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Types of electrochemical cells subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_electrochemical_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galvanic_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galvanic_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Galvanic cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galvanic_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Half_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Half_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Half cells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Half_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equilibrium_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equilibrium_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Equilibrium reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equilibrium_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell_potential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_potential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Cell potential</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_potential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolytic_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolytic_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Electrolytic cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolytic_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Primary cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Secondary cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fuel_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuel_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Fuel cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuel_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrochemiese_sel" title="Elektrochemiese sel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektrochemiese sel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="خلية كهركيميائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خلية كهركيميائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cel%C2%B7la_electroqu%C3%ADmica" title="Cel·la electroquímica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cel·la electroquímica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrochemische_Zelle" title="Elektrochemische Zelle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrochemische Zelle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keemiline_vooluallikas" title="Keemiline vooluallikas – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keemiline vooluallikas" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF" title="Ηλεκτροχημικό στοιχείο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτροχημικό στοιχείο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celda_electroqu%C3%ADmica" title="Celda electroquímica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Celda electroquímica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrokemia_%C4%89elo" title="Elektrokemia ĉelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektrokemia ĉelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پیل برق‌شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیل برق‌شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellule_%C3%A9lectrochimique" title="Cellule électrochimique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cellule électrochimique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99_%EC%A0%84%EC%A7%80" title="화학 전지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학 전지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%AB_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A2%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հոսանքի քիմիական աղբյուրներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոսանքի քիմիական աղբյուրներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4-%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="वैद्युत-रासायनिक सेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैद्युत-रासायनिक सेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_elektrokimia" title="Sel elektrokimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sel elektrokimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cella_elettrochimica" title="Cella elettrochimica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cella elettrochimica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99" title="תא אלקטרוכימי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תא אלקטרוכימי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selil_elektwochimik" title="Selil elektwochimik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Selil elektwochimik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%9C%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Електрохемиска ќелија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електрохемиска ќелија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD" title="വൈദ്യുതരാസ സെൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യുതരാസ സെൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_elektrokimia" title="Sel elektrokimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sel elektrokimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_eiletroqu%C3%ADmica" title="Célula eiletroquímica – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Célula eiletroquímica" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrokjemisk_celle" title="Elektrokjemisk celle – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrokjemisk celle" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9lula_electroqu%C3%ADmica" title="Célula electroquímica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Célula electroquímica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celul%C4%83_electrochimic%C4%83" title="Celulă electrochimică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Celulă electrochimică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%82" title="විද්‍යුත් කෝෂ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විද්‍යුත් කෝෂ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_cell" title="Electrical cell – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electrical cell" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrokemisk_cell" title="Elektrokemisk cell – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektrokemisk cell" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்வேதிக் கலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்வேதிக் கலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5" title="เซลล์ไฟฟ้าเคมี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เซลล์ไฟฟ้าเคมี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Електрохімічний елемент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електрохімічний елемент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%8C%96%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="電化電池 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="電化電池" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q80097#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electro-chemical device</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectrochemCell.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/220px-ElectrochemCell.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/330px-ElectrochemCell.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ElectrochemCell.png/440px-ElectrochemCell.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A demonstration electrochemical cell setup resembling the <a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell cell</a>. The two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge carrying ions between them. Electrons flow in the external circuit.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>electrochemical cell</b> is a device that generates <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>. Electrical energy can also be applied to these cells to cause chemical reactions to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrochemical cells that generate an electric current are called voltaic or <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">galvanic cells</a> and those that generate chemical reactions, via <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> for example, are called <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolytic cells">electrolytic cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both galvanic and electrolytic cells can be thought of as having two <a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">half-cells</a>: consisting of separate <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation and reduction reactions</a>. </p><p>When one or more electrochemical cells are connected in parallel or series they make a <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a>. Primary cells are single use batteries. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_electrochemical_cells">Types of electrochemical cells</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of electrochemical cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galvanic_cell">Galvanic cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Galvanic cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></div> <p>A galvanic cell (voltaic cell), named after <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>), is an electrochemical cell that generates electrical energy from spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/220px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/330px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg/440px-Galvanic_cell_with_no_cation_flow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Galvanic cell with no cation flow</figcaption></figure> <p>A wire connects two different <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>). Each metal is in a separate solution; often the <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulphate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> forms of the metal, however more generally metal salts and water which conduct <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a> or porous membrane connects the two solutions, keeping electric neutrality and the avoidance of charge accumulation. The metal's differences in oxidation/reduction potential drive the reaction until <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Key features: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_process" title="Spontaneous process">spontaneous reaction</a></li> <li>generates electric current</li> <li>current flows through a wire, and <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> flow through a salt bridge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> (negative), <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> (positive)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Half_cells">Half cells</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Half cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Galvanic cells consists of two half-cells. Each half-cell consists of an <a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">electrode</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> (both half-cells may use the same or different electrolytes). </p><p>The chemical reactions in the cell involve the electrolyte, electrodes, and/or an external substance (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a> may use <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen gas</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Reagent" title="Reagent">reactant</a>). In a full electrochemical cell, species from one half-cell lose electrons (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a>) to their electrode while species from the other half-cell gain electrons (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a>) from their electrode. </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">salt bridge</a></i> (e.g., filter paper soaked in KNO<sub>3,</sub> NaCl, or some other electrolyte) is used to ionically connect two half-cells with different electrolytes, but it prevents the solutions from mixing and unwanted side reactions. An alternative to a salt bridge is to allow direct contact (and mixing) between the two half-cells, for example in simple <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water" title="Electrolysis of water">electrolysis of water</a>. </p><p>As electrons flow from one half-cell to the other through an external <a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">circuit</a>, a difference in charge is established. If no ionic contact were provided, this charge difference would quickly prevent the further flow of electrons. A salt bridge allows the flow of negative or positive ions to maintain a steady-state charge distribution between the oxidation and reduction vessels, while keeping the contents otherwise separate. Other devices for achieving separation of solutions are porous pots and gelled solutions. A porous pot is used in the <a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen cell</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Equilibrium_reaction">Equilibrium reaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Equilibrium reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Each half-cell has a characteristic voltage (depending on the metal and its characteristic reduction potential). Each reaction is undergoing an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> reaction between different <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation states">oxidation states</a> of the ions: when equilibrium is reached, the cell cannot provide further <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>. In the half-cell performing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will provide.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, in the reduction reaction, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more <i>negative</i> oxidation state the higher the potential. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cell_potential">Cell potential</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cell potential"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cell potential can be predicted through the use of <a href="/wiki/Electrode_potential" title="Electrode potential">electrode potentials</a> (the voltages of each half-cell). These half-cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Standard_hydrogen_electrode" title="Standard hydrogen electrode">standard hydrogen electrode</a> (SHE). (See <a href="/wiki/Table_of_standard_electrode_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of standard electrode potentials">table of standard electrode potentials</a>). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured. When calculating the difference in voltage, one must first rewrite the half-cell reaction equations to obtain a balanced oxidation-reduction equation. </p> <ol><li>Reverse the reduction reaction with the smallest potential (to create an oxidation reaction/overall positive cell potential)</li> <li>Half-reactions must be multiplied by integers to achieve electron balance.</li></ol> <p>Cell potentials have a possible range of roughly zero to 6 volts. Cells using water-based electrolytes are usually limited to cell potentials less than about 2.5 volts due to high reactivity of the powerful oxidizing and reducing agents with water which is needed to produce a higher voltage. Higher cell potentials are possible with cells using other <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a> instead of water. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">lithium cells</a> with a voltage of 3 volts are commonly available. </p><p>The cell potential depends on the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> of the reactants, as well as their type. As the cell is discharged, the concentration of the reactants decreases and the cell potential also decreases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolytic_cell">Electrolytic cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Electrolytic cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_cell" title="Electrolytic cell">Electrolytic cell</a></div> <p>An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell in which applied electrical energy drives a non-spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg/220px-Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg/330px-Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg/440px-Electrolytic_Cell_Diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1767" data-file-height="1381" /></a><figcaption>A modern electrolytic cell consisting of two half reactions, two electrodes, a salt bridge, voltmeter, and a battery.</figcaption></figure> <p>They are often used to decompose chemical compounds, in a process called <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>. (The Greek word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:λύσις">lysis</a>" (λύσις) means "loosing" or "setting free".) </p><p>Important examples of electrolysis are the decomposition of water into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a> into <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and other chemicals. <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">Electroplating</a> (e.g. of Copper, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a>) is done using an electrolytic cell. Electrolysis is a technique that uses a <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct electric current</a> (DC). </p><p>The components of an electrolytic cell are: </p> <ul><li>an electrolyte: usually a solution of water or other solvents in which ions are dissolved. Molten salts such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> are also electrolytes.</li> <li>two electrodes (a cathode and an anode) which are <a href="/wiki/Electrical_connector" title="Electrical connector">electrical terminals</a> consisting of a suitable substance at which oxidation or reduction can take place, and maintained at two different <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potentials</a>.</li></ul> <p>When driven by an external <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> (potential difference) applied to the electrodes, the ions in the electrolyte are attracted to the electrode with the opposite potential, where charge-transferring (also called <a href="/wiki/Faradaic_current" title="Faradaic current">faradaic</a> or redox) reactions can take place. Only with a sufficient external voltage can an electrolytic cell decompose a normally stable, or <a href="/wiki/Chemically_inert" title="Chemically inert">inert</a> chemical compound in the solution. Thus the electrical energy provided produces a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously otherwise. </p><p>Key features: </p> <ul><li>non-spontaneous reaction</li> <li>generates current</li> <li>current flows through a wire, and ions flow through salt bridge</li> <li>anode (positive), cathode (negative)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_cell">Primary cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Primary cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batteries_comparison_4,5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg/220px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg/330px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg/440px-Batteries_comparison_4%2C5_D_C_AA_AAA_AAAA_A23_9V_CR2032_LR44_matchstick-1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4212" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>A variety of standard sizes of primary cells. From left: 4.5V multicell battery, D, C, AA, AAA, AAAA, A23, 9V multicell battery, LR44 <i>(top)</i>, CR2032 <i>(bottom)</i>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">Primary cell</a></div> <p>A primary cell produces current by irreversible chemical reactions (ex. small disposable batteries) and is not rechargeable. </p><p>They are used for their portability, low cost, and short lifetime. </p><p>Primary cells are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances such as <a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">flashlights</a> and portable radios. </p><p>As chemical reactions proceed in a primary cell, the battery uses up the chemicals that generate the power; when they are gone, the battery stops producing electricity. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_(battery).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg/220px-Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg/330px-Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg/440px-Diagram_of_a_primary_cell_%28battery%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1645" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>Circuit diagram of a primary cell showing difference in cell potential, and flow of electrons through a resistor.</figcaption></figure> <p>Primary batteries make up about 90% of the $50 billion battery market, but secondary batteries have been gaining market share. About 15 billion primary batteries are thrown away worldwide every year,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> virtually all ending up in landfills. Due to the toxic <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (chemistry)">heavy metals</a> and strong acids or alkalis they contain, batteries are <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>. Most municipalities classify them as such and require separate disposal. The energy needed to manufacture a battery is about 50 times greater than the energy it contains.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Watts2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wastebusters2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wastebusters2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Danaher2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Danaher2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their high pollutant content compared to their small energy content, the primary battery is considered a wasteful, environmentally unfriendly technology. Mainly due to the increasing sales of <a href="/wiki/Wireless_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless device">wireless devices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cordless" title="Cordless">cordless tools</a>, which cannot be economically powered by primary batteries and come with integral rechargeable batteries, the secondary battery industry has high growth and has slowly been replacing the primary battery in high end products. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_cell">Secondary cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Secondary cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo-CarBattery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Photo-CarBattery.jpg/220px-Photo-CarBattery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Photo-CarBattery.jpg/330px-Photo-CarBattery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Photo-CarBattery.jpg/440px-Photo-CarBattery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1585" data-file-height="1515" /></a><figcaption>Lead acid car battery (secondary cell)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg/220px-Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg/330px-Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg/440px-Secondary_Cell_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="203" /></a><figcaption>Circuit diagram of a secondary cell showing difference in cell potential, and flow of electrons through a resistor.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Rechargeable battery</a></div> <p>A secondary cell produces current by reversible chemical reactions (ex. <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead-acid battery</a> car battery) and is <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">rechargeable</a>. </p><p>Lead-acid batteries are used in an automobile to start an engine and to operate the car's electrical accessories when the engine is not running. The alternator, once the car is running, recharges the battery. </p><p>It can perform as a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell. It is a convenient way to store electricity: when current flows one way, the levels of one or more chemicals build up (charging); while it is discharging, they reduce and the resulting electromotive force can do work. </p><p>They are used for their high voltage, low costs, reliability, and long lifetime. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuel_cell">Fuel cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Fuel cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg/220px-Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg/330px-Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg/440px-Solid_oxide_fuel_cell_protonic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cell</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></div><p>A <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cell</a> is an electrochemical cell that reacts hydrogen fuel with oxygen or another oxidizing agent, to convert chemical energy to <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. </p><p>Fuel cells are different from <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a> in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from chemicals already present in the battery. </p><p>Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> are supplied. </p><p>They are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">fuel cell vehicles</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Forklift" title="Forklift">forklifts</a>, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines. </p><p>Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time, which ranges from 1 second for <a href="/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane_fuel_cell" title="Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell">proton-exchange membrane fuel cells</a> (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for <a href="/wiki/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell" title="Solid oxide fuel cell">solid oxide fuel cells</a> (SOFC). </p><p>There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of: </p> <dl><dt>anode</dt> <dd>At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> electricity.</dd> <dt>cathode</dt> <dd>At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water.</dd> <dt>electrolyte</dt> <dd>Allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the two sides of the fuel cell.</dd></dl> <p>A related technology are <a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">flow batteries</a>, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> and other emissions. The <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a> scheme, efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained. </p><p>In 2022, the global fuel cell market was estimated to be $6.3 billion, and is expected to increase by 19.9% by 2030.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many countries are attempting to enter the market by setting renewable energy <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">GW</a> goals.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">Activity (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_notation" title="Cell notation">Cell notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_potential" title="Electrochemical potential">Electrochemical potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">Battery (electricity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Rechargeable battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_flow_cell" title="Scanning flow cell">Scanning flow cell</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:23-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWenzel2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wenzel, Thomas J. (July 30, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-013-7242-1">"Douglas A. Skoog, Donald M. West, F. James Holler, and Stanley R. 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galvanic_cells" title="Template talk:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic_cells" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galvanic cells"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electrochemical_cells" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electrochemical cells</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galvanic_cell" title="Galvanic cell">Galvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_cell" title="Concentration cell">Concentration cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Electric battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/150px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/225px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/300px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_battery" title="Primary battery">Primary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(non-rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_battery" title="Alkaline battery">Alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Aluminium–air battery">Aluminium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunsen_cell" title="Bunsen cell">Bunsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromic_acid_cell" title="Chromic acid cell">Chromic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_cell" title="Clark cell">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniell_cell" title="Daniell cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a><br /><span class="nobold">(rechargeable)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&oldid=1257676762">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrochemical_cell&oldid=1257676762</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" 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