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url(https://images.theconversation.com/files/182184/original/file-20170816-28398-4lctwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&rect=0%2C67%2C2364%2C1146&q=45&auto=format&w=1356&h=668&fit=crop);"> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:61.5625%;--background-color:#4d4f2f"><img class="lazyloaded" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/182184/original/file-20170816-28398-4lctwx.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=20&auto=format&w=320&fit=clip&dpr=2&usm=12&cs=strip" data-id="182184" itemprop="image"></div> </div> <div class="wrapper"> <figcaption> Forensic techniques are getting more sophisticated. <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://one.aap.com.au/#/search/crime%20scene%20forensics?q=%7B%22pageSize%22:25,%22pageNumber%22:9%7D">AAP Image/Julian Smith</a></span> </figcaption> </div> <div class="magazine-title"> <div class="wrapper"> <header class="content-header-container grid-twelve large-grid-eleven"> <div> <div class="content-header-block"> <h1 class="legacy entry-title instapaper_title" itemprop="headline"> <strong> From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample </strong> </h1> </div> </div> <div class="timestamps"> <time datetime="2017-08-28T20:08:30Z" itemprop="datePublished" content="2017-08-28T20:08:30Z">Published: August 28, 2017 9.08pm BST</time> </div> </header> </div> </div> </figure> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="content-sidebar grid-four large-grid-four grid-last"> <section class="content-authors"> <div class="content-authors-synopsis"> <a href="#" class="content-authors-toggle"> <i class="icon-caret-down"></i> <i class="icon-caret-up"></i> <span class="nobr">Caitlin Curtis</span>, <span class="nobr">James Hereward</span>, <em class="institution_name">The University of Queensland</em> </a> </div> <div class="content-authors-group"> <h3 class="border">Authors</h3> <ol> <li class="vcard" id="author-183260" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/caitlin-curtis-124369"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/124369/width170/image-20200626-33519-1d7xcve.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> Caitlin Curtis </span> </a> <p class="role"> Honorary Research Fellow, The University of Queensland </p> </li> <li class="vcard" id="author-183264" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/james-hereward-389880"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/389880/width170/image-20170812-14040-1758eux.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> James Hereward </span> </a> <p class="role"> PostDoc Ecological and Evolutionary Genetics, The University of Queensland </p> </li> </ol> </div> </section> <section class="content-disclosure-statement"> <h3 class="border">Disclosure statement</h3> <p><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></p> </section> <section class="content-partners"> <h3 class="border">Partners</h3> <p class="disclosure-logo clearfix"><a class="logo" href="/institutions/the-university-of-queensland-805"><picture><source srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/institutions/805/logos/logo-1553139563.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=170&h=170" media="(min-width:600px)"></source><img alt="University of Queensland" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs%3D" /></picture></a></p> <p class="funding-statement"><a 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itemprop="articleBody"> <p>The O.J. Simpson murder trial in 1995 introduced DNA forensics to the public. The case collapsed, partly because the defence lawyers cast doubt on the validity of the evidence thanks to the inappropriate way the samples <a href="http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0618-morrison-scheck-oj-simpson-20140618-column.html">were handled</a>. </p> <p>Things have changed since then. There are now safeguards in place to ensure the integrity of the chain of evidence. Laboratory protocols and procedures have also advanced. </p> <p>By following a piece of evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom, we’ll explain just how DNA is studied in the lab and used in the modern legal system.</p> <hr> <p> <em> <strong> Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-forensic-science-2817">Explainer: Forensic science</a> </strong> </em> </p><div class="slot clear" data-id="17"> <div class="inline-promos-skeleton"> <h5></h5> <button></button> </div> </div> <hr> <h2>From the crime scene</h2> <p>The DNA sample’s journey begins at the crime scene.</p> <p>There are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4637504/#B63">several principles</a> that guide DNA evidence collection by the <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-16/crime-scene-investigation-specialists-reveal-gritty-side-of-jobs/6681316">crime scene examiner</a>. In particular, the avoidance of contamination or DNA degradation, and ensuring the chain of custody. </p> <p>The risk of contamination (from the collector or other evidence samples) is reduced by using sterile, disposable supplies. Degradation is minimised by drying samples before bagging. </p> <p>Storing dried samples in <a href="https://www.mcscs.jus.gov.on.ca/english/centre_forensic/InformationforInvestigatorsSubmitters/HandbookofForensicEvidencefortheInvestigator/CFS_handbook.html">paper bags</a> rather than plastic, and maintaining samples at the proper temperature helps preserve the DNA and prevent microbial contamination. </p> <p>It is also important to plan what to collect and how – sufficient material may be required for independent testing by the defence. </p> <figure class="align-center "> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:53.315649867374006%;--background-color:#5966a5"><img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183541/original/file-20170828-27540-5oq4kn.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div> <figcaption> <span class="caption">Police must ensure samples are not contaminated.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">James Hereward and Caitlin Curtis</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>To the lab</h2> <p>When any sample arrives in a lab, the first step is to extract the DNA. </p> <p>The blood samples analysed in the O.J. Simpson trial were typical of the time when large amounts of DNA were required to conduct testing. Today, small amounts of DNA, known as trace DNA, can be analysed from items such as cigarette butts, hair follicles, saliva, semen, and even <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-40855915">faeces</a>.</p> <p>This is possible because of the invention of a method in the 1980s called the polymerase chain reaction or “<a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-sequencing-pcr-electrophoresis/a/polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr">PCR</a>”, which allows an individual strand of DNA to be replicated many times. This creates thousands of copies until there is enough DNA to conduct tests.</p> <h2>Analysis begins</h2> <p>The mainstay of modern DNA identification is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3561883/">short tandem repeat</a> (STR) markers, which are small sections of DNA that vary by length (the number of repeats). </p> <p>Multiple STR markers are used to create a DNA profile. They are tested using commercial kits that often incorporate a sex determination test (the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01371335?LI=true">amelogenin</a> gene). </p> <p><strong>Mitochondrial DNA</strong></p> <p>Another method uses mitochondrial DNA.</p> <p>Mitochondrial DNA tends to last longer than other types of DNA and is often relied on in cold cases. The sequence of mitochondrial DNA “letters” is passed down from mother to child (with the exception of rare mutations), so mothers and grandmothers share the same DNA sequence as their children (but fathers do not). </p> <p>This makes mitochondrial DNA useful in identifying missing persons - the bones of Daniel Morcombe <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/12/daniel-morcombe-case-mothers-dna-matched-100-with-bone-sample">were identified this way</a>. </p> <hr> <p><em><strong>Read more</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/ned-kelly-remains-are-positively-identified-but-how-was-it-done-3174">Ned Kelly remains are positively identified … but how was it done?</a></em> </p> <hr> <p><strong>The Y chromosome</strong></p> <p>The Y chromosome is present only in males and is passed from father to son. This makes Y chromosome STR markers a useful tool in situations such as <a href="http://www.kgw.com/news/crime/how-are-rape-kits-processed/449988969">sexual assault cases</a> where male and female DNA samples might be mixed and the male suspect’s identity needs to be established.</p> <p>In the same way as mitochondrial markers, Y-markers can be used for identification through family matching. The process of <a href="http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-familial-dna-20161023-snap-story.html">familial matching</a> in criminal investigations raises <a href="http://criminal.findlaw.com/criminal-rights/familial-dna-searches.html">privacy concerns</a> but is increasingly commonplace. </p> <p>In one recent incident, it was suggested that the surname of a suspect was identified from records of male <a href="http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix/2016/11/30/how-forensic-genealogy-led-arrest-phoenix-canal-killer-case-bryan-patrick-miller-dna/94565410/">family members</a> in public genetic ancestry databases. </p> <figure class="align-center "> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:66.44562334217507%;--background-color:#50302f"><img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183556/original/file-20170828-27807-fdmar0.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div> <figcaption> <span class="caption">Tests often look for Y chromosome STR markers to establish identity.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Michigan School of Natural Resources & Environment</span></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>DNA databases and sample matching</h2> <p>Australian law enforcement uses the National Criminal Investigation DNA Database (<a href="https://www.acic.gov.au/our-services/biometric-matching/national-criminal-investigation-dna-database">NCIDD</a>), which is managed by the Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission.</p> <p>The more records added to the database, the greater the odds of making an accidental match. This is because the number of potential matches increases.</p> <p>To reduce the risk of false “hits”, genetic profiles can be made more complex. Increasing the number of STRs in each profile reduces the risk of a spurious match because the probability of a match (at 20 markers, for example) is estimated by multiplying the probabilities of each STR marker. </p> <p>The Australian system originally used nine STR’s and a sex-determination gene. In 2013 this was increased to <a href="https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjpjLfGjuLVAhUHnpQKHZ5MAuUQFghIMAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anzpaa.org.au%2FArticleDocuments%2F218%2FDNA%2520Profiling%2520Success%2520Rates%2520ISFG%25202013.pdf.aspx&usg=AFQjCNGQpqd6ZYZrMyKkhZS4KYWsLsmvZA">18 core markers</a>.</p> <p>Internationally, there are moves towards a standard set of 24 markers (such as <a href="https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/4476135">GlobalFiler</a>). With this many markers, the odds of two people having the same profile (twins excepted) are incredibly small. This makes an STR profile a powerful way to exclude suspects as well as making matches. </p> <h2>In the courtroom</h2> <p>Modern DNA forensic methods are powerful and sensitive, but great care must be taken to prevent miscarriages of justice. </p> <p>It is difficult for people to comprehend probabilities like one in a quadrillion, and the presentation of such numbers in court can become prejudicial.</p> <p>In the case of <em><a href="http://eresources.hcourt.gov.au/showCase/2012/HCA/15">Aytugrul v the Queen</a></em>, DNA evidence was presented as an exclusion percentage of 99.9, and the defence argued that this would indicate certainty of guilt to the jury. </p> <p>Although the High Court of Australia ultimately allowed the DNA evidence presentation in <em>Aytugrul v the Queen</em>, survey data suggest that the statistical presentation of genetic evidence may affect how it is understood and <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00450618.2014.992472">used by a jury</a>.</p> <p>Such issues have lead to <a href="https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-issues-draft-guidance-regarding-expert-testimony-and-lab-reports-forensic">guidelines</a> by the US Department of Justice, among other justice groups, for the language used in forensic testimony and reports.</p> <p>There’s also a risk that contamination might implicate an innocent person. For that reason, DNA evidence is best used in support of other types of evidence. </p> <p>In the case of <em><a href="http://guides.sl.nsw.gov.au/c.php?g=671792&p=4729488">R v Jama</a></em>, DNA evidence was the sole basis of the rape case. Only after <a href="http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/tandi_pdf/tandi506.pdf">16 months’</a> imprisonment was it revealed that the sample taken by the doctor was probably contaminated.</p> <figure class="align-center "> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:83.28912466843501%;--background-color:#08120e"><img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183562/original/file-20170828-27547-1kkhxr7.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div> <figcaption> <span class="caption">DNA can now be turned into digital data by massively parallel sequencing machines.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>Forensics in the future</h2> <p>DNA forensics will continue to evolve.</p> <p>Take a genetic test that can predict <a href="http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(12)00181-0/abstract">eye and hair colour</a>: this test examines (or “genotypes”) 24 single letter DNA variants. These are analysed with a statistical model that provides probabilities for hair and eye colour based on a large database that links DNA variants to appearance.</p> <p>Understanding how DNA is linked to <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22129613-600-genetic-mugshot-recreates-faces-from-nothing-but-dna/">facial features</a> has even led to the creation of DNA-based <a href="https://snapshot.parabon-nanolabs.com/">mugshots</a>. </p> <p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3238019/">“Massively parallel” sequencing</a> machines are also a significant advance. These can turn the approximately 3.2 billion DNA “letters” of the human genome into digital information in a matter of hours. </p> <p>This opens up all of the information contained in our genetic code to law enforcement. For example, some researchers claim it’s possible to <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-dna-suspects-age-idUSKCN0V31BQ">predict the age of a suspect from a blood sample</a> within a mean error margin of 3.8 years, based on methylation markers in the DNA, and this may be improved with the assistance of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1872497317300388">machine learning</a>. </p> <p>The more we understand the link between appearance and DNA, the better its predictive power will be. It’s tempting to speculate how the O.J. Simpson trial may have turned out with modern forensic DNA protocols and technology.</p> </div> <div class="grid-ten grid-prepend-two large-grid-nine grid-last content-topics topic-list"> <i class="icon-tag"></i> <ul> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/law-78">Law</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/dna-251">DNA</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/crime-277">Crime</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/policing-278">Policing</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/mitochondrial-dna-2245">Mitochondrial DNA</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/forensics-12745">Forensics</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/y-chromosome-12892">Y chromosome</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/polymerase-chain-reaction-22071">Polymerase chain reaction</a> </li> <li class="topic-list-item"> <a href="/topics/oj-simpson-26090">OJ Simpson</a> </li> <li 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Wait for the callback or Promise to resolve before accessing it!!!")),g.forEach((s=>{if(this.isValidLookup(t))return;o=s;const i=[c];if(this.i18nFormat?.addLookupKeys)this.i18nFormat.addLookupKeys(i,c,s,e,a);else{let e;h&&(e=this.pluralResolver.getSuffix(s,a.count,a));const t=`${this.options.pluralSeparator}zero`,n=`${this.options.pluralSeparator}ordinal${this.options.pluralSeparator}`;if(h&&(i.push(c+e),a.ordinal&&0===e.indexOf(n)&&i.push(c+e.replace(n,this.options.pluralSeparator)),p&&i.push(c+t)),d){const s=`${c}${this.options.contextSeparator}${a.context}`;i.push(s),h&&(i.push(s+e),a.ordinal&&0===e.indexOf(n)&&i.push(s+e.replace(n,this.options.pluralSeparator)),p&&i.push(s+t))}}let r;for(;r=i.pop();)this.isValidLookup(t)||(n=r,t=this.getResource(s,e,r,a))})))}))})),{res:t,usedKey:s,exactUsedKey:n,usedLng:o,usedNS:r}}isValidLookup(e){return!(void 0===e||!this.options.returnNull&&null===e||!this.options.returnEmptyString&&""===e)}getResource(e,t,s){let i=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};return this.i18nFormat?.getResource?this.i18nFormat.getResource(e,t,s,i):this.resourceStore.getResource(e,t,s,i)}getUsedParamsDetails(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};const t=["defaultValue","ordinal","context","replace","lng","lngs","fallbackLng","ns","keySeparator","nsSeparator","returnObjects","returnDetails","joinArrays","postProcess","interpolation"],s=e.replace&&!i(e.replace);let n=s?e.replace:e;if(s&&void 0!==e.count&&(n.count=e.count),this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables&&(n={...this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables,...n}),!s){n={...n};for(const e of t)delete n[e]}return n}static hasDefaultValue(e){const t="defaultValue";for(const s in e)if(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,s)&&t===s.substring(0,12)&&void 0!==e[s])return!0;return!1}}class j{constructor(e){this.options=e,this.supportedLngs=this.options.supportedLngs||!1,this.logger=S.create("languageUtils")}getScriptPartFromCode(e){if(!(e=b(e))||e.indexOf("-")<0)return null;const t=e.split("-");return 2===t.length?null:(t.pop(),"x"===t[t.length-1].toLowerCase()?null:this.formatLanguageCode(t.join("-")))}getLanguagePartFromCode(e){if(!(e=b(e))||e.indexOf("-")<0)return e;const t=e.split("-");return this.formatLanguageCode(t[0])}formatLanguageCode(e){if(i(e)&&e.indexOf("-")>-1){let t=Intl.getCanonicalLocales(e)[0];return t&&this.options.lowerCaseLng&&(t=t.toLowerCase()),t||(this.options.lowerCaseLng?e.toLowerCase():e)}return this.options.cleanCode||this.options.lowerCaseLng?e.toLowerCase():e}isSupportedCode(e){return("languageOnly"===this.options.load||this.options.nonExplicitSupportedLngs)&&(e=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e)),!this.supportedLngs||!this.supportedLngs.length||this.supportedLngs.indexOf(e)>-1}getBestMatchFromCodes(e){if(!e)return null;let t;return e.forEach((e=>{if(t)return;const s=this.formatLanguageCode(e);this.options.supportedLngs&&!this.isSupportedCode(s)||(t=s)})),!t&&this.options.supportedLngs&&e.forEach((e=>{if(t)return;const s=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e);if(this.isSupportedCode(s))return t=s;t=this.options.supportedLngs.find((e=>e===s?e:e.indexOf("-")<0&&s.indexOf("-")<0?void 0:e.indexOf("-")>0&&s.indexOf("-")<0&&e.substring(0,e.indexOf("-"))===s||0===e.indexOf(s)&&s.length>1?e:void 0))})),t||(t=this.getFallbackCodes(this.options.fallbackLng)[0]),t}getFallbackCodes(e,t){if(!e)return[];if("function"==typeof e&&(e=e(t)),i(e)&&(e=[e]),Array.isArray(e))return e;if(!t)return e.default||[];let s=e[t];return s||(s=e[this.getScriptPartFromCode(t)]),s||(s=e[this.formatLanguageCode(t)]),s||(s=e[this.getLanguagePartFromCode(t)]),s||(s=e.default),s||[]}toResolveHierarchy(e,t){const s=this.getFallbackCodes(t||this.options.fallbackLng||[],e),n=[],o=e=>{e&&(this.isSupportedCode(e)?n.push(e):this.logger.warn(`rejecting language code not found in supportedLngs: ${e}`))};return i(e)&&(e.indexOf("-")>-1||e.indexOf("_")>-1)?("languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(e)),"languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.getScriptPartFromCode(e)),"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&o(this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e))):i(e)&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(e)),s.forEach((e=>{n.indexOf(e)<0&&o(this.formatLanguageCode(e))})),n}}const $={zero:0,one:1,two:2,few:3,many:4,other:5},C={select:e=>1===e?"one":"other",resolvedOptions:()=>({pluralCategories:["one","other"]})};class N{constructor(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};this.languageUtils=e,this.options=t,this.logger=S.create("pluralResolver"),this.pluralRulesCache={}}addRule(e,t){this.rules[e]=t}clearCache(){this.pluralRulesCache={}}getRule(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};const s=b("dev"===e?"en":e),i=t.ordinal?"ordinal":"cardinal",n=JSON.stringify({cleanedCode:s,type:i});if(n in this.pluralRulesCache)return this.pluralRulesCache[n];let o;try{o=new Intl.PluralRules(s,{type:i})}catch(s){if(!Intl)return this.logger.error("No Intl support, please use an Intl polyfill!"),C;if(!e.match(/-|_/))return C;const i=this.languageUtils.getLanguagePartFromCode(e);o=this.getRule(i,t)}return this.pluralRulesCache[n]=o,o}needsPlural(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{},s=this.getRule(e,t);return s||(s=this.getRule("dev",t)),s?.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.length>1}getPluralFormsOfKey(e,t){let s=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};return this.getSuffixes(e,s).map((e=>`${t}${e}`))}getSuffixes(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{},s=this.getRule(e,t);return s||(s=this.getRule("dev",t)),s?s.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.sort(((e,t)=>$[e]-$[t])).map((e=>`${this.options.prepend}${t.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${e}`)):[]}getSuffix(e,t){let s=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};const i=this.getRule(e,s);return i?`${this.options.prepend}${s.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${i.select(t)}`:(this.logger.warn(`no plural rule found for: ${e}`),this.getSuffix("dev",t,s))}}const E=function(e,t,s){let n=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:".",o=!(arguments.length>4&&void 0!==arguments[4])||arguments[4],r=((e,t,s)=>{const i=h(e,s);return void 0!==i?i:h(t,s)})(e,t,s);return!r&&o&&i(s)&&(r=y(e,s,n),void 0===r&&(r=y(t,s,n))),r},A=e=>e.replace(/\$/g,"$$$$");class T{constructor(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};this.logger=S.create("interpolator"),this.options=e,this.format=e?.interpolation?.format||(e=>e),this.init(e)}init(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};e.interpolation||(e.interpolation={escapeValue:!0});const{escape:t,escapeValue:s,useRawValueToEscape:i,prefix:n,prefixEscaped:o,suffix:r,suffixEscaped:a,formatSeparator:l,unescapeSuffix:c,unescapePrefix:u,nestingPrefix:h,nestingPrefixEscaped:p,nestingSuffix:g,nestingSuffixEscaped:v,nestingOptionsSeparator:m,maxReplaces:y,alwaysFormat:b}=e.interpolation;this.escape=void 0!==t?t:f,this.escapeValue=void 0===s||s,this.useRawValueToEscape=void 0!==i&&i,this.prefix=n?d(n):o||"{{",this.suffix=r?d(r):a||"}}",this.formatSeparator=l||",",this.unescapePrefix=c?"":u||"-",this.unescapeSuffix=this.unescapePrefix?"":c||"",this.nestingPrefix=h?d(h):p||d("$t("),this.nestingSuffix=g?d(g):v||d(")"),this.nestingOptionsSeparator=m||",",this.maxReplaces=y||1e3,this.alwaysFormat=void 0!==b&&b,this.resetRegExp()}reset(){this.options&&this.init(this.options)}resetRegExp(){const e=(e,t)=>e?.source===t?(e.lastIndex=0,e):new 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n=`{${i[1]}`;e=i[0],n=this.interpolate(n,r);const o=n.match(/'/g),a=n.match(/"/g);((o?.length??0)%2==0&&!a||a.length%2!=0)&&(n=n.replace(/'/g,'"'));try{r=JSON.parse(n),t&&(r={...t,...r})}catch(t){return this.logger.warn(`failed parsing options string in nesting for key ${e}`,t),`${e}${s}${n}`}return r.defaultValue&&r.defaultValue.indexOf(this.prefix)>-1&&delete r.defaultValue,e};for(;s=this.nestingRegexp.exec(e);){let c=[];r={...a},r=r.replace&&!i(r.replace)?r.replace:r,r.applyPostProcessor=!1,delete r.defaultValue;let u=!1;if(-1!==s[0].indexOf(this.formatSeparator)&&!/{.*}/.test(s[1])){const e=s[1].split(this.formatSeparator).map((e=>e.trim()));s[1]=e.shift(),c=e,u=!0}if(n=t(l.call(this,s[1].trim(),r),r),n&&s[0]===e&&!i(n))return n;i(n)||(n=o(n)),n||(this.logger.warn(`missed to resolve ${s[1]} for nesting ${e}`),n=""),u&&(n=c.reduce(((e,t)=>this.format(e,t,a.lng,{...a,interpolationkey:s[1].trim()})),n.trim())),e=e.replace(s[0],n),this.regexp.lastIndex=0}return e}}const D=e=>{const t={};return(s,i,n)=>{let o=n;n&&n.interpolationkey&&n.formatParams&&n.formatParams[n.interpolationkey]&&n[n.interpolationkey]&&(o={...o,[n.interpolationkey]:void 0});const r=i+JSON.stringify(o);let a=t[r];return a||(a=e(b(i),n),t[r]=a),a(s)}};class I{constructor(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};this.logger=S.create("formatter"),this.options=e,this.formats={number:D(((e,t)=>{const s=new Intl.NumberFormat(e,{...t});return e=>s.format(e)})),currency:D(((e,t)=>{const s=new Intl.NumberFormat(e,{...t,style:"currency"});return e=>s.format(e)})),datetime:D(((e,t)=>{const s=new Intl.DateTimeFormat(e,{...t});return e=>s.format(e)})),relativetime:D(((e,t)=>{const s=new Intl.RelativeTimeFormat(e,{...t});return e=>s.format(e,t.range||"day")})),list:D(((e,t)=>{const s=new Intl.ListFormat(e,{...t});return e=>s.format(e)}))},this.init(e)}init(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{interpolation:{}};this.formatSeparator=t.interpolation.formatSeparator||","}add(e,t){this.formats[e.toLowerCase().trim()]=t}addCached(e,t){this.formats[e.toLowerCase().trim()]=D(t)}format(e,t,s){let i=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};const n=t.split(this.formatSeparator);if(n.length>1&&n[0].indexOf("(")>1&&n[0].indexOf(")")<0&&n.find((e=>e.indexOf(")")>-1))){const e=n.findIndex((e=>e.indexOf(")")>-1));n[0]=[n[0],...n.splice(1,e)].join(this.formatSeparator)}return n.reduce(((e,t)=>{const{formatName:n,formatOptions:o}=(e=>{let t=e.toLowerCase().trim();const s={};if(e.indexOf("(")>-1){const i=e.split("(");t=i[0].toLowerCase().trim();const 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0,this.setResolvedLanguage(e)},a=(e,i)=>{i?(r(i),this.translator.changeLanguage(i),this.isLanguageChangingTo=void 0,this.emit("languageChanged",i),this.logger.log("languageChanged",i)):this.isLanguageChangingTo=void 0,o.resolve((function(){return s.t(...arguments)})),t&&t(e,(function(){return s.t(...arguments)}))},l=t=>{e||t||!this.services.languageDetector||(t=[]);const s=i(t)?t:this.services.languageUtils.getBestMatchFromCodes(t);s&&(this.language||r(s),this.translator.language||this.translator.changeLanguage(s),this.services.languageDetector?.cacheUserLanguage?.(s)),this.loadResources(s,(e=>{a(e,s)}))};return e||!this.services.languageDetector||this.services.languageDetector.async?!e&&this.services.languageDetector&&this.services.languageDetector.async?0===this.services.languageDetector.detect.length?this.services.languageDetector.detect().then(l):this.services.languageDetector.detect(l):l(e):l(this.services.languageDetector.detect()),o}getFixedT(e,t,s){var n=this;const o=function(e,t){let i;if("object"!=typeof t){for(var r=arguments.length,a=new Array(r>2?r-2:0),l=2;l<r;l++)a[l-2]=arguments[l];i=n.options.overloadTranslationOptionHandler([e,t].concat(a))}else i={...t};i.lng=i.lng||o.lng,i.lngs=i.lngs||o.lngs,i.ns=i.ns||o.ns,""!==i.keyPrefix&&(i.keyPrefix=i.keyPrefix||s||o.keyPrefix);const c=n.options.keySeparator||".";let u;return u=i.keyPrefix&&Array.isArray(e)?e.map((e=>`${i.keyPrefix}${c}${e}`)):i.keyPrefix?`${i.keyPrefix}${c}${e}`:e,n.t(u,i)};return i(e)?o.lng=e:o.lngs=e,o.ns=t,o.keyPrefix=s,o}t(){for(var e=arguments.length,t=new Array(e),s=0;s<e;s++)t[s]=arguments[s];return this.translator?.translate(...t)}exists(){for(var e=arguments.length,t=new Array(e),s=0;s<e;s++)t[s]=arguments[s];return this.translator?.exists(...t)}setDefaultNamespace(e){this.options.defaultNS=e}hasLoadedNamespace(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};if(!this.isInitialized)return this.logger.warn("hasLoadedNamespace: i18next was not 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o=this.options.preload||[],r=e.filter((e=>o.indexOf(e)<0&&this.services.languageUtils.isSupportedCode(e)));return r.length?(this.options.preload=o.concat(r),this.loadResources((e=>{s.resolve(),t&&t(e)})),s):(t&&t(),Promise.resolve())}dir(e){if(e||(e=this.resolvedLanguage||(this.languages?.length>0?this.languages[0]:this.language)),!e)return"rtl";const t=this.services?.languageUtils||new j(F());return["ar","shu","sqr","ssh","xaa","yhd","yud","aao","abh","abv","acm","acq","acw","acx","acy","adf","ads","aeb","aec","afb","ajp","apc","apd","arb","arq","ars","ary","arz","auz","avl","ayh","ayl","ayn","ayp","bbz","pga","he","iw","ps","pbt","pbu","pst","prp","prd","ug","ur","ydd","yds","yih","ji","yi","hbo","men","xmn","fa","jpr","peo","pes","prs","dv","sam","ckb"].indexOf(t.getLanguagePartFromCode(e))>-1||e.toLowerCase().indexOf("-arab")>1?"rtl":"ltr"}static createInstance(){return new H(arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{},arguments.length>1?arguments[1]:void 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K=H.createInstance();K.createInstance=H.createInstance;K.createInstance,K.dir,K.init,K.loadResources,K.reloadResources,K.use,K.changeLanguage,K.getFixedT,K.t,K.exists,K.setDefaultNamespace,K.hasLoadedNamespace,K.loadNamespaces,K.loadLanguages}},function(e){var t;t=51250,e(e.s=t)}]); //# sourceMappingURL=i18n_init-115e8b97572e00d91d6f.js.map //]]> </script> <script src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/runtime-8563a1641acaeb567def.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-vendor="c:smartocto-GJ7CA7CP"> var _ain = { access_level: "free", article_type: "analysis", authors: "The University of Queensland", id: "2743", maincontent: ".content-body", postid: "82250", pubdate: "2017-08-28T20:08:30Z", reader_type: "anonymous", sections: "au>Science + Tech", tags: "Law, DNA, Crime, Policing, Mitochondrial DNA, Forensics, Y chromosome, Polymerase chain reaction, OJ Simpson, Technology explainer", title: "From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample", }; 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