. In the border states and North, blacks continued to exercise the vote; the well-established Maryland African-American community defeated attempts there to disfranchise them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Washington worked and socialized with many national white politicians and industry leaders. He developed the ability to persuade wealthy whites, many of them self-made men, to donate money to black causes by appealing to their values. He argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate "industry, thrift, intelligence and property".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington1972a68_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington1972a68-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed these were key to improved conditions for African Americans in the United States. Because African Americans had recently been emancipated and most lived in a hostile environment, Washington believed they could not expect too much at once. He said, "I have learned that success is to be measured not so much by the position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles which he has had to overcome while trying to succeed."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title=" (January 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Along with Du Bois, Washington partly organized the "Negro exhibition" at the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1900)" title="Exposition Universelle (1900)">1900 Exposition Universelle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, where photos of Hampton Institute's black students were displayed. These were taken by his friend <a href="/wiki/Frances_Benjamin_Johnston" title="Frances Benjamin Johnston">Frances Benjamin Johnston</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maxwell_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exhibition demonstrated African Americans' positive contributions to United States' society.<sup id="cite_ref-Maxwell_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington privately contributed substantial funds for legal challenges to <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disfranchisement</a>, such as the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i>, which was heard before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971397_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971397-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even when such challenges were won at the Supreme Court, southern states quickly responded with new laws to accomplish the same ends, for instance, adding "<a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clauses</a>" that covered white people and not black people in order to prevent black people from voting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wealthy_friends_and_benefactors">Wealthy friends and benefactors</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Andrew Carnegie and Robert Curtis Ogden with the faculty of the Tuskegee Institute in 1906</figcaption></figure> <p>State and local governments historically underfunded black schools, although they were ostensibly providing "separate but equal" segregated facilities. White philanthropists strongly supported education financially. Washington encouraged them and directed millions of their money to projects all across the South that Washington thought best reflected his self-help philosophy. Washington associated with the richest and most powerful businessmen and politicians of the era, as well as many other educational leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Rainey_Harper" title="William Rainey Harper">William Rainey Harper</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was seen as a spokesperson for African Americans and became a conduit for funding educational programs.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His contacts included such diverse and well known entrepreneurs and philanthropists as <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller" title="John D. Rockefeller">John D. Rockefeller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Rogers" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry H. Rogers">Henry Huttleston Rogers</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Eastman" title="George Eastman">George Eastman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curtis_Ogden" title="Robert Curtis Ogden">Robert Curtis Ogden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collis_Potter_Huntington" title="Collis Potter Huntington">Collis Potter Huntington</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Baldwin_Jr." title="William Henry Baldwin Jr.">William Henry Baldwin Jr.</a> The latter donated large sums of money to agencies such as the Jeanes and Slater Funds. As a result, countless small rural schools were established through Washington's efforts, under programs that continued many years after his death. Along with rich white men, the black communities helped their communities directly by donating time, money and labor to schools to match the funds required.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorrell2009273–275,_368–370_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorrell2009273–275,_368–370-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_Huttleston_Rogers">Henry Huttleston Rogers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg/170px-BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg/255px-BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/BookerTWashington1909VAVWtour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Handbill during his 1909 tour of southern Virginia and West Virginia</figcaption></figure> <p>A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier <a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Rogers" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry H. Rogers">Henry H. Rogers</a> (1840–1909). Henry Rogers was a <a href="/wiki/Self-made_man" title="Self-made man">self-made man</a>, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal officer of <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a>, and one of the richest men in the United States. Around 1894, Rogers heard Washington speak at <a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden_(1890)" title="Madison Square Garden (1890)">Madison Square Garden</a>. The next day, he contacted Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers "was surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The meeting began a close relationship that extended over a period of 15 years. Although Washington and the very private Rogers were seen as friends, the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after Rogers's sudden death of a stroke in May 1909. Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers's New York office, his <a href="/wiki/Fairhaven,_Massachusetts" title="Fairhaven, Massachusetts">Fairhaven, Massachusetts</a> summer home, and aboard his steam yacht <a href="/wiki/Kanawha_(1899)" title="Kanawha (1899)"><i>Kanawha</i></a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A few weeks later, Washington went on a previously planned speaking tour along the newly completed <a href="/wiki/Virginian_Railway" title="Virginian Railway">Virginian Railway</a>, a $40-million enterprise that had been built almost entirely from Rogers's personal fortune. As Washington rode in the late financier's <a href="/wiki/Private_railroad_car" title="Private railroad car">private railroad car</a>, <i>Dixie</i>, he stopped and made speeches at many locations. His companions later recounted that he had been warmly welcomed by both black and white citizens at each stop.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools for African Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee and Hampton institutes. He also noted that Rogers had encouraged programs with <a href="/wiki/Matching_funds" title="Matching funds">matching funds</a> requirements so the recipients had a stake in the outcome.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anna_T._Jeanes">Anna T. Jeanes</h3></div> <p>In 1907 <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Anna_T._Jeanes" title="Anna T. Jeanes">Anna T. Jeanes</a> (1822–1907) donated one million dollars to Washington for elementary schools for black children in the South. Her contributions and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in many poor communities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Julius_Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald" title="Julius Rosenwald">Julius Rosenwald</a> (1862–1932) was a Jewish American self-made wealthy man with whom Washington found common ground. By 1908, Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become part-owner and president of <a href="/wiki/Sears,_Roebuck_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Sears, Roebuck and Company">Sears, Roebuck and Company</a> in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African-American education, especially in the segregated Southern states, where their schools were underfunded.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1912, Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time fundraising and more managing the school. Later in 1912, Rosenwald provided funds to Tuskegee for a pilot program to build six new small schools in rural Alabama. They were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914, and overseen by Tuskegee architects and staff; the model proved successful.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After Washington died in 1915, Rosenwald established <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Fund" title="Rosenwald Fund">the Rosenwald Fund</a> in 1917, primarily to serve African-American students in rural areas throughout the South. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using the architectural model plans developed by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over $4 million to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Rosenwald Fund made <a href="/wiki/Matching_funds" title="Matching funds">matching grants</a>, requiring community support, cooperation from the white school boards, and local fundraising. Black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction and sometimes donated land and labor; essentially they taxed themselves twice to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These schools became informally known as <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenwald Schools">Rosenwald Schools</a>. But the philanthropist did not want them to be named for him, as they belonged to their communities. By his death in 1932, these newer facilities could accommodate one-third of all African-American children in Southern U.S. schools.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Up_from_Slavery_to_the_White_House"><i>Up from Slavery</i> to the White House</h2></div> <p>Washington's long-term adviser, <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Thomas_Fortune" title="Timothy Thomas Fortune">Timothy Thomas Fortune</a> (1856–1928), was a respected African-American economist and editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Age" title="The New York Age">The New York Age</a></i>, the most widely read newspaper in the black community within the United States. He was the ghost-writer and editor of Washington's first autobiography, <i>The Story of My Life and Work</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington published five books during his lifetime with the aid of ghost-writers Timothy Fortune, Max Bennett Thrasher and <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert E. Park</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983290_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983290-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They included compilations of speeches and essays:<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>The Story of My Life and Work</i> (1900)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><i>The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery </i> (2 vols., 1909)</li> <li><i>My Larger Education</i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Man_Farthest_Down" title="The Man Farthest Down">The Man Farthest Down</a></i> (1912)</li></ul> <p>In an effort to inspire the "commercial, agricultural, educational, and industrial advancement" of African Americans, Washington founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a> (NNBL) in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Washington's second autobiography, <i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i>, was published in 1901, it became a bestseller—remaining the best-selling autobiography of an African American for over sixty years<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and had a major effect on the African-American community and its friends and allies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dinner_at_the_White_House">Dinner at the White House</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_dinner_at_the_White_House" title="Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House">Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg/280px-Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg/420px-Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg/560px-Booker_Washington_and_Theodore_Roosevelt_at_Tuskegie_Institute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Booker Washington and Theodore Roosevelt at the Tuskegee Institute, 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>In October 1901, President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> invited Washington to dine with him and his family at the White House. Although Republican presidents had met privately with black leaders, this was the first highly publicized social occasion when an African American was invited there on equal terms by the president. Democratic Party politicians from the South, including future governor of Mississippi <a href="/wiki/James_K._Vardaman" title="James K. Vardaman">James K. Vardaman</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman" title="Benjamin Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a> of South Carolina, indulged in racist personal attacks when they learned of the invitation. Both used the derogatory term for African Americans in their statements.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meeting was also condemned by the Democratic perennial presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, who argued that "the more advanced race never has consented, and probably never will consent, to be dominated by the less advanced" despite him having previously praised Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vardaman described the White House as "so saturated with the odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable,"<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and declared, "I am just as much opposed to Booker T. Washington as a voter as I am to the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks my shoes every morning. Neither is fit to perform the supreme function of citizenship."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tillman said, "The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they will learn their place again."<sup id="cite_ref-kennedy_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kennedy-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ladislaus_Hengelm%C3%BCller_von_Hengerv%C3%A1r" title="Ladislaus Hengelmüller von Hengervár">Ladislaus Hengelmüller von Hengervár</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> ambassador to the United States, who was visiting the White House on the same day, said he found a <a href="/wiki/Rabbit%27s_foot" title="Rabbit's foot">rabbit's foot</a> in Washington's coat pocket when he mistakenly put on the coat. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i> described it as "the left hind foot of a graveyard rabbit, killed in the dark of the moon".<sup id="cite_ref-BTWP_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTWP-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Journal" title="Detroit Journal">Detroit Journal</a></i> quipped the next day, "The Austrian ambassador may have made off with Booker T. Washington's coat at the White House, but he'd have a bad time trying to fill his shoes."<sup id="cite_ref-BTWP_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTWP-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg/220px-Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg/330px-Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg/440px-Booker_T_Washington_burial_3c11868r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3669" data-file-height="2888" /></a><figcaption>Booker T. Washington's coffin being carried to the grave site</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite his extensive travels and widespread work, Washington continued as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health was deteriorating rapidly in 1915; he collapsed in New York City and was diagnosed by two different doctors as having <a href="/wiki/Bright%27s_disease" title="Bright's disease">Bright's disease</a>, an inflammation of the kidneys, today called <a href="/wiki/Nephritis" title="Nephritis">nephritis</a>. Told he had only a few days left to live, Washington expressed a desire to die at Tuskegee. He boarded a train and arrived in Tuskegee shortly after midnight on November 14, 1915. He died a few hours later at the age of 59.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His funeral was held on November 17, 1915, in the Tuskegee Institute Chapel. It was attended by nearly 8,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was buried nearby in the Tuskegee University Campus Cemetery. </p><p>At the time he was thought to have died of <a href="/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">congestive heart failure</a>, aggravated by overwork. In March 2006, his descendants permitted examination of medical records: these showed he had <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> more than twice normal, and that he died of kidney failure brought on by high blood pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Washington's death, Tuskegee's endowment was close to $2,000,000 (equivalent to $60,236,842 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington's greatest life's work, the education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_memorials">Honors and memorials</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg/220px-Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg/330px-Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg/440px-Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>Booker T. Washington was honored on a <a href="/wiki/Commemorative_stamp" title="Commemorative stamp">commemorative stamp</a>, issue of 1940, the first African American to appear on a US postage stamp.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Booker_T._Washington" title="List of things named after Booker T. Washington">List of things named after Booker T. Washington</a></div> <p>For his contributions to American society, Washington was granted an honorary <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1896, followed by an honorary <a href="/wiki/Doctorate_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctorate degree">doctorate</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bw_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bw-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> At the center of <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a>, the Booker T. Washington Monument was dedicated in 1922. Called <i>Lifting the Veil</i>, the monument has an inscription reading: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and industry.</i></p></blockquote> <p>In 1934, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Robert Russa Moton</a>, Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African-American aviators. Afterward the plane was renamed as the <i>Booker T. Washington</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 7, 1940, Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Liberty_ship" title="Liberty ship">liberty ship</a> <i>Booker T. Washington</i> was named in his honor, the first major oceangoing vessel to be named after an African American. The ship was christened by noted singer <a href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washingtonm,_half_dollar,_1946_mintage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg/400px-Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg/600px-Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg/800px-Booker_T_Washingtonm%2C_half_dollar%2C_1946_mintage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1745" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>Booker T. Washington on a U.S. half dollar, 1946 mintage</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1946, he was honored on the first coin to feature an African American, the <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_Memorial_half_dollar" title="Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar">Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar</a>, which was minted by the United States until 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On April 5, 1956, the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in <a href="/wiki/Franklin_County,_Virginia" title="Franklin County, Virginia">Franklin County, Virginia</a> was designated as the <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_National_Monument" title="Booker T. Washington National Monument">Booker T. Washington National Monument</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_State_Park_(Tennessee)" title="Booker T. Washington State Park (Tennessee)">state park in Chattanooga, Tennessee</a>, was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the <a href="/wiki/Hampton_River" title="Hampton River">Hampton River</a> adjacent to his <i><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">alma mater</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1984, Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Oak" title="Emancipation Oak">Emancipation Oak</a>, establishing, in the words of the university, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous high schools, middle schools and elementary schools<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> across the United States have been named after Booker T. Washington. </p><p>In 2000, <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State University</a> (WVSU; then West Va. State College), in cooperation with other organizations including the Booker T. Washington Association, established the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Booker_T._Washington_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Booker T. Washington Institute (page does not exist)">Booker T. Washington Institute</a>, to honor Washington's boyhood home, the old town of Malden, and Washington's ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On October 19, 2009, WVSU dedicated a monument to Booker T. Washington. The event took place at WVSU's Booker T. Washington Park in <a href="/wiki/Malden,_West_Virginia" title="Malden, West Virginia">Malden, West Virginia</a>. The monument also honors the families of African ancestry who lived in Old Malden in the early 20th century and who knew and encouraged Washington. Special guest speakers at the event included West Virginia <a href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Manchin_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe Manchin III">Joe Manchin III</a>, Malden attorney Larry L. Rowe, and the president of WVSU. Musical selections were provided by the WVSU "Marching Swarm".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the 2008 presidential election, the defeated Republican candidate Senator <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">John McCain</a> recalled the stir caused a century before when President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House. McCain noted the evident progress in the country with the election of Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> as the first African-American President of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG/220px-Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG/330px-Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG/440px-Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Sculpture of Booker T. Washington at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(United_States)" title="National Portrait Gallery (United States)">National Portrait Gallery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative,_obverse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg/220px-1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg/330px-1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg/440px-1951_Carver-Washington_half_dollar_commemorative%2C_obverse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>1951 Carver-Washington commemorative half dollar</figcaption></figure> <p>Booker T. Washington was so acclaimed as a public leader that the period of his activity, from 1880 to 1915, has been called the Age of Booker T. Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historiography on Washington, his character, and the value of that leadership has varied dramatically. After his death, he came under heavy criticism in the civil rights community for accommodationism to white supremacy. However, since the late 20th century, a more balanced view of his very wide range of activities has appeared. As of 2010, the most recent studies, "defend and celebrate his accomplishments, legacy, and leadership".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDagbovie2010145_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDagbovie2010145-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington was held in high regard by business-oriented conservatives, both white and black. Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> argues that the freedom movement of the late nineteenth century changed directions so as to align with America's new economic and intellectual framework. Black leaders emphasized economic self-help and individual advancement into the middle class as a more fruitful strategy than political agitation. There was emphasis on education and literacy throughout the period after the Civil War. Washington's famous Atlanta speech of 1895 marked this transition, as it called on blacks to develop their farms, their industrial skills, and their entrepreneurship as the next stage in emerging from slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorrell2003_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorrell2003-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By this time, Mississippi had passed a new constitution, and other Southern states were following suit, or using electoral laws to raise barriers to voter registration; they <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">completed disenfranchisement of blacks</a> at the turn of the 20th century to maintain <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>. But at the same time, Washington secretly arranged to fund numerous legal challenges to such voting restrictions and segregation, which he believed was the way they had to be attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-pildes_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pildes-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Washington repudiated the historic abolitionist emphasis on unceasing agitation for full equality, advising blacks that it was counterproductive to fight segregation at that point. Foner concludes that Washington's strong support in the black community was rooted in its widespread realization that, given their legal and political realities, frontal assaults on white supremacy were impossible, and the best way forward was to concentrate on building up their economic and social structures inside segregated communities.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/C._Vann_Woodward" title="C. Vann Woodward">C. Vann Woodward</a> in 1951 wrote of Washington, "The businessman's gospel of free enterprise, competition, and <i>laissez faire</i> never had a more loyal exponent."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians since the late 20th century have been divided in their characterization of Washington: some describe him as a visionary capable of "read[ing] minds with the skill of a master psychologist," who expertly played the political game in nineteenth-century Washington by its own rules.<sup id="cite_ref-btw-rediscovered_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-btw-rediscovered-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others say he was a self-serving, crafty <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissist</a> who threatened and punished those in the way of his personal interests, traveled with an entourage, and spent much time fundraising, signing autographs, and giving flowery patriotic speeches with much flag waving – acts more indicative of an artful political boss than an altruistic civil rights leader.<sup id="cite_ref-btw-rediscovered_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-btw-rediscovered-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People called Washington the "Wizard of Tuskegee" because of his highly developed political skills and his creation of a nationwide <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a> based on the black middle class, white philanthropy, and Republican Party support. Opponents called this network the "Tuskegee Machine". Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of numerous groups, including influential whites and black business, educational and religious communities nationwide. He advised as to the use of financial donations from philanthropists and avoided antagonizing white Southerners with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow segregation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tuskegee machine collapsed rapidly after Washington's death. He was the charismatic leader who held it all together, with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Jay_Scott" title="Emmett Jay Scott">Emmett Jay Scott</a>. But the trustees replaced Scott, and the elaborate system fell apart.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics in the 1920s to 1960s, especially those connected with the NAACP, ridiculed Tuskegee as a producer of a class of submissive black laborers. Since the late 20th century, historians have given much more favorable view, emphasizing the school's illustrious faculty and the progressive black movements, institutions and leaders in education, politics, architecture, medicine and other professions it produced who worked hard in communities across the United States, and indeed worldwide across the African Diaspora.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deborah Morowski points out that Tuskegee's curriculum served to help students achieve a sense of personal and collective efficacy. She concludes: </p> <dl><dd>The social studies curriculum provided an opportunity for the uplift of African Americans at time when these opportunities were few and far between for black youth. The curriculum provided inspiration for African Americans to advance their standing in society, to change the view of southern whites toward the value of blacks, and ultimately, to advance racial equality.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>At a time when most black Americans were poor farmers in the South and were ignored by the national black leadership, Washington's Tuskegee Institute made their needs a high priority. It lobbied for government funds and especially from philanthropies that enabled the institute to provide model farming techniques, advanced training, and organizational skills. These included Annual Negro Conferences, the Tuskegee Experiment Station, the Agricultural Short Course, the Farmers' Institutes, the Farmers' County Fairs, the Movable School, and numerous pamphlets and feature stories sent free to the South's black newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representation_in_other_media">Representation in other media</h2></div> <ul><li>Washington and his family's visit to the White House was dramatized as the subject of an opera, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Guest_of_Honor_(opera)" title="A Guest of Honor (opera)">A Guest of Honor</a>,</i> by <a href="/wiki/Scott_Joplin" title="Scott Joplin">Scott Joplin</a>, noted African-American composer. It was first produced in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/1949_in_radio" title="1949 in radio">1949</a> the <a href="/wiki/Anthology_series" title="Anthology series">anthology</a> radio <a href="/wiki/Radio_drama" title="Radio drama">drama</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Destination_Freedom" title="Destination Freedom">Destination Freedom</a></i> recapped his life in "Up from Slavery", written by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Durham" title="Richard Durham">Richard Durham</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._L._Doctorow" title="E. L. Doctorow">E. L. Doctorow</a>'s 1975 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Ragtime_(novel)" title="Ragtime (novel)">Ragtime</a></i> features a fictional version of Washington trying to negotiate the surrender of an African-American musician who is threatening to blow up the <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Library_%26_Museum" title="Morgan Library & Museum">Pierpont Morgan Library</a>. The role was played by <a href="/wiki/Moses_Gunn" title="Moses Gunn">Moses Gunn</a> in the 1981 <a href="/wiki/Ragtime_(film)" title="Ragtime (film)">film adaptation</a>.</li> <li>Washington was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guenveur_Smith" title="Roger Guenveur Smith">Roger Guenveur Smith</a> in the 2020 Netflix miniseries <i><a href="/wiki/Self_Made_(miniseries)" title="Self Made (miniseries)">Self Made</a></i>, based on the life of <a href="/wiki/Madame_C._J._Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame C. J. Walker">Madame C. J. Walker</a>.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a> series <a href="/wiki/The_Gilded_Age_(TV_series)" title="The Gilded Age (TV series)"><i>The Gilded Age</i></a>, Washington is portrayed by actor Michael Braugher.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_the_American_Negro" title="The Future of the American Negro">The Future of the American Negro</a></i> – 1899<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>The Story of My Life and Work</i> (1900)<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWashingtonWoodWilliams1900" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T.; <a href="/wiki/Norman_Barton_Wood" title="Norman Barton Wood">Wood, Norman B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Barrier_Williams" title="Fannie Barrier Williams">Williams, Fannie Barrier</a> (1900). MacBrady, John E. (ed.). <i>A New Negro for a New Century: An Accurate and Up-to-Date Record of the Upward Struggles of the Negro Race</i>. Chicago, IL: American Publishing House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Negro+for+a+New+Century%3A+An+Accurate+and+Up-to-Date+Record+of+the+Upward+Struggles+of+the+Negro+Race&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=American+Publishing+House&rft.date=1900&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft.au=Wood%2C+Norman+B.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Fannie+Barrier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> – 1901</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Character_Building" title="Character Building">Character Building</a></i> – 1902</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Working_with_the_Hands" title="Working with the Hands">Working with the Hands</a></i> – 1904, a sequel to <i>Up From Slavery</i><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_%26_Its_People" title="Tuskegee & Its People">Tuskegee & Its People</a></i> (editor) – 1905</li> <li><i>Frederick Douglass</i> – 1906 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/doug1906/doug1906.html/">Online</a><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_the_South" title="The Negro in the South">The Negro in the South</a></i> (with <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>) – 1907</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_Business" title="The Negro in Business">The Negro in Business</a></i> – 1907</li> <li><i>The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery</i> (1909)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>My Larger Education</i> (1911)<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Man_Farthest_Down" title="The Man Farthest Down">The Man Farthest Down</a>: A Record of Observation and Study in Europe</i> – 1912</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_Junior_College" title="Booker T. Washington Junior College">Booker T. Washington Junior College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-duty_dollar" title="Double-duty dollar">Double-duty dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Booker_T._Washington" title="List of things named after Booker T. Washington">List of things named after Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_School" title="Rosenwald School">Rosenwald School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Simmons" title="Roscoe Simmons">Roscoe Simmons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Tyler" title="Ralph Waldo Tyler">Ralph Waldo Tyler</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis R. Harlan writes, "BTW gave his age as nineteen in September 1874, which would suggest his birth in 1855 or late 1854.... As an adult, however, BTW believed he was born in 1857 or 1858. He celebrated his birthday on Easter, either because he had been told he was born in the spring, or simply in order to keep holidays to a minimum. After BTW's death, John H. Washington reported seeing BTW's birth date, April 5, 1856, in a Burroughs family bible. On this testimony, the Tuskegee trustees formally adopted that day as 'the exact date of his birth.' The trustees were understandably anxious to establish a time for celebrating the Founder's birthday, however, and apparently no one has seen this Bible since."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collectorsweekly.com/stories/117533-1956-centennial-of-booker-t-washington">"1956 Centennial of Booker T. Washington 3¢ Stamps"</a>. Collector's Weekly Magazine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1956+Centennial+of+Booker+T.+Washington+3%C2%A2+Stamps&rft.pub=Collector%27s+Weekly+Magazine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collectorsweekly.com%2Fstories%2F117533-1956-centennial-of-booker-t-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1906" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1906) [1901]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upfromslaveryan08washgoog"><i>Up from Slavery: An Autobiography</i></a>. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+from+Slavery%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Page+%26+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fupfromslaveryan08washgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harlan, Louis R (1972), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookertwashingto0000harl/page/325/mode/2up">Booker T. Washington: volume 1: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901</a></i>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington19062-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington19062_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190634-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190634_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190634_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington19069-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington19069_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190619–21-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190619–21_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, pp. 19–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190627-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190627_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington190635-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190635_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington190635_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1906">Washington 1906</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burkebook-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burkebook_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2015" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Dawne Raines (2015). <i>An American Phoenix: A History of Storer College from Slavery to Desegregation, 1865–1955</i>. <a href="/wiki/Morgantown,_West_Virginia" title="Morgantown, West Virginia">Morgantown, West Virginia</a>: Storer College Books, an imprint of <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_University_Press" title="West Virginia University Press">West Virginia University Press</a>. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1940425771" title="Special:BookSources/978-1940425771"><bdi>978-1940425771</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Phoenix%3A+A+History+of+Storer+College+from+Slavery+to+Desegregation%2C+1865%E2%80%931955&rft.place=Morgantown%2C+West+Virginia&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Storer+College+Books%2C+an+imprint+of+West+Virginia+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1940425771&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Dawne+Raines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/discover-tu/tu-presidents/booker-t-washington">"Booker T. Washington"</a>. Tuskegee University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190226045902/https://www.tuskegee.edu/discover-tu/tu-presidents/booker-t-washington">Archived</a> from the original on February 26, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pub=Tuskegee+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuskegee.edu%2Fdiscover-tu%2Ftu-presidents%2Fbooker-t-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/tuin/learn/historyculture/booker-t-washington.htm">"Booker T. Washington - Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site"</a>. U.S. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+-+Tuskegee+Institute+National+Historic+Site&rft.pub=U.S.+National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Ftuin%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fbooker-t-washington.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/discover-tu/tu-presidents/booker-t-washington">"Booker T. Washington"</a>. Tuskegee University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pub=Tuskegee+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuskegee.edu%2Fdiscover-tu%2Ftu-presidents%2Fbooker-t-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://virginiahistory.org/learn/civil-rights-movement-virginia/hampton-institute-and-booker-t-washington">"Civil Rights Movement In Virginia"</a>. <i>Virginia Museum of History & Culture</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Museum+of+History+%26+Culture&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Movement+In+Virginia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvirginiahistory.org%2Flearn%2Fcivil-rights-movement-virginia%2Fhampton-institute-and-booker-t-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_Alabama-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_Alabama_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGary2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gary, Shannon (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200418085131/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1583">"Tuskegee University"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Alabama</i>. Birmingham, AL: Alabama Humanities Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1583">the original</a> on April 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+University&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Alabama&rft.place=Birmingham%2C+AL&rft.pub=Alabama+Humanities+Foundation&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Gary&rft.aufirst=Shannon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofalabama.org%2Farticle%2Fh-1583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart6.html">"The Booker T. Washington Era (Part 1)"</a>. <i>African American Odyssey</i>. Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916160055/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aopart6.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 16, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 3,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=African+American+Odyssey&rft.atitle=The+Booker+T.+Washington+Era+%28Part+1%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Fammem%2Faaohtml%2Fexhibit%2Faopart6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1972_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarlan1972">Harlan 1972</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nps.oaks-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nps.oaks_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/btwoaks.htm">"The Oaks"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200516094334/https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/btwoaks.htm">Archived</a> May 16, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Tuskegee Museum, National Park Service</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoutheastern_Regional_Office_of_the_National_Park_Service2018" class="citation book cs1">Southeastern Regional Office of the National Park Service (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npshistory.com/publications/tuin/clr-oaks.pdf"><i>The Oaks: Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site Cultural Landscape Report</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Atlanta, GA: National Park Service. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://npshistory.com/publications/tuin/clr-oaks.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 9, 2022. <q>After Dr. Washington's death in 1915, his wife Margaret Murray Washington occupied the residence until her death in 1925.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oaks%3A+Tuskegee+Institute+National+Historic+Site+Cultural+Landscape+Report&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Southeastern+Regional+Office+of+the+National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnpshistory.com%2Fpublications%2Ftuin%2Fclr-oaks.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macintosh_on_Carver-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Macintosh_on_Carver_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacintosh1977" class="citation journal cs1">Macintosh, Barry (August 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanheritage.com/george-washington-carver-and-peanut">"George Washington Carver and the Peanut"</a>. <i>American Heritage Magazine</i>. <b>28</b> (5).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+Magazine&rft.atitle=George+Washington+Carver+and+the+Peanut&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1977-08&rft.aulast=Macintosh&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fgeorge-washington-carver-and-peanut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1971_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarlan1971">Harlan 1971</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_entry-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_entry_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_entry_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200510080242/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Booker-T-Washington">"Booker T. Washington"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Booker-T-Washington">the original</a> on May 10, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Washington and the 'Atlanta Compromise'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>National Museum of African American History and Culture</i>. Smithsonian. n.d. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201007220803/https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/booker-t-washington-and-atlanta-compromise">Archived</a> from the original on October 7, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+and+the+%27Atlanta+Compromise%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fblog-post%2Fbooker-t-washington-and-atlanta-compromise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDu_Bois1903[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2020]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2020)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDu_Bois1903">Du Bois 1903</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1957-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1957_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeier1957">Meier 1957</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlan1983359_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarlan1983">Harlan 1983</a>, p. 359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.twainquotes.com/19060123.html">"Choate and Twain Plead for Tuskegee | Brilliant Audience Cheers Them and Booker Washington"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308003518/http://www.twainquotes.com/19060123.html">Archived</a> March 8, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times,</i> January 23, 1906.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1988_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1988">Anderson 1988</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington1901-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington1901_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1901">Washington 1901</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/washington-olivia-davidson-1854-1889">Encyclopedia.com website, <i>Washington, Olivia Davidson (1854–1889)</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awhf.org/inductee.html">"Inductees"</a>. <i>Alabama Women's Hall of Fame</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www2.kenyon.edu&rft.atitle=Black+Education+%E2%80%93+Washington+and+DuBois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.kenyon.edu%2FDepts%2FAmerstud%2Fblackhistoryatkenyon%2FIndividual%2520Pages%2FWashington%2520and%2520DuBois.htm%23%3A~%3Atext%3DHe%2520grew%2520up%2520in%2520a%2Ca%2520doctorate%2520from%2520Harvard%2520University.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWashington1972a68-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWashington1972a68_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWashington1972a">Washington 1972a</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maxwell-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxell2002" class="citation cs2">Maxell, Anne (2002), "Montrer l'Autre: Franz Boas et les sœurs Gerhard", in Bancel, Nicolas; Blanchard, Pascal; Boëtsch, Gilles; Deroo, Eric; Lemaire, Sandrine (eds.), <i>Zoos humains. 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Washington's Challenge for Egyptology: African-Centered Research in the Nile Valley"</a>. <i>Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies</i> (Miscellanea). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2FD60060622">10.5070/D60060622</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257961196">257961196</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405233904/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/89x8s164">Archived</a> from the original on April 5, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Pantheon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42172-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-42172-3"><bdi>978-0-375-42172-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Protean+N-Word&rft.btitle=Nigger%3A+The+Strange+Career+of+a+Troublesome+Word&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-375-42172-3&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fstyle%2Flongterm%2Fbooks%2Fchap1%2Fnigger.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BTWP-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BTWP_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BTWP_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100224003633/http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.8/html/437.html"><i>Booker T. Washington Papers</i></a>, vol. 8, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.8/html/437.html">the original</a> on February 24, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 21,</span> 2009</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+Papers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historycooperative.org%2Fbtw%2FVol.8%2Fhtml%2F437.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tN1isaLBtbIC&pg=PA437"><i><span></span></i>Detroit Journal<i>, November 14, 1905, BTW Papers, vol. 8, p. 437, n.1 (University of Illinois Press, 1979)</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. 1979. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0252007286" title="Special:BookSources/978-0252007286"><bdi>978-0252007286</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Detroit+Journal%2C+November+14%2C+1905%2C+BTW+Papers%2C+vol.+8%2C+p.+437%2C+n.1+%28University+of+Illinois+Press%2C+1979%29&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0252007286&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtN1isaLBtbIC%26pg%3DPA437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/bowa/learn/historyculture/upload/the-final-btwdeath-site-bulletin.pdf">"The Death of Booker T. Washington"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_National_Monument" title="Booker T. Washington National Monument">Booker T. Washington National Monument</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nps.gov/bowa/learn/historyculture/upload/the-final-btwdeath-site-bulletin.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Death+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pub=Booker+T.+Washington+National+Monument+%28National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fbowa%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fupload%2Fthe-final-btwdeath-site-bulletin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDominguez2006" class="citation news cs1">Dominguez, Alex (May 6, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/05/AR2006050501345.html">"Booker T. Washington's Death Revisited"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. Associated Press. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171007224937/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/05/AR2006050501345.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 7, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington%27s+Death+Revisited&rft.date=2006-05-06&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Dominguez&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F05%2F05%2FAR2006050501345.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2011" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Angelique (July 18, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/washington-booker-taliaferro/">"Washington, Booker Taliaferro"</a>. <i>Social Welfare History Project</i>. <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Commonwealth_University" title="Virginia Commonwealth University">Virginia Commonwealth University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180831211750/https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/washington-booker-taliaferro/">Archived</a> from the original on August 31, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Social+Welfare+History+Project&rft.atitle=Washington%2C+Booker+Taliaferro&rft.date=2011-07-18&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Angelique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialwelfare.library.vcu.edu%2Fprograms%2Feducation%2Fwashington-booker-taliaferro%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bw-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bw_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1995" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker (1995). <i>Up From Slavery</i>. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">144–</span>145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486287386" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486287386"><bdi>978-0486287386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+From+Slavery&rft.place=Mineola&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0486287386&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://btwsociety.org/honors/dartmouth.jpg">"The Exercises of Wednesday Afternoon"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Exercises+of+Wednesday+Afternoon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbtwsociety.org%2Fhonors%2Fdartmouth.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged October 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://raunerlibrary.blogspot.com/2018_06_17_archive.html">"Webster Hall Thronged"</a>. <i>Rauner Special Collections Library</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228190718/https://raunerlibrary.blogspot.com/2018_06_17_archive.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 28, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rauner+Special+Collections+Library&rft.atitle=Webster+Hall+Thronged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fraunerlibrary.blogspot.com%2F2018_06_17_archive.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2012" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Phillip Thomas (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyaIfPI81FwC&pg=PA58"><i>Father of the Tuskegee Airmen, John C. Robinson</i></a>. Potomac Books. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-487-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-487-5"><bdi>978-1-59797-487-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Father+of+the+Tuskegee+Airmen%2C+John+C.+Robinson&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Potomac+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59797-487-5&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Phillip+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCyaIfPI81FwC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/african-american-stamp-subjects.htm">"African American Subjects on United States Postage Stamps"</a>. <i>about.usps.com</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 27,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=about.usps.com&rft.atitle=African+American+Subjects+on+United+States+Postage+Stamps&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabout.usps.com%2Fwho-we-are%2Fpostal-history%2Fafrican-american-stamp-subjects.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120629120539/http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/dlib/lat/display.cfm?ms=uclamss_1387_b10_28752-2&searchType=subject&subjectID=223751"><i>Marian Anderson christens the liberty ship Booker T. Washington</i></a>, UCLA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/dlib/lat/display.cfm?ms=uclamss_1387_b10_28752-2&searchType=subject&subjectID=223751">the original</a> on June 29, 2012</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marian+Anderson+christens+the+liberty+ship+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funitproj.library.ucla.edu%2Fdlib%2Flat%2Fdisplay.cfm%3Fms%3Duclamss_1387_b10_28752-2%26searchType%3Dsubject%26subjectID%3D223751&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usmint.gov/coins/coin-medal-programs/commemorative-coins/booker-t-washington-memorial-half">"Booker T. Washington Memorial Half Dollar"</a>. United States Mint. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727020652/https://www.usmint.gov/coins/coin-medal-programs/commemorative-coins/booker-t-washington-memorial-half">Archived</a> from the original on July 27, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+Memorial+Half+Dollar&rft.pub=United+States+Mint&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usmint.gov%2Fcoins%2Fcoin-medal-programs%2Fcommemorative-coins%2Fbooker-t-washington-memorial-half&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biographybase.com/biography/Washington_Booker_T.html">"Booker T. Washington Biography"</a>. <i>www.biographybase.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210209075143/http://www.biographybase.com/biography/Washington_Booker_T.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 2,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.biographybase.com&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+Biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biographybase.com%2Fbiography%2FWashington_Booker_T.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211303/https://www.tn.gov/environment/news/2020/10/29/booker-t--washington-state-park-honored-for-interpretation.html">"Booker T. Washington State Park Honored for Interpretation"</a>. <i>www.tn.gov</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tn.gov&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+State+Park+Honored+for+Interpretation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tn.gov%2Fenvironment%2Fnews%2F2020%2F10%2F29%2Fbooker-t--washington-state-park-honored-for-interpretation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tnstateparks.com/parks/booker-t-washington">"Booker T. Washington State Park"</a>. <i>Tennessee State Parks</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202430/https://tnstateparks.com/parks/booker-t-washington">Archived</a> from the original on June 24, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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LSU Press. p. 366. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0019-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0019-6"><bdi>978-0-8071-0019-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+New+South%2C+1877%E2%80%931913&rft.pages=366&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-0019-6&rft.au=C.+Vann+Woodward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrTK1N6owT1YC%26pg%3DPA366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-btw-rediscovered-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-btw-rediscovered_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-btw-rediscovered_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiezeGasman2012" class="citation book cs1">Bieze, Michael Scott; <a href="/wiki/Marybeth_Gasman" title="Marybeth Gasman">Gasman, Marybeth</a>, eds. 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Washington Rediscovered</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0470-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0470-7"><bdi>978-1-4214-0470-7</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+Rediscovered&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-0470-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGcvFoRcObNUC%26pg%3DPA209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarable1977" class="citation journal cs1">Marable, Manning (1977). 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New York: Praeger. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275931382" title="Special:BookSources/0275931382"><bdi>0275931382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Durham%27s+Destination+Freedom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0275931382&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorSporn2023" class="citation news cs1">Taylor, Elise; Sporn, Stephanie (October 27, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/the-gilded-age-real-life-socialites">"The Real-Life Socialites and Historical Figures Who Inspired the Characters of The Gilded Age"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/British_Vogue" title="British Vogue">British Vogue</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207205011/https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/the-gilded-age-real-life-socialites">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Vogue&rft.atitle=The+Real-Life+Socialites+and+Historical+Figures+Who+Inspired+the+Characters+of+The+Gilded+Age&rft.date=2023-10-27&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Elise&rft.au=Sporn%2C+Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vogue.co.uk%2Farts-and-lifestyle%2Farticle%2Fthe-gilded-age-real-life-socialites&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CKDOCIVpVQkC"><i>The Future of the American Negro</i></a>. Small, Maynard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0722297490" title="Special:BookSources/978-0722297490"><bdi>978-0722297490</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+American+Negro&rft.pub=Small%2C+Maynard&rft.isbn=978-0722297490&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCKDOCIVpVQkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6WhopiX2j0oC"><i>The Story of My Life and Work: An Autobiography</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3849674748" title="Special:BookSources/978-3849674748"><bdi>978-3849674748</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406122826/https://books.google.com/books?id=6WhopiX2j0oC">Archived</a> from the original on April 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+My+Life+and+Work%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.date=1901&rft.isbn=978-3849674748&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6WhopiX2j0oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1904" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-JMLAAAAIAAJ"><i>Working with the Hands: Being a Sequel to "Up from Slavery," Covering the Author's Experiences in Industrial Training at Tuskegee</i></a>. Doubleday, Page. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0837113142" title="Special:BookSources/978-0837113142"><bdi>978-0837113142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Working+with+the+Hands%3A+Being+a+Sequel+to+%22Up+from+Slavery%2C%22+Covering+the+Author%27s+Experiences+in+Industrial+Training+at+Tuskegee&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Page&rft.date=1904&rft.isbn=978-0837113142&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-JMLAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/frederick-douglass-and-booker-t-washington-tuskegee-institute-1892-little">"This book has been described as "laudatory (and largely ghostwritten)." Alexander, Adele, <i>Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute, 1892: A Little-known Encounter</i>, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History: <i>History Resources</i>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+book+has+been+described+as+%22laudatory+%28and+largely+ghostwritten%29.%22+Alexander%2C+Adele%2C+Frederick+Douglass+and+Booker+T.+Washington+at+the+Tuskegee+Institute%2C+1892%3A+A+Little-known+Encounter%2C+The+Gilder+Lehrman+Institute+of+American+History%3A+History+Resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-resources%2Fessays%2Ffrederick-douglass-and-booker-t-washington-tuskegee-institute-1892-little&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a> writes that Washington's biography of Douglass "has been attributed largely to Washington's friend, S. Laing Williams". Introduction to <i>Three Negro Classics</i>, New York: Avon Books (1965), p. 17. The preface to <i>Frederick Douglass</i> states, "S. Laing Williams, of Chicago, Ill., and his wife, Fannie Barrier Williams, have been of incalculable service in the preparation of this volume. Mr. Williams enjoyed a long and intimate acquaintance with Mr. Douglass, and I have been privileged to draw heavily upon his fund of information. He and Mrs. Williams have reviewed this manuscript since its preparation and have given it their cordial approval." Reprinted and published by Argosy-Antiquarian LTD. (1969), p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1909" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pDkTAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery</i></a>. Doubleday, Page & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0837199566" title="Special:BookSources/978-0837199566"><bdi>978-0837199566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Negro%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Race+from+Slavery&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Page+%26+Company&rft.date=1909&rft.isbn=978-0837199566&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpDkTAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington2021" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CdlzgEACAAJ"><i>My Larger Education (Esprios Classics): Being Chapters from My Experience</i></a>. Blurb, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-034-75027-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-034-75027-7"><bdi>978-1-034-75027-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Larger+Education+%28Esprios+Classics%29%3A+Being+Chapters+from+My+Experience&rft.pub=Blurb%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-034-75027-7&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4CdlzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois1903" class="citation cs2">Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/114/3.html">"Chapter III. Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/40.html"><i>The Souls of Black Folk</i></a>, Bartleby, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200811021315/http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/40.html">archived</a> from the original on August 11, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+III.+Of+Mr.+Booker+T.+Washington+and+Others&rft.btitle=The+Souls+of+Black+Folk&rft.pub=Bartleby&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Du+Bois&rft.aufirst=W.E.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F114%2F3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1895" class="citation cs2">Washington, Booker T. (September 1895), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/"><i>The Atlanta Cotton States Exposition Address</i></a>, History Matters, GMU, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060127085119/http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/">archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2007</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlanta+Cotton+States+Exposition+Address&rft.series=History+Matters&rft.pub=GMU&rft.date=1895-09&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistorymatters.gmu.edu%2Fd%2F39%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1896" class="citation cs2">——— (September 1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1969/12/the-awakening-of-the-negro/5449/">"The Awakening of the Negro"</a>, <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, <b>78</b>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100312013136/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1969/12/the-awakening-of-the-negro/5449/">archived</a> from the original on March 12, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Awakening+of+the+Negro&rft.volume=78&rft.date=1896-09&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F1969%2F12%2Fthe-awakening-of-the-negro%2F5449%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1901" class="citation book cs1">——— (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/washing.html"><i>Up from Slavery: An Autobiography</i></a>. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100223005954/http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/washing.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 23, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+from+Slavery%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.+n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocsouth.unc.edu%2Ffpn%2Fwashington%2Fwashing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span> Documenting the American South. Other online full-text versions available via <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2376">Project Gutenberg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125183426/http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2376">Archived</a> January 25, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/menu.html">UNC Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201004120136/http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/menu.html">Archived</a> October 4, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1903" class="citation cs2">——— (October 1903), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1903/10/the-fruits-of-industrial-training/531030/">"The Fruits of Industrial Training"</a>, <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>, vol. 92, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727031221/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1903/10/the-fruits-of-industrial-training/531030/">archived</a> from the original on July 27, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly&rft.atitle=The+Fruits+of+Industrial+Training&rft.volume=92&rft.date=1903-10&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F1903%2F10%2Fthe-fruits-of-industrial-training%2F531030%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1906a" class="citation journal cs1">——— (December 1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3IfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA8352">"A Farmers' College on Wheels"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XIII</b>: <span class="nowrap">8352–</span>54<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=A+Farmers%27+College+on+Wheels&rft.volume=XIII&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8352-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=1906-12&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3IfNAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA8352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1910" class="citation journal cs1">——— (October 1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&pg=PA13505">"Chapters From My Experience I"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XX</b>: <span class="nowrap">13505–</span>22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+I&rft.volume=XX&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13505-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=1910-10&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHsrkfU461xAC%26pg%3DPA13505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1910" class="citation journal cs1">——— (November 1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13627">"Chapters From My Experience II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">13627–</span>40<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+II&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13627-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1910-11&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZm0AAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA13627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1910" class="citation journal cs1">——— (December 1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13783">"Chapters From My Experience III"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">13784–</span>94<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+III&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13784-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=1910-12&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZm0AAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA13783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1911" class="citation journal cs1">——— (January 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13847">"Chapters From My Experience IV"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">13847–</span>54<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+IV&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13847-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=1911-01&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZm0AAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA13847&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1911" class="citation journal cs1">——— (February 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14032">"Chapters From My Experience V"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">14032–</span>39<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+V&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14032-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=1911-02&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZm0AAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA14032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1911" class="citation journal cs1">——— (April 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14230">"Chapters From My Experience VI"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World%27s_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i>. <b>XXI</b>: <span class="nowrap">14230–</span>38<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time&rft.atitle=Chapters+From+My+Experience+VI&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14230-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1911-04&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZm0AAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA14230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. Harlan, Louis R.; Blassingame, John W. (eds.). <i>The Booker T. Washington Papers</i>. University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Booker+T.+Washington+Papers&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span> Fourteen-volume set of all letters to and from Booker T. Washington. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1972a" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1972a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4yTkxGiI4mkC">"Volume 1:The Autobiographical Writings"</a>. In Harlan, Louis R.; Blassingame, John W. (eds.). <i>The Booker T. Washington Papers</i>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00242-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00242-7"><bdi>978-0-252-00242-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+1%3AThe+Autobiographical+Writings&rft.btitle=The+Booker+T.+Washington+Papers&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-252-00242-7&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4yTkxGiI4mkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington1972b" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Booker T. (1972b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060818024631/http://www.ulletin.org/btw/Vol.14/html/">"Volume 14: Cumulative Index"</a>. In Harlan, Louis R.; Blassingame, John W. (eds.). <i>The Booker T. Washington Papers</i>. University of Illinois Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.14/html/">the original</a> on August 18, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Volume+14%3A+Cumulative+Index&rft.btitle=The+Booker+T.+Washington+Papers&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Washington&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historycooperative.org%2Fbtw%2FVol.14%2Fhtml%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1988" class="citation cs2">Anderson, James D. (1988), <a href="/wiki/The_Education_of_Blacks_in_the_South,_1860%E2%80%931935" title="The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935"><i>The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Education+of+Blacks+in+the+South%2C+1860%E2%80%931935&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauerlein2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Bauerlein" title="Mark Bauerlein">Bauerlein, Mark</a> (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.karlerickson.com/uploads/1/0/9/5/10959412/booker_t._washington_and_w.e.b._du_bois.pdf">"Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois: The origins of a bitter intellectual battle"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Blacks in Higher Education</i>, <b>46</b> (46): <span class="nowrap">106–</span>114, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4133693">10.2307/4133693</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4133693">4133693</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230312233209/http://www.karlerickson.com/uploads/1/0/9/5/10959412/booker_t._washington_and_w.e.b._du_bois.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 12, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 12,</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Blacks+in+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+and+W.+E.+B.+Du+Bois%3A+The+origins+of+a+bitter+intellectual+battle&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E106-%3C%2Fspan%3E114&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4133693&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4133693%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bauerlein&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.karlerickson.com%2Fuploads%2F1%2F0%2F9%2F5%2F10959412%2Fbooker_t._washington_and_w.e.b._du_bois.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouch2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Crouch" title="Stanley Crouch">Crouch, Stanley</a> (2005), <i>The Artificial White Man: Essays on Authenticity</i>, Basic Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01516-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01516-0"><bdi>978-0-465-01516-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Artificial+White+Man%3A+Essays+on+Authenticity&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-01516-0&rft.aulast=Crouch&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDagbovie2010" class="citation book cs1">Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo (2010). <i>African American History Reconsidered</i>. Urbana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03521-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03521-0"><bdi>978-0-252-03521-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/456551364">456551364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+History+Reconsidered&rft.place=Urbana&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F456551364&rft.isbn=978-0-252-03521-0&rft.aulast=Dagbovie&rft.aufirst=Pero+Gaglo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2023" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Davies, Vanessa (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/89x8s164">"Booker T. Washington's Challenge for Egyptology: African-Centered Research in the Nile Valley"</a>, <i>Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies</i>, Miscellanea, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2FD60060622">10.5070/D60060622</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257961196">257961196</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405233904/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/89x8s164">archived</a> from the original on April 5, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dotawo%3A+A+Journal+of+Nubian+Studies&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington%27s+Challenge+for+Egyptology%3A+African-Centered+Research+in+the+Nile+Valley&rft.volume=Miscellanea&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5070%2FD60060622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257961196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Vanessa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F89x8s164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1971" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Louis_R._Harlan" title="Louis R. Harlan">Harlan, Louis R.</a> (1971), "The Secret Life of Booker T. Washington", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Southern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Southern History">Journal of Southern History</a></i>, <b>37</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">393–</span>416, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2206948">10.2307/2206948</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2206948">2206948</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Secret+Life+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E393-%3C%2Fspan%3E416&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2206948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2206948%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>. Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1972" class="citation cs2">Harlan, Louis R. (1972), <i>Booker T. Washington: volume 1: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3A+volume+1%3A+The+Making+of+a+Black+Leader%2C+1856%E2%80%931901&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>, the major scholarly biography. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1983" class="citation cs2">Harlan, Louis R. (1983), <i>Booker T. Washington; volume 2: The Wizard of Tuskegee 1901–1915</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3B+volume+2%3A+The+Wizard+of+Tuskegee+1901%E2%80%931915&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul></li> <li>Heath, Robert L. "A time for silence: Booker T. Washington in Atlanta." <i>Quarterly Journal of Speech</i> 64.4 (1978): 385–399.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier1957" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/August_Meier" title="August Meier">Meier, August</a> (May 1957), "Toward a Reinterpretation of Booker T. Washington", <i>The Journal of Southern History</i>, <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">220–</span>27, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2955315">10.2307/2955315</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2955315">2955315</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Reinterpretation+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E220-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=1957-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2955315&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2955315%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>. Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement.</li> <li>Moore, Jacqueline M. <i>Booker T. Washington, WEB Du Bois, and the struggle for racial uplift</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mOcDxX0rhukC&pg=PR13">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrell2003" class="citation cs2">Norrell, Robert J. (2003), "Booker T. Washington: Understanding the Wizard of Tuskegee", <i>Journal of Blacks in Higher Education</i>, <b>42</b> (Winter): <span class="nowrap">96–</span>109, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3592453">10.2307/3592453</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3592453">3592453</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Blacks+in+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3A+Understanding+the+Wizard+of+Tuskegee&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=Winter&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3592453&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3592453%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Norrell&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorrell2009" class="citation cs2">Norrell, Robert J. (2009), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/upfromhistorylif0000norr"><i>Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington</i></a></span>, Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03211-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03211-8"><bdi>978-0-674-03211-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+from+History%3A+The+Life+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pub=Belknap+Press%2FHarvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03211-8&rft.aulast=Norrell&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fupfromhistorylif0000norr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>, favorable scholarly biography.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPole1974" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Pole" title="Jack Pole">Pole, J. R.</a> (1974), "Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others", <i>The Historical Journal</i>, <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">883–</span>893, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00007962">10.1017/S0018246X00007962</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638562">2638562</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159805054">159805054</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Of+Mr.+Booker+T.+Washington+and+Others&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E883-%3C%2Fspan%3E893&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159805054%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2638562%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X00007962&rft.aulast=Pole&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Aiello, Thomas. <i>The Battle for the Souls of Black Folk: WEB Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, and the Debate That Shaped the Course of Civil Rights</i> (ABC-CLIO, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U_EZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoston2010" class="citation cs2">Boston, Michael B. (2010), <i>The Business Strategy of Booker T. Washington: Its Development and Implementation</i>, University Press of Florida</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Business+Strategy+of+Booker+T.+Washington%3A+Its+Development+and+Implementation&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Michael+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>; 243 pp. Studies the content and influence of his philosophy of entrepreneurship.</li> <li>Chennault, Ronald E. "Pragmatism and Progressivism in the Educational Thought and Practices of Booker T. Washington." <i>Philosophical Studies in Education</i> 44 (2013): 121–131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1015729.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307050330/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1015729.pdf">Archived</a> March 7, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Christian, Mark. <i>Booker T. Washington: A Life in American History</i> (ABC-CLIO, 2021).</li> <li>Davis, Deborah. <i>Guest of Honor: Booker T. Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, and the White House Dinner That Shocked a Nation</i> (Simon and Schuster, 2012).</li> <li>Deutsch, Stephanie. <i>You need a schoolhouse: Booker T. Washington, Julius Rosenwald, and the building of schools for the segregated south</i> ( Northwestern University Press, 2011).</li> <li>Feiler, Andrew. <i>A Better Life for the Children: Julius Rosenwald, Booker T. Washington, and the 4,978 Schools That Changed America</i> (University of Georgia Press, 2021)</li> <li>Fisher, Laura R. "Head and Hands Together: Booker T. Washington's Vocational Realism." <i>American Literature</i> 87.4 (2015): 709–737.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Gardner, Booker T. (1975). "The Educational Contributions of Booker T. Washington". <i>The Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>44</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">502–</span>518. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2966635">10.2307/2966635</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2984">0022-2984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2966635">2966635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=The+Educational+Contributions+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E502-%3C%2Fspan%3E518&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0022-2984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2966635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2966635&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Booker+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Gibson, Donald B. (1993). "Strategies and Revisions of Self-Representation in Booker T. Washington's Autobiographies". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>45</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">370–</span>393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713239">10.2307/2713239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0678">0003-0678</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713239">2713239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Strategies+and+Revisions+of+Self-Representation+in+Booker+T.+Washington%27s+Autobiographies&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E370-%3C%2Fspan%3E393&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0003-0678&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2713239%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2713239&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Gottschalk, Jane (1966). "The Rhetorical Strategy of Booker T. Washington". <i>Phylon</i>. <b>27</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">388–</span>395. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F273619">10.2307/273619</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8906">0031-8906</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/273619">273619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phylon&rft.atitle=The+Rhetorical+Strategy+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E388-%3C%2Fspan%3E395&rft.date=1966&rft.issn=0031-8906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F273619%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F273619&rft.aulast=Gottschalk&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Smock, Raymond W., ed. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64"><i>Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan</i></a>. University Press of Mississippi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-928-6"><bdi>978-1-57806-928-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64">j.ctt2tvj64</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+in+Perspective%3A+Essays+of+Louis+R.+Harlan&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt2tvj64%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-57806-928-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt2tvj64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Harlan, Louis R. (1966). "Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>71</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">441–</span>467. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1846341">10.2307/1846341</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1846341">1846341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+and+the+White+Man%27s+Burden&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E441-%3C%2Fspan%3E467&rft.date=1966&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1846341%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1846341&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1988" class="citation cs2">Harlan, Louis R. (1988), <i>Booker T. Washington in Perspective</i> (essays), University Press of Mississippi</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+in+Perspective&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Jackson Jr, David H. "Booker T. Washington in South Carolina, March 1909." <i> South Carolina Historical Magazine</i> (2012): 192–220. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scpronet.com/modjeskaschool/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/BookerTWashingtonInSouthCarolina.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230222024512/https://www.scpronet.com/modjeskaschool/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/BookerTWashingtonInSouthCarolina.pdf">Archived</a> February 22, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Lewis, Theodore. "Booker T. Washington’s audacious vocationalist philosophy." <i>Oxford review of education</i> 40.2 (2014): 189–205.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_Joseph_Mathews" title="Basil Joseph Mathews">Mathews, Basil Joseph</a>, <i>Booker T. Washington, educator and interracial interpreter</i> (Harvard University Press, 1948)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurry1982" class="citation cs2">McMurry, Linda O. (1982), <i>George Washington Carver, Scientist and Symbol</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=George+Washington+Carver%2C+Scientist+and+Symbol&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=McMurry&rft.aufirst=Linda+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Richards, Michael A. (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F705560">"Pathos, Poverty, and Politics: Booker T. Washington's Radically Reimagined American Civilization"</a>. <i>Polity</i>. <b>51</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">749–</span>779. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F705560">10.1086/705560</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3497">0032-3497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polity&rft.atitle=Pathos%2C+Poverty%2C+and+Politics%3A+Booker+T.+Washington%27s+Radically+Reimagined+American+Civilization&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E749-%3C%2Fspan%3E779&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F705560&rft.issn=0032-3497&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F705560&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1997" class="citation cs2">Smith, David L. (1997), "Commanding Performance: Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Compromise Address", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas (eds.), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythamerica0000unse"><i>Myth America: A Historical Anthology</i></a></span>, vol. II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1881089971" title="Special:BookSources/978-1881089971"><bdi>978-1881089971</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commanding+Performance%3A+Booker+T.+Washington%27s+Atlanta+Compromise+Address&rft.btitle=Myth+America%3A+A+Historical+Anthology&rft.place=St.+James%2C+NY&rft.pub=Brandywine+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1881089971&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmythamerica0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmock2009" class="citation cs2">Smock, Raymond (2009), <i>Booker T. Washington: Black Leadership in the Age of Jim Crow</i>, Chicago: Ivan R Dee</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3A+Black+Leadership+in+the+Age+of+Jim+Crow&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Ivan+R+Dee&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Smock&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Verney, Kevern J. <i>The art of the possible: Booker T. Washington and Black Leadership in the United States, 1881–1925</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li> <li>Webb, Clive. "‘A feeling which it is impossible for Englishmen to understand’: Booker T. Washington and Anglo-American Rivalries." <i>History</i> 107.376 (2022): 549–569.</li> <li>Weiss, Ellen. <i>Robert R. Taylor and Tuskegee: An African American Architect Designs for Booker T. Washington</i> (NewSouth Books, 2012).</li> <li>Wintz, Cary D.<i>African American Political Thought, 1890–1930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey, and Randolph</i> (1996)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmerman2012" class="citation cs2">Zimmerman, Andrew (2012), <i>Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South</i>, Princeton: Princeton University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alabama+in+Africa%3A+Booker+T.+Washington%2C+the+German+Empire%2C+and+the+Globalization+of+the+New+South&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3></div> <ul><li>Bieze, Michael Scott, and Marybeth Gasman, eds. <i>Booker T. Washington Rediscovered</i> (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 265 pp. scholarly essays</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrundage2003" class="citation cs2">Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, ed. (2003), <i>Booker T. Washington and Black Progress: Up from Slavery 100 Years Later</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+and+Black+Progress%3A+Up+from+Slavery+100+Years+Later&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carroll, Rebecca, ed. <i>Uncle Tom or New Negro?: African Americans Reflect on Booker T. Washington and Up from Slavery 100 Years Later</i> (Crown, 2013).</li> <li>Crowley, John W. "Booker T. Washington Revisited." <i>American Literary Realism</i> 54.2 (2022): 170–181. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/34/article/848366/summary">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDagbovie2007" class="citation cs2">Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo (2007), "Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington", <i>Journal of African American History</i>, <b>92</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">239–</span>264, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2FJAAHv92n2p239">10.1086/JAAHv92n2p239</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064182">20064182</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148770045">148770045</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+American+History&rft.atitle=Exploring+a+Century+of+Historical+Scholarship+on+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E264&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148770045%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20064182%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2FJAAHv92n2p239&rft.aulast=Dagbovie&rft.aufirst=Pero+Gaglo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1974" class="citation cs2">Friedman, Lawrence J. (October 1974), "Life 'In the Lion's Mouth': Another Look at Booker T. Washington", <i>Journal of Negro History</i>, <b>59</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">337–</span>351, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2717315">10.2307/2717315</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717315">2717315</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150075964">150075964</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Life+%27In+the+Lion%27s+Mouth%27%3A+Another+Look+at+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E337-%3C%2Fspan%3E351&rft.date=1974-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150075964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2717315%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2717315&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hamilton. Kenneth M. <i>Booker T. Washington in American Memory</i> (University of Illinois Press, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=50ckDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT6">online</a>; see also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/285/article/692692/summary">online review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1970" class="citation cs2">Harlan, Louis R. (October 1970), "Booker T. Washington in Biographical Perspective", <i>American Historical Review</i>, <b>75</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1581–</span>1599, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1850756">10.2307/1850756</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1850756">1850756</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington+in+Biographical+Perspective&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1581-%3C%2Fspan%3E1599&rft.date=1970-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1850756&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1850756%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrickland1973" class="citation cs2">Strickland, Arvarh E. (December 1973), "Booker T. Washington: The Myth and the Man", <i>Reviews in American History</i> (Review), <b>1</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">559–</span>564, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2701723">10.2307/2701723</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2701723">2701723</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+American+History&rft.atitle=Booker+T.+Washington%3A+The+Myth+and+the+Man&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E559-%3C%2Fspan%3E564&rft.date=1973-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2701723&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2701723%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=Arvarh+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABooker+T.+Washington" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Thornbrough, Emma Lou, ed. <i>Booker T. Washington - Great Lives Observed</i> (1969), short selections by Washington and by historians; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bookertwashingto0000emma_l9y5">online</a></li> <li>Zeringue, Joshua Thomas. "Booker T. Washington and the Historians: How Changing Views on Race Relations, Economics, and Education Shaped Washington Historiography, 1915–2010" (MA Thesis, LSU, 2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412055132/http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-11162015-120200/unrestricted/zeringuethesis.pdf">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Booker T. 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Washington</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Booker+T.+Washington&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Booker+T.+Washington">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Booker+T.+Washington&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Booker T. Washington</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Booker+T.+Washington&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Booker+T.+Washington">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Booker+T.+Washington&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/bowa/index.htm">Booker T. Washington National Monument</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/discover-tu/tu-presidents/booker-t-washington">Dr. Booker Taliaferro Washington</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?165130-1/writings-b-washington-du-bois">"Writings of B. Washington and Du Bois"</a> from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/American_Writers:_A_Journey_Through_History" title="American Writers: A Journey Through History">American Writers: A Journey Through History</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.loc.gov/booker-t-washington">Booker T. Washington: A Resource Guide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.lib.umd.edu/repositories/2/resources/1205">Booker T. Washington Papers Editorial Project collection</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland_Libraries" title="University of Maryland Libraries">University of Maryland Libraries</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_editions">Online editions</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20Taliaferro%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20T%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Washington%2C%20B%2E%20T%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Booker%20Taliaferro%20Washington%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Booker%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22B%2E%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Booker%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Booker%20Taliaferro%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Booker%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22B%2E%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22B%2E%20Taliaferro%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20Taliaferro%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20T%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Washington%2C%20B%2E%20T%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Washington%2C%20B%2E%20Taliaferro%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Booker%20Washington%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Booker%20Taliaferro%20Washington%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Booker%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20title%3A%22B%2E%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Booker%20Washington%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Booker%20Taliaferro%20Washington%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Booker%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20description%3A%22B%2E%20T%2E%20Washington%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20Taliaferro%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%20T%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Booker%20Washington%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Washington%2C%20Booker%22%29%20OR%20%28%221856-1915%22%20AND%20Washington%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Booker T. Washington</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/880">Works by Booker T. Washington</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/booker-t-washington">Works by Booker T. Washington in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/3597">Works by Booker T. Washington</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Booker_T._Washington108" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Booker_T._Washington" title="Template:Booker T. Washington"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Booker_T._Washington" title="Template talk:Booker T. Washington"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Booker_T._Washington" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Booker T. Washington"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Booker_T._Washington108" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Exposition_Speech" title="Atlanta Exposition Speech">1895 Atlanta Exposition Speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_dinner_at_the_White_House" title="Booker T. Washington dinner at the White House">1901 White House dinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute_Silver_Anniversary_Lecture" title="Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture">Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_the_American_Negro" title="The Future of the American Negro">The Future of the American Negro</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Character_Building" title="Character Building">Character Building</a></i> (1902)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Problem_(book)" title="The Negro Problem (book)">The Negro Problem</a></i> (editor, 1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Working_with_the_Hands" title="Working with the Hands">Working with the Hands</a></i> (1904)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_%26_Its_People" title="Tuskegee & Its People">Tuskegee & Its People</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_in_the_South" title="The Negro in the South">The Negro in the South</a></i> (1907)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Booker_T._Washington" title="List of things named after Booker T. Washington">Honors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_National_Monument" title="Booker T. Washington National Monument">Booker T. Washington National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_State_Park_(Tennessee)" title="Booker T. Washington State Park (Tennessee)">Booker T. Washington State Park (Tennessee)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_State_Park_(West_Virginia)" title="Booker T. Washington State Park (West Virginia)">Booker T. Washington State Park (West Virginia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_Mountain" title="Booker Mountain">Booker Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Booker_T._Washington" title="SS Booker T. Washington">SS <i>Booker T. Washington</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_Memorial_half_dollar" title="Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar">Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carver-Washington_half_dollar" title="Carver-Washington half dollar">Carver-Washington half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_High_School_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Booker T. Washington High School (disambiguation)">High Schools</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portrayals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Guest_of_Honor_(opera)" title="A Guest of Honor (opera)">A Guest of Honor</a></i> (1903 opera)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Booker_(film)" title="Booker (film)">Booker</a></i> (1984 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_(miniseries)" title="Theodore Roosevelt (miniseries)">Theodore Roosevelt</a></i> (2022 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Smith_Washington" title="Fannie Smith Washington">Fannie Smith Washington</a> (first wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivia_A._Davidson" title="Olivia A. Davidson">Olivia A. Davidson</a> (second wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Murray_Washington" title="Margaret Murray Washington">Margaret Murray Washington</a> (third wife)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Booker_T._Washington107" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Booker_T._Washington107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Booker T. Washington</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tuskegee_University274" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tuskegee_University" title="Template:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tuskegee_University" title="Template talk:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee_University" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tuskegee_University274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Tuskegee University</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div><b>Located in</b>: <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama"><span style="color:white">Tuskegee, Alabama</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences</li> <li>Arts and Sciences</li> <li>Business and Information Science</li> <li>Engineering</li> <li>Veterinary Medicine, Nursing and Allied Health</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Athletics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers">Tuskegee Golden Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers_football" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers football">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Memorial_Alumni_Stadium" title="Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium">Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Center_Arena" title="James Center Arena">James Center Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_George_Washington_Carver_Museum" title="The George Washington Carver Museum">The George Washington Carver Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Cooperative_Extension_System" title="Alabama Cooperative Extension System">Alabama Cooperative Extension System</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Alabama_Cooperative_Extension_System" title="History of the Alabama Cooperative Extension System">History</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Adams" title="Lewis Adams">Lewis Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute_Silver_Anniversary_Lecture" title="Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture">Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study" title="Tuskegee Syphilis Study">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University_shooting" title="Tuskegee University shooting">Tuskegee University shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div> <ul><li><b>Founded</b>: 1881</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_slavery_in_Virginia309" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slavery_in_Virginia" title="Template:Slavery in Virginia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slavery_in_Virginia" title="Template talk:Slavery in Virginia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slavery_in_Virginia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slavery in Virginia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_slavery_in_Virginia309" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">History of slavery in Virginia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">History of Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enslaved people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angela_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angela (slave)">Angela</a> (fl. 1619–1625)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown" title="Henry Box Brown">Henry Box Brown</a> (c. 1815–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burns" title="Anthony Burns">Anthony Burns</a> (1834–1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Casor" title="John Casor">John Casor</a> (living 1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Driggus" title="Emanuel Driggus">Emanuel Driggus</a> (c. 1620s-d. 1673)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a> (c. 1745–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_Gibbons" title="Isabella Gibbons">Isabella Gibbons</a> (c. 1836–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_D._Gibbons" title="William D. Gibbons">William D. Gibbons</a> (1825–1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Graweere" title="John Graweere">John Graweere</a> (living 1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Key_Grinstead" title="Elizabeth Key Grinstead">Elizabeth Key Grinstead</a> (Greenstead) (1630–1665)</li> <li>Left, husband of <a href="/wiki/Jane_Webb_(Northampton,_Virginia)" title="Jane Webb (Northampton, Virginia)">Jane Webb</a> (fl. 1704–1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Johnson_(colonist)" title="Anthony Johnson (colonist)">Mary and Anthony Johnson</a> (1600–1670)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Lee_(valet)" title="Philip Lee (valet)">Philip Lee</a> (c. 1785–?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dangerfield_Newby" title="Dangerfield Newby">Dangerfield Newby</a> (c. 1820–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Punch_(slave)" title="John Punch (slave)">John Punch</a> (fl. 1630s, living 1640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a> (1776–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tucker_(Virginia_colony)" title="William Tucker (Virginia colony)">William Tucker</a> (born 1624)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner" title="Nat Turner">Nat Turner</a> (1800–1831)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a> (1856–1915)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slave owners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Presidents of the United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">Tyler</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Armfield" title="John Armfield">John Armfield</a> (1797–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Braxton" title="Carter Braxton">Carter Braxton</a> (1736–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landon_Carter" title="Landon Carter">Landon Carter</a> (1710–1778)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Carter_I" title="Robert Carter I">Robert "King" Carter</a> (1663–1732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Carter_III" title="Robert Carter III">Robert Carter III</a> (1728–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Roderick_Dew" title="Thomas Roderick Dew">Thomas Roderick Dew</a> (1802–1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hunter_(lawyer)" title="Andrew Hunter (lawyer)">Andrew Hunter</a> (1804–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Robert M. T. Hunter</a> (1809–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eppa_Hunton" title="Eppa Hunton">Eppa Hunton</a> (1822–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bland_Lee" title="Richard Bland Lee">Richard Bland Lee</a> (1761–1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Mahone" title="William Mahone">William Mahone</a> (1826–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> (1725–1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._Mason" title="James M. Mason">James M. Mason</a> (1798–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Page_(Middle_Plantation)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Page (Middle Plantation)">John Page</a> (1628–1692)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Prosser_(burgess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Prosser (burgess)">Thomas Prosser</a> (died 1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_family_of_Virginia" title="Randolph family of Virginia">Randolph family of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Barton_Rogers" title="William Barton Rogers">William Barton Rogers</a> (1804–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">George Henry Thomas</a> (1816–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tucker_(Jamestown_immigrant)" title="William Tucker (Jamestown immigrant)">William Tucker</a> (died 1642)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wayles" title="John Wayles">John Wayles</a> (1715–1773)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wise" title="Henry A. Wise">Henry A. Wise</a> (1806–1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seth_Woodroof" title="Seth Woodroof">Seth Woodroof</a> (1805–1875)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Virginia" title="List of plantations in Virginia">Plantations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beall-Air" title="Beall-Air">Beall-Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_Hill_Plantation" title="Berry Hill Plantation">Berry Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brookfield_(plantation)" title="Brookfield (plantation)">Brookfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenmore_(Fredericksburg,_Virginia)" title="Kenmore (Fredericksburg, Virginia)">Kenmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monticello" title="Monticello">Monticello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montpelier_(Orange,_Virginia)" title="Montpelier (Orange, Virginia)">Montpelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Airy_Plantation" title="Mount Airy Plantation">Mount Airy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_enslaved_people_of_Mount_Vernon" title="List of enslaved people of Mount Vernon">enslaved people</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oatlands_Plantation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oatlands Plantation">Oatlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poplar_Forest" title="Poplar Forest">Poplar Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Plantation" title="Shirley Plantation">Shirley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratford_Hall_(plantation)" title="Stratford Hall (plantation)">Stratford Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckahoe_(plantation)" title="Tuckahoe (plantation)">Tuckahoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westover_Plantation" title="Westover Plantation">Westover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodlawn_(Alexandria,_Virginia)" title="Woodlawn (Alexandria, Virginia)">Woodlawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_Virginia" title="List of plantations in Virginia">List of plantations in Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slave_pen" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave pen">Slave pens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bruin%27s_Slave_Jail" title="Bruin's Slave Jail">Bruin's Slave Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cage_(Richmond,_Virginia)" title="The Cage (Richmond, Virginia)">The Cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_and_Armfield_Office" title="Franklin and Armfield Office">Franklin and Armfield Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpkin%27s_Jail" title="Lumpkin's Jail">Lumpkin's Jail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_American_Burial_Ground" title="African American Burial Ground">African American Burial Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremo_Slave_Chapel" title="Bremo Slave Chapel">Bremo Slave Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_Enslaved_Laborers" title="Memorial to Enslaved Laborers">Memorial to Enslaved Laborers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_of_the_Confederacy" title="White House of the Confederacy">White House of the Confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Slave_Codes_of_1705" title="Virginia Slave Codes of 1705">Virginia Slave Codes of 1705</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._John_Brown" title="Virginia v. John Brown">Virginia v. John Brown</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion_and_resistance_in_the_United_States" title="Slave rebellion and resistance in the United States">Revolts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel%27s_Rebellion" title="Gabriel's Rebellion">Gabriel's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_1619_Project" title="The 1619 Project">The 1619 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Creole" title="Atlantic Creole">Atlantic Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Winchester_Medical_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Burning of Winchester Medical College">Burning of Winchester Medical College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastwise_slave_trade" title="Coastwise slave trade">Coastwise slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Africans_in_Virginia" title="First Africans in Virginia">First Africans in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Indentured servitude in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_retrocession" title="District of Columbia retrocession">District of Columbia retrocession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Virginia" title="Human trafficking in Virginia">Human trafficking in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_and_Freedom_Day" title="Liberation and Freedom Day">Liberation and Freedom Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia_slave_market" title="Richmond, Virginia slave market">Richmond slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia in the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slave_narratives215" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slave_narrative" title="Template talk:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slave_narrative" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slave narrative"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slave_narratives215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narratives</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narrative Collection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individuals<br />by continent<br />of enslavement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sailor)" title="Robert Adams (sailor)">Robert Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Berg_(writer)" title="Marcus Berg (writer)">Marcus Berg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bok" title="Francis Bok">Francis Bok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Brassard" title="Isaac Brassard">Isaac Brassard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Caronni" title="Felice Caronni">Felice Caronni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Leander_Cathcart" title="James Leander Cathcart">James Leander Cathcart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93lafur_Egilsson" title="Ólafur Egilsson">Ólafur Egilsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petro_Kilekwa" title="Petro Kilekwa">Petro Kilekwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Marsh" title="Elizabeth Marsh">Elizabeth Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Nazer" title="Mende Nazer">Mende Nazer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hark_Olufs" title="Hark Olufs">Hark Olufs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pellow" title="Thomas Pellow">Thomas Pellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitts_(author)" title="Joseph Pitts (author)">Joseph Pitts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Qaurtier" title="Antoine Qaurtier">Antoine Qaurtier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%C3%B0r%C3%AD%C3%B0ur_S%C3%ADmonard%C3%B3ttir" title="Guðríður Símonardóttir">Guðríður Símonardóttir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_ter_Meetelen" title="Maria ter Meetelen">Maria ter Meetelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Matth%C3%A4us_Wolfgang" title="Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang">Andreas Matthäus Wolfgang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Wolffgang" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Georg Wolffgang">Johann Georg Wolffgang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigitta_Scherzenfeldt" title="Brigitta Scherzenfeldt">Brigitta Scherzenfeldt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunzio_Otello_Francesco_Gioacchino" title="Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino">Nunzio Otello Francesco Gioacchino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukawsaw_Gronniosaw" title="Ukawsaw Gronniosaw">Ukawsaw Gronniosaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macuncuzade_Mustafa_Efendi" title="Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi">Macuncuzade Mustafa Efendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Marteilhe" title="Jean Marteilhe">Jean Marteilhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roustam_Raza" title="Roustam Raza">Roustam Raza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovisa_von_Burghausen" title="Lovisa von Burghausen">Lovisa von Burghausen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">Ottoman Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_of_Hungary" title="George of Hungary">George of Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Mihailovi%C4%87" title="Konstantin Mihailović">Konstantin Mihailović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Schiltberger" title="Johann Schiltberger">Johann Schiltberger</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav_z_Mitrovic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic (page does not exist)">Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Vratislav_z_Mitrovic" class="extiw" title="cs:Václav Vratislav z Mitrovic">cs</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Joseph_Ang%C3%A9lique" title="Marie-Joseph Angélique">Marie-Joseph Angélique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Jewitt" title="John R. Jewitt">John R. Jewitt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Manzano" title="Juan Francisco Manzano">Juan Francisco Manzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esteban_Montejo" title="Esteban Montejo">Esteban Montejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Prince" title="Mary Prince">Mary Prince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcos_Xiorro" title="Marcos Xiorro">Marcos Xiorro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">North America:<br />United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aleckson" title="Sam Aleckson">Sam Aleckson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Anderson" title="Jordan Anderson">Jordan Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Anderson" title="William J. Anderson">William J. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Maurice_Arter" title="Jared Maurice Arter">Jared Maurice Arter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Bayley" title="Solomon Bayley">Solomon Bayley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polly_Berry" title="Polly Berry">Polly Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bibb" title="Henry Bibb">Henry Bibb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Black" title="Leonard Black">Leonard Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown" title="Henry Box Brown">Henry "Box" Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(fugitive_slave)" title="John Brown (fugitive slave)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wells_Brown" title="William Wells Brown">William Wells Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Bruner" title="Peter Bruner">Peter Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_and_William_Craft" title="Ellen and William Craft">Ellen and William Craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Crafts" title="Hannah Crafts">Hannah Crafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Davis" title="Lucinda Davis">Lucinda Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Davis_(Baptist_minister)" title="Noah Davis (Baptist minister)">Noah Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_A._Delaney" title="Lucy A. Delaney">Lucy A. Delaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayuba_Suleiman_Diallo" title="Ayuba Suleiman Diallo">Ayuba Suleiman Diallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Drumgoold" title="Kate Drumgoold">Kate Drumgoold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Winston_Early" title="Jordan Winston Early">Jordan Winston Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Jane_Woodson_Early" title="Sarah Jane Woodson Early">Sarah Jane Woodson Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fossett" title="Peter Fossett">Peter Fossett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_George_(Baptist)" title="David George (Baptist)">David George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Grandy" title="Moses Grandy">Moses Grandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lear_Green" title="Lear Green">Lear Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Green_(former_slave)" title="William Green (former slave)">William Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Grimes_(former_slave)" title="William Grimes (former slave)">William Grimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Henson" title="Josiah Henson">Josiah Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Hughes" title="Fountain Hughes">Fountain Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Jackson" title="John Andrew Jackson">John Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_James_(minister)" title="Thomas James (minister)">Thomas James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jea" title="John Jea">John Jea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Jennings_(abolitionist)" title="Paul Jennings (abolitionist)">Paul Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Keckley" title="Elizabeth Keckley">Elizabeth Keckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_King" title="Boston King">Boston King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunsford_Lane" title="Lunsford Lane">Lunsford Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Vance_Lewis" title="J. Vance Lewis">J. Vance Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jermain_Wesley_Loguen" title="Jermain Wesley Loguen">Jermain Wesley Loguen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mars" title="James Mars">James Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Northup" title="Solomon Northup">Solomon Northup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensbury_Washington_Offley" title="Greensbury Washington Offley">Greensbury Washington Offley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="John Parker (abolitionist)">John Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parker_(abolitionist)" title="William Parker (abolitionist)">William Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robinson_(soldier,_born_1753)" title="James Robinson (soldier, born 1753)">James Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Roper" title="Moses Roper">Moses Roper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_ibn_Said" title="Omar ibn Said">Omar ibn Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Singleton" title="William Henry Singleton">William Henry Singleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lindsay_Smith" title="James Lindsay Smith">James Lindsay Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_Smith" title="Venture Smith">Venture Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_Steward" title="Austin Steward">Austin Steward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Toussaint" title="Pierre Toussaint">Pierre Toussaint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Turnage" title="Wallace Turnage">Wallace Turnage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethany_Veney" title="Bethany Veney">Bethany Veney</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Willis" title="Wallace Willis">Wallace Willis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_E._Wilson" title="Harriet E. Wilson">Harriet E. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamba_Zembola" title="Zamba Zembola">Zamba Zembola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahommah_Gardo_Baquaqua" title="Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua">Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Bur%C3%ADa" title="Miguel de Buría">Miguel de Buría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osifekunde" title="Osifekunde">Osifekunde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Interesting_Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Olaudah_Equiano" title="The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano">The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano</a></i> (1789)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Narrative_of_Robert_Adams" title="The Narrative of Robert Adams">The Narrative of Robert Adams</a></i> (1816)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Slavery_as_It_Is" title="American Slavery as It Is">American Slavery as It Is</a></i> (1839)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a></i> (1845)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Josiah_Henson,_Formerly_a_Slave,_Now_an_Inhabitant_of_Canada,_as_Narrated_by_Himself" title="The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself">The Life of Josiah Henson</a></i> (1849)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Years_a_Slave" title="Twelve Years a Slave">Twelve Years a Slave</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/My_Bondage_and_My_Freedom" title="My Bondage and My Freedom">My Bondage and My Freedom</a></i> (1855)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incidents_in_the_Life_of_a_Slave_Girl" title="Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl">Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl</a></i> (1861)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(Still)" title="The Underground Railroad (Still)">The Underground Railroad Records</a></i> (1872)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_and_Times_of_Frederick_Douglass" title="Life and Times of Frederick Douglass">Life and Times of Frederick Douglass</a></i> (1881)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Up_from_Slavery" title="Up from Slavery">Up from Slavery</a></i> (1901)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Narrative_Collection" title="Slave Narrative Collection">Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States</a></i> (1936–38)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Peculiar_Institution" title="The Peculiar Institution">The Peculiar Institution</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Community" title="The Slave Community">The Slave Community</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barracoon:_The_Story_of_the_Last_%22Black_Cargo%22" title="Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"">Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo"</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Novels_about_slavery" title="Category:Novels about slavery">Fiction/novels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a></i> (1688)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sab_(novel)" title="Sab (novel)">Sab</a></i> (1841)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Heroic_Slave" title="The Heroic Slave">The Heroic Slave</a></i> (1852)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clotel" title="Clotel">Clotel</a></i> (1853)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bondwoman%27s_Narrative" title="The Bondwoman's Narrative">The Bondwoman's Narrative</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1853</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1861</span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred:_A_Tale_of_the_Great_Dismal_Swamp" title="Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp">Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp</a></i> (1856)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Nig" title="Our Nig">Our Nig</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jubilee_(novel)" title="Jubilee (novel)">Jubilee</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Confessions_of_Nat_Turner" title="The Confessions of Nat Turner">The Confessions of Nat Turner</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roots:_The_Saga_of_an_American_Family" title="Roots: The Saga of an American Family">Roots: The Saga of an American Family</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Underground_to_Canada" title="Underground to Canada">Underground to Canada</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kindred_(novel)" title="Kindred (novel)">Kindred</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dessa_Rose" title="Dessa Rose">Dessa Rose</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beloved_(novel)" title="Beloved (novel)">Beloved</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage_(novel)" title="Middle Passage (novel)">Middle Passage</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen:_The_Story_of_an_American_Family" title="Queen: The Story of an American Family">Queen: The Story of an American Family</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hang_a_Thousand_Trees_with_Ribbons" title="Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons">Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ama:_A_Story_of_the_Atlantic_Slave_Trade" title="Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade">Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walk_Through_Darkness" title="Walk Through Darkness">Walk Through Darkness</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Known_World" title="The Known World">The Known World</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unburnable" title="Unburnable">Unburnable</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Negroes_(novel)" title="The Book of Negroes (novel)">The Book of Negroes</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Railroad_(novel)" title="The Underground Railroad (novel)">The Underground Railroad</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Young adult books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amos_Fortune,_Free_Man" title="Amos Fortune, Free Man">Amos Fortune, Free Man</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/I,_Juan_de_Pareja" title="I, Juan de Pareja">I, Juan de Pareja</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copper_Sun" title="Copper Sun">Copper Sun</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Essays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/To_a_Southern_Slaveholder" title="To a Southern Slaveholder">To a Southern Slaveholder</a>" (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Key_to_Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin">A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> (1853)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Escape;_or,_A_Leap_for_Freedom" title="The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom">The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Octoroon" title="The Octoroon">The Octoroon</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omar_(opera)" title="Omar (opera)">Omar</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unchained_Memories" title="Unchained Memories">Unchained Memories</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass_and_the_White_Negro" title="Frederick Douglass and the White Negro">Frederick Douglass and the White Negro</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">African-American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tom_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Tom novels">Anti-Tom novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captivity_narrative" title="Captivity narrative">Captivity narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">Films featuring slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_American_enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="List of last surviving American enslaved people">List of last surviving American enslaved people</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a></i> (1783)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Plantation_Record_and_Account_Book" title="Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book">Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book</a></i> (1847)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave-Trading_in_the_Old_South" title="Slave-Trading in the Old South">Slave-Trading in the Old South</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Johnson_(Mount_Vernon)" title="Sarah Johnson (Mount Vernon)">Sarah Johnson's Mount Vernon</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amazing_Grace:_An_Anthology_of_Poems_about_Slavery" title="Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery">Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hemingses_of_Monticello" title="The Hemingses of Monticello">The Hemingses of Monticello</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees46" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template talk:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees46" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Hall of Fame for Great Americans">Hall of Fame for Great Americans</a> inductees</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clara Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher" title="Henry Ward Beecher">Henry Ward Beecher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boone" title="Daniel Boone">Daniel Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Booth" title="Edwin Booth">Edwin Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_Brooks" title="Phillips Brooks">Phillips Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">William Cullen Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Burbank" title="Luther Burbank">Luther Burbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_Choate" title="Rufus Choate">Rufus Choate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cooper" title="Peter Cooper">Peter Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Cushman" title="Charlotte Cushman">Charlotte Cushman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan_Eads" title="James Buchanan Eads">James Buchanan Eads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Alva Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian)">Jonathan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">David Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Foster" title="Stephen Foster">Stephen Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah W. Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Gorgas" title="William C. Gorgas">William C. Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_(educator)" title="Mark Hopkins (educator)">Mark Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Howe" title="Elias Howe">Elias Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Thomas J. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones" title="John Paul Jones">John Paul Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lanier" title="Sidney Lanier">Sidney Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">James Russell Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lyon" title="Mary Lyon">Mary Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">Edward MacDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel F. B. Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_T._G._Morton" title="William T. G. Morton">William T. G. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Freeman_Palmer" title="Alice Freeman Palmer">Alice Freeman Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman" title="Francis Parkman">Francis Parkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Saint-Gaudens" title="Augustus Saint-Gaudens">Augustus Saint-Gaudens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">John Philip Sousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart" title="Gilbert Stuart">Gilbert Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvanus_Thayer" title="Sylvanus Thayer">Sylvanus Thayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Wald" title="Lillian Wald">Lillian Wald</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster" title="Daniel Webster">Daniel Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McNeill_Whistler" title="James McNeill Whistler">James McNeill Whistler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Greenleaf_Whittier" title="John Greenleaf Whittier">John Greenleaf Whittier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Willard" title="Emma Willard">Emma Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Willard" title="Frances Willard">Frances Willard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Orville Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wilbur Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans629" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw Freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_Nebraska" title="African-American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_(state)" title="African Americans in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> 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title="Timeline of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000114628411">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100210618">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/37174/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjCTPXqP7jRcgTf4RHKVC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11862931X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79063604">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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