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class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="站点"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="目录" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目录</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">序言</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-詞源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#詞源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 詞源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-詞源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-命名法" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#命名法"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 命名法 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-命名法-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-觀測簡史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#觀測簡史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 觀測簡史 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-觀測簡史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关觀測簡史子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-觀測簡史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-銀河系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#銀河系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 銀河系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-銀河系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-與其他星雲的區別" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#與其他星雲的區別"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 與其他星雲的區別 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-與其他星雲的區別-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-現代研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#現代研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 現代研究 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-現代研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-類型和形態" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#類型和形態"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 類型和形態 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-類型和形態-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关類型和形態子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-類型和形態-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-橢圓星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#橢圓星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 橢圓星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-橢圓星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-殼層星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#殼層星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 殼層星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-殼層星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-螺旋星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#螺旋星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 螺旋星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-螺旋星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-棒旋星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#棒旋星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 棒旋星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-棒旋星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-超亮螺旋星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#超亮螺旋星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 超亮螺旋星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-超亮螺旋星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其他型態" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其他型態"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 其他型態 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-其他型態-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-矮星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#矮星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 矮星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-矮星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其它類型的星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其它類型的星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 其它類型的星系 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-其它類型的星系-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关其它類型的星系子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-其它類型的星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-交互作用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#交互作用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 交互作用 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-交互作用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-星暴星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#星暴星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 星暴星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-星暴星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-活躍星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#活躍星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 活躍星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-活躍星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-耀變體" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#耀變體"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 耀變體 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-耀變體-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-低電離星系核" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#低電離星系核"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 低電離星系核 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-低電離星系核-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-西佛星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#西佛星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 西佛星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-西佛星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-類星體" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#類星體"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 類星體 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-類星體-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-亮紅外星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#亮紅外星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 亮紅外星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-亮紅外星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-性質" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#性質"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 性質 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-性質-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关性質子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-性質-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-磁場" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#磁場"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 磁場 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-磁場-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-形成和演化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#形成和演化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 形成和演化 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-形成和演化-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关形成和演化子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-形成和演化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-形成" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#形成"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 形成 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-形成-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-早期星系" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期星系"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 早期星系 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期星系-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-早期星系形成" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期星系形成"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 早期星系形成 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期星系形成-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-演化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#演化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 演化 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-演化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-未來趨勢" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#未來趨勢"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 未來趨勢 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-未來趨勢-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-大尺度結構" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#大尺度結構"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 大尺度結構 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-大尺度結構-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-多波段觀測" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#多波段觀測"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 多波段觀測 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-多波段觀測-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-相關條目" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#相關條目"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 相關條目 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-相關條目-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-註解" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#註解"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 註解 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-註解-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參考資料" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參考資料"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 參考資料 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-參考資料-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关參考資料子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-參考資料-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-來源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#來源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 來源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-來源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參考文獻" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參考文獻"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 參考文獻 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參考文獻-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部連結" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部連結"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 外部連結 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部連結-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">星系</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。177种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-177" aria-hidden="true" > 177种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrestelsel" title="Sterrestelsel – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sterrestelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 瑞士德语" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="瑞士德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A8%E1%8C%A8%E1%89%B5" title="ረጨት – 阿姆哈拉语" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ረጨት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="मंदाकिनी – 昂加语" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="मंदाकिनी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="昂加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="مجرة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="مجرة – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="مجرة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%87" title="مجره – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مجره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="তাৰকাৰাজ্য – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="তাৰকাৰাজ্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxa" title="Galaxa – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Galaxa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Галаксия – 阿瓦尔语" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Галаксия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalaktika" title="Qalaktika – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qalaktika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="قالاکسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قالاکسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakt%C4%97ka" title="Galaktėka – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Galaktėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактыка – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Галактыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галяктыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Галяктыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jula-juli" title="Jula-juli – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Jula-juli" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="गैलेक्सी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="गैलेक्सी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A5" title="ছায়াপথ – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ছায়াপথ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B" title="སྐར་མའི་མ་ལག་ – 藏语" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐར་མའི་མ་ལག་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="藏语" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksienn" title="Galaksienn – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Galaksienn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A0xia" title="Galàxia – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Galàxia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%83%E1%8F%88%E1%8F%8F_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B7%E1%8E%AC" title="ᏃᏈᏏ ᎤᎾᏓᎷᎬ – 切罗基语" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏃᏈᏏ ᎤᎾᏓᎷᎬ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="切罗基语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1%DB%95" title="گەلەستێرە – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەلەستێرە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaeth" title="Galaeth – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Galaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiye" title="Galaksiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Galaksiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Γαλαξίες – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλαξίες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A2sia" title="Galâsia – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Galâsia" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Galaxy" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksio" title="Galaksio – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Galaksio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کهکشان – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کهکشان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsirgurada_(t%C3%A4hetiid%C3%BCs)" title="Tsirgurada (tähetiidüs) – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tsirgurada (tähetiidüs)" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoso_kalokalo" title="Isoso kalokalo – 斐济语" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Isoso kalokalo" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐济语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B8rnubreyt" title="Stjørnubreyt – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Stjørnubreyt" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksii" title="Galaksii – 北弗里西亚语" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Galaksii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassie" title="Galassie – 弗留利语" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Galassie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stjerrestelsel_(molkewei)" title="Stjerrestelsel (molkewei) – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Stjerrestelsel (molkewei)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9altra" title="Réaltra – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réaltra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reul-chrios" title="Reul-chrios – 苏格兰盖尔语" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Reul-chrios" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="苏格兰盖尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapyvore" title="Arapyvore – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arapyvore" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-rollageys" title="Co-rollageys – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Co-rollageys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAn-hi" title="Sên-hi – 客家语" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sên-hi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家语" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="גלקסיה – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גלקסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="मन्दाकिनी – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मन्दाकिनी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_ke_samundar" title="Tara ke samundar – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Tara ke samundar" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxis" title="Galaxis – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Galaxis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գալակտիկաներ – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գալակտիկաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxe" title="Galaxe – 国际文字（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Galaxe" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="国际文字（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%A4y%E1%BB%8Dk%E1%BB%8D_kpakpando" title="Ụyọkọ kpakpando – 伊博语" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ụyọkọ kpakpando" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="伊博语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariwanas" title="Ariwanas – 伊洛卡诺语" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ariwanas" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛卡诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxio" title="Galaxio – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Galaxio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B6rnu%C3%BEoka" title="Stjörnuþoka – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjörnuþoka" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3" title="銀河 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="銀河" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gialaxi" title="Gialaxi – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gialaxi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/barda_tarci_bo_girzu" title="barda tarci bo girzu – 逻辑语" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="barda tarci bo girzu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="逻辑语" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გალაქტიკა – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გალაქტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 卡拉卡尔帕克语" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="卡拉卡尔帕克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazellaw" title="Amazellaw – 卡拜尔语" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amazellaw" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡拜尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naal%C9%A9m_maya%C9%A3" title="Naalɩm mayaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Naalɩm mayaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1" title="ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಾಂಡ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಾಂಡ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%80%ED%95%98" title="은하 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="은하" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Мырыт – 卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Мырыт" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%82_%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%96%D8%B1" title="جادۂ شيٖر – 克什米尔语" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="جادۂ شيٖر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="克什米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaks%C3%AE" title="Galaksî – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Galaksî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxias" title="Galaxias – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Galaxias" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 卢森堡语" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="卢森堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galasia" title="Galasia – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Galasia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starest%C3%A8lsel" title="Starestèlsel – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Starestèlsel" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Галактикась – 莫克沙语" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Галактикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="莫克沙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vondron-kintana" title="Vondron-kintana – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vondron-kintana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Галаксија – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Галаксија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%82" title="താരാപഥം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="താരാപഥം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Галактик – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Галактик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE" title="दीर्घिका – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="दीर्घिका" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1xia" title="Galáxia – 米兰德斯语" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Galáxia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米兰德斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%AE" title="ဂယ်လက်ဆီ – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂယ်လက်ဆီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%86" title="کهکشون – 马赞德兰语" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کهکشون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="马赞德兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citlalpopocac" title="Citlalpopocac – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Citlalpopocac" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C" title="तारापुञ्ज – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="तारापुञ्ज" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterrenstelsel" title="Sterrenstelsel – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sterrenstelsel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galakse" title="Galakse – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Galakse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – 奥罗莫语" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奥罗莫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9B%E0%AC%BE%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%A5" title="ଛାୟାପଥ – 奥里亚语" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଛାୟାପଥ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="奥里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE" title="ਅਕਾਸ਼ਗੰਗਾ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਕਾਸ਼ਗੰਗਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy – 邦板牙语" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Galaxy" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="邦板牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galacsie" title="Galacsie – 庇卡底文" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Galacsie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="庇卡底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktyka" title="Galaktyka – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Galaktyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="تارا سمندر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تارا سمندر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%87%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کهکشان – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کهکشان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1xia" title="Galáxia – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Galáxia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91u%C3%B1u_warani" title="Ñuñu warani – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ñuñu warani" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 罗曼什语" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="罗曼什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samodor" title="Samodor – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Samodor" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxie" title="Galaxie – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Galaxie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ґалаксія – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґалаксія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE" title="आकाशगङ्गा – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आकाशगङ्गा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галаактика – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Галаактика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galassia" title="Galassia – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Galassia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%87%DA%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ڪهڪشان – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪهڪشان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asif_n_ignwan" title="Asif n ignwan – 希尔哈语" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Asif n ignwan" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希尔哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%92" title="මන්දාකිණි – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මන්දාකිණි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Galaxy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxia" title="Galaxia – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Galaxia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksija" title="Galaksija – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Galaksija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzvcazi" title="Muzvcazi – 绍纳语" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Muzvcazi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="绍纳语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yllplimja" title="Yllplimja – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Yllplimja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Галаксија – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Галаксија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galax" title="Galax – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Galax" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majarra" title="Majarra – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Majarra" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88" title="விண்மீன் பேரடை – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="விண்மீன் பேரடை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%80" title="గేలక్సీ – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గేలక్సీ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 塔吉克语" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3" title="ดาราจักร – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดาราจักร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 土库曼语" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土库曼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksi" title="Galaksi – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Galaksi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="Каптагай – 图瓦语" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Каптагай" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="图瓦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 乌德穆尔特语" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="乌德穆尔特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Галактика – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Галактика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%81%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="کہکشاں – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کہکشاں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktika" title="Galaktika – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Galaktika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C5%82asia" title="Gałasia – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Gałasia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktik" title="Galaktik – 维普森语" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Galaktik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="维普森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%AAn_h%C3%A0" title="Thiên hà – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thiên hà" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaksiya" title="Galaksiya – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Galaksiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星系 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="星系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გალაქტიკა – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გალაქტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A2" title="גאלאקסיע – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גאלאקסיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%B2%B3" title="天河 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="天河" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AEn-h%C3%B4" title="Gîn-hô – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gîn-hô" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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.ambox{border-left-color:#36c!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left-color:#b32424!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{background-color:#300!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left-color:#f28500!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left-color:#fc3!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left-color:#9932cc!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left-color:#a2a9b1!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_language plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg/50px-Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg/75px-Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg/100px-Translation_to_zh_arrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此條目可参照<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy" class="extiw" title="en:Galaxy">英語維基百科</a>相應條目来扩充。 若您熟悉来源语言和主题，请协助<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91%E5%AE%88%E5%88%99" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:翻译守则">参考外语维基百科扩充条目</a>。请勿直接提交机械翻译，也不要翻译不可靠、低品质内容。依<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%9C%A8%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%86%85%E5%A4%8D%E5%88%B6%E5%86%85%E5%AE%B9" title="Wikipedia:在维基百科内复制内容">版权协议</a>，译文需<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%B7%A8%E8%BC%AF%E6%91%98%E8%A6%81#翻譯文章" title="Wikipedia:編輯摘要">在编辑摘要注明来源</a>，或于讨论页顶部标记<code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Translated_page" title="Template:Translated page">Translated page</a>}}</code>标签。</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div id="noteTA-bb620e9e" class="noteTA"><div class="noteTA-local"><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:漩涡星系; zh-hant:螺旋星系;"></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/280px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/420px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg/560px-NGC_4414_%28NASA-med%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="1428" /></a><figcaption>位於后髮座的<a href="/wiki/NGC_4414" title="NGC 4414">NGC 4414</a>是一个典型的螺旋星系，直径55,000光年，距離6,520萬光年。圖片來源：<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="哈伯太空望遠鏡">哈伯太空望遠鏡</a><a href="/wiki/NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="NASA">NASA</a>／<a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-disambig" title="ESA">ESA</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg/220px-A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg/330px-A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg/440px-A_Milky_Arc_Over_Paranal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="18000" data-file-height="6925" /></a><figcaption>弧形的银河系照耀<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E7%91%9E%E7%BA%B3%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%8F%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="帕瑞纳天文台">帕瑞纳天文台</a>。<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> 星系（英語：Galaxy）是由<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="恆星">恆星</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%BB%E5%AF%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="緻密星">恆星遺骸</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9A%9B%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="星際物質">星際氣體</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%A1%B5%E5%9F%83" title="宇宙塵埃">塵埃</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="暗物質">暗物質</a>等組成，並受到<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B" title="引力">引力</a>綁定的系統<a href="#cite_note-sparkegallagher2000-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasa060812-3">[3]</a>。Galaxy 這個詞源於<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="古希臘語">希臘</a> isgalaxias（γαλαξίας），字面的意思是「銀河」（請參考<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a>）。星系的大小從只有幾億顆（107000800000000000000♠8）恆星的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮星系">矮星系</a>到擁有上兆顆（107001140000000000000♠14）恆星的<a href="/wiki/IC_1101" title="IC 1101">巨大</a>星系<a href="#cite_note-science250_4980_539-4">[4]</a>，都繞著其<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83" class="mw-redirect" title="質量中心">質量中心</a>運行。銀河系是包括地球在內的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽系">太陽系</a>所在的星系<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>。銀河系以外的星系被合稱為河外星系。 星系根據在視覺上的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9E%8B%E6%85%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E" title="星系型態分類">型態</a>分類為<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="橢圓星系">橢圓</a><a href="#cite_note-uf030616-6">[6]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="螺旋星系">螺旋</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="不規則星系">不規則</a><a href="#cite_note-IRatlas-7">[7]</a>。許多星系被認為在它們的中心有<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="超大質量黑洞">超大質量黑洞</a>。銀河系中心的<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="黑洞">黑洞</a>，被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A6%AC%E5%BA%A7A*" title="人馬座A*">人馬座A*</a>，其<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="質量">質量</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽">太陽</a>的400萬倍<a href="#cite_note-smbh-8">[8]</a>。截至2016年3月，<a href="/wiki/GN-z11" title="GN-z11">GN-z11</a>是觀測到的最古老、最遙遠星系，距離地球的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E7%A7%BB%E8%B7%9D%E9%9B%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="同移距離">同移距離</a>是320億<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%B9%B4" title="光年">光年</a>，也就是說在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸">大爆炸</a>之後僅4億年它就存在了。 2016年發布的一項研究報告，修正了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%80%E6%B8%AC%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="可觀測宇宙">可觀測宇宙</a>中的星系數量，從之前估計的2000億（7011200000000000000♠2×1011）<a href="#cite_note-apj624_2-9">[9]</a>建議增加為2兆（7012200000000000000♠2×1012）或更多<a href="#cite_note-Conselice-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20161017-11">[11]</a>，並且就整體而言，估計<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="恆星">恆星</a>的數量多達7024100000000000000♠1×1024顆<a href="#cite_note-ESA-2019-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>（比<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83" title="地球">地球</a>上所有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99" title="沙">沙粒</a>的數目還要多）<a href="#cite_note-SU-20020201-14">[14]</a>。大多數星系的直徑在1,000至100,000<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%92%E5%B7%AE%E8%B7%9D" title="秒差距">秒差距</a>（3,000至300,000<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%B9%B4" title="光年">光年</a>）之間，並且相隔距離的數量級在百萬秒差距。相比較之下，銀河系的直徑是30,000秒差距（100,000光年），與它最近的大星系鄰居是相隔78萬秒差距（250萬光年）的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>。 在星系之間的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA#星系際空間" class="mw-redirect" title="外太空">空間</a>充滿了稀薄的氣體（<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA#星系際空間" class="mw-redirect" title="外太空">星際物質</a>），其平均<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6" title="密度">密度</a>小於每<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%96%B9%E7%B1%B3" title="立方米">立方米</a>一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a>。大多數星系在<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%AC%E6%9C%89%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="萬有引力">引力</a>作用下會組織成<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="星系群">星系群</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="星系團">星系團</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" title="超星系團">超星系團</a>。銀河系是<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="本星系群">本星系群</a>的一部分，本星系群由銀河系和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>主導，它又是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A4%E5%A5%B3%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="室女超星系團">室女超星系團</a>的一部分。在宇宙的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度結構">大尺度</a>中，這些組合通常被排列成<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%BA%96%E7%B6%AD%E7%8B%80%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度纖維狀結構">星系片和細絲</a>，圍繞在<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8)" class="mw-redirect" title="空洞 (天文學)">空洞</a>的周圍<a href="#cite_note-camb_lss-15">[15]</a>。本星系群和室女超星系團都包含在一個更大的宇宙結構中，稱為<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E5%87%AF%E4%BA%9A%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9B%A2" title="拉尼亚凯亚超星系团">拉尼亞凱亞</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>。 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r56805754">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="詞源">詞源</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：詞源">编辑</a>]</div> galaxy（星系）這個詞是從<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="法語">法語</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="中世纪拉丁语">中世紀拉丁語</a>借用的，而它們又源自<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="希臘語">希臘語</a>的牛奶路（Milky Way），galaxías (kúklos) <a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:γαλαξίας">γαλαξίας</a>（<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κύκλος">κύκλος</a>）<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-oed-18">[18]</a> 'milky（圓圈）'，是依據它在天空中呈現乳白色光帶的外觀命名。在<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E7%A5%9E%E8%A9%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="希臘神話">希臘神話</a>中，<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%99%E6%96%AF" title="宙斯">宙斯</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E6%8B%89" title="赫拉">赫拉</a>睡著的時候，把一個凡人所生的兒子，還是嬰兒的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E5%8B%92%E6%96%AF" title="赫拉克勒斯">赫拉克勒斯</a>放在她的乳房上，讓他喝下她神聖的奶汁，從而長生不老。赫拉在哺乳期間醒來，然後意識到她正在哺乳一個不知名的嬰兒：她把嬰兒推開，因而有一些乳汁溢出，產生了這一條被稱為銀河的光帶<a href="#cite_note-waller_hodge2003-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-konecny2006-20">[20]</a>。 在天文的文獻中，首字母大寫的"Galaxy"是指我們的星系：<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a>，以與<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>中其它的星系有所區別。英文的術語Milky Way可以追溯到<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B0%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%8F%9F" title="杰弗里·乔叟">喬叟</a>的故事<abbr title="circa">约</abbr>1380： <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r61209892">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{margin-top:0;overflow:hidden}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1em;text-align:left;padding-left:2em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite cite{font-size:small}</style> <blockquote class="templatequote">"看那邊，洛，銀河系  它的意思就是<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E8%90%8A%E6%99%AE" class="extiw" title="wikt:克萊普">克萊普</a> the Milky Wey（牛奶路），  命中注定的。"<div class="templatequotecite"><cite>——傑弗里·喬叟，<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%BA%E5%A0%82" title="名人堂">名人堂</a><a href="#cite_note-oed-18">[18]</a></cite></div></blockquote> 星系在通過望遠鏡發現之初，被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="螺旋星系">螺旋星雲</a>。在18與19世紀，大多數的天文學家認為它們要麼是未能分辨的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="星團">星團</a>，要不就是沒有恆星的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9B%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="星雲">星雲</a>，但都認為是銀河系的一部分，而它們的真實組成和性質仍然是個謎。使用大型望遠鏡對附近的幾個明亮的星系，例如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>進行的觀測，開始將它們分解成巨大的恆星群，但僅僅基於表面上的黯淡度和純粹的恆星族群，這些天體的真實距離使它們遠遠的超出了銀河系的範圍。由於這個原因，他們被通俗的稱為島宇宙，但因為<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>一詞存在著全部的意思，這個名詞很快就被廢棄了。取而代之的，就是簡單的稱為星系<a href="#cite_note-rao2005-21">[21]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="命名法">命名法</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：命名法">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Probing_the_distant_past_SDSS_J1152%2B3313.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3446" data-file-height="1946" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="星系團">星系團</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=SDSS_J1152%2B3313&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SDSS J1152+3313（页面不存在）">SDSS J1152+3313</a>。SDSS表示<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E9%9A%86%E6%95%B8%E4%BD%8D%E5%B7%A1%E5%A4%A9" title="史隆數位巡天">史隆數位巡天</a>，J表示<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%86%E5%85%83" title="曆元">儒略曆元</a>，還有1152+3313表示<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%A4%E7%B6%93" class="mw-redirect" title="赤經">赤經</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%A4%E7%B7%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="赤緯">赤緯</a></figcaption></figure> 數以萬計的星系已經編入目錄中，但只有少數幾個星系有明確的名稱，例如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%80%AB%E9%9B%B2" title="麥哲倫雲">麥哲倫雲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%A6%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="渦狀星系">渦狀星系</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%B6%E9%82%8A%E5%B8%BD%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="濶邊帽星系">濶邊帽星系</a>。天文學家使用某些星表中的數值，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E8%A5%BF%E8%80%B6%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94" title="梅西耶天體">梅西耶表</a>、NGC（<a href="/wiki/NGC%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E8%A1%A8" title="NGC天體表">NGC天體表</a>）、IC（<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E6%98%9F%E8%A1%A8" title="索引星表">索引星表</a>）、CGCG（<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%92%8C%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9B%A2%E8%A1%A8" title="星系和星系团表">星系和星系團表</a>）、MCG（<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95" title="星系形态目录">星系形態目錄</a>）、和UGC（星系的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%99%AE%E8%90%A8%E6%8B%89%E6%80%BB%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95" title="乌普萨拉总目录">烏普薩拉總目錄</a>）來稱呼一些星系。所有著名的星系都會出現在一個或多個星表中，而且在每個星表中的數值名稱都不一樣。以<a href="/wiki/M109_(%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB)" title="M109 (棒旋星系)">M109</a>為例，它是一個螺旋星系，在梅西耶表中是第109個天體，但也可以稱為NGC 3992、 UGC 6937、CGCG 269-023、MCG +09-20-044、和PGC 37617。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="觀測簡史">觀測簡史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：觀測簡史">编辑</a>]</div> 意識到我們所屬的銀河<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="银河系">銀河系</a>只是眾多星系中的一個，這與關於銀河系和其它<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9B%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="星雲">星雲</a>的重大發現是一致的。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="銀河系">銀河系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：銀河系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学">希臘</a>哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德謨克利特</a>（西元前450–370）提出，夜空中被稱為銀河的明亮光帶可能是由遙遠的<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="恆星">恆星</a><a href="#cite_note-Plutarch-22">[22]</a>。然而，<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="亞里斯多德">亞里斯多德</a>（西元前384–322）認為，銀河是由一些恆星噴出的炙熱氣體點燃的。這些恆星在世界中與天上運動相連接的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%A1%E5%85%83%E7%90%83%E5%8D%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="次元球區（页面不存在）">次元球區</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" class="extiw" title="en:Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a>），它們是巨大、數量眾多和緊密的，並且點燃的火發生在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B0%A3%E5%B1%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="大氣層">大氣層</a>的上層<a href="#cite_note-Montada-23">[23]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="新柏拉圖主義">新柏拉圖主義</a>的哲學家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B0%8F%E5%A5%A7%E6%9E%97%E5%8C%B9%E5%A4%9A%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="小奧林匹多羅斯（页面不存在）">小奧林匹多羅斯</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" class="extiw" title="en:Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus the Younger</a>）（西元<abbr title="circa">约</abbr>495–570）對這一點抱持懷疑的態度，他認為如果銀河位於地球和月球之間，那麼在地球上不同的時間和地點，應該會表現出有所不同，它應該有<a href="/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E5%B7%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="視差">視差</a>，但它沒有。在他看來，銀河應該是天體<a href="#cite_note-heidarzadeh23-24">[24]</a>。 依據莫罕默德，<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="中古伊斯蘭天文學">阿拉伯</a>天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E4%BB%80%E6%9C%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="海什木">海什木</a>（西元965-1037）首次嘗試觀察和量測銀河的視差<a href="#cite_note-mohamed-25">[25]</a>，由於銀河沒有視差，因此，他斷定它必然不屬於大氣層，而在其外並且遠離地球<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="波斯人">波斯</a>天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E9%AD%AF%E5%B0%BC" title="比魯尼">比魯尼</a>（西元973-1048）提出，銀河是"無數星雲、恆星性質碎片的集合"<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E9%81%94%E9%AD%AF%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="安達魯斯">安達魯斯</a>天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E5%93%B2" title="伊本·巴哲">伊本·巴哲</a>（"Avempace"，西元<abbr title="died">d.</abbr>1138）提出，銀河由許多幾乎相互接觸的恆星組成，由於受到次元（sublunary）物質<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%98%E5%B0%84" title="折射">折射</a>的影響，看起來像是一個連續的影像<a href="#cite_note-Montada-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-heidarzadeh25-28">[28]</a>，他引用自身對木星和火星<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%88_(%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E4%BD%8D%E7%BD%AE)" title="合 (天體位置)">合</a>的觀察，作為當兩個物體靠近時發生這種現象的證據<a href="#cite_note-Montada-23">[23]</a>。在14世紀，出生於敘利亞的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E5%B7%B4%E5%9C%96%E5%A1%94" class="mw-redirect" title="伊本·巴圖塔">伊本·巴圖塔</a>提出銀河是由"無數微小恆星組成的固體球體"<a href="#cite_note-Livingston-29">[29]</a>。 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herschel-Galaxy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/220px-Herschel-Galaxy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/330px-Herschel-Galaxy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Herschel-Galaxy.png/440px-Herschel-Galaxy.png 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E6%AD%87%E7%88%BE" title="威廉·赫歇爾">威廉·赫歇爾</a>假設太陽在靠近中心之處根據恆星數量估算，在1785年提出的銀河系形狀</figcaption></figure> 1610年，義大利天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E7%95%A5%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E5%88%A9%E8%8E%B1" title="伽利略·伽利莱">伽利略</a>使用<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" title="光學望遠鏡">望遠鏡</a>研究銀河系，發現它是由大量黯淡的恆星組成，這一事實證明了銀河系是由許多恆星組成的<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>。 在1750年，英國天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%AF%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%90%8A%E7%89%B9_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6)" title="湯姆斯·萊特 (天文學家)">湯姆斯·萊特</a>在他著作的《宇宙的原始理論或新假設》中，推測銀河系可能類似於<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽系">太陽系</a>，但規模要大得多，是由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B" title="引力">引力</a>聚集大量恆星組成的旋轉體。由此產生的星盤，我們可以在星盤內部的透視圖上，看到它在天空上呈現一條帶狀物<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-33">[33]</a>。在1755年的一篇論文中，<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="伊曼努爾·康德">伊曼努爾·康德</a>詳細了解萊特關於銀河系結構的觀點<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>。 <a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E6%AD%87%E7%88%BE" title="威廉·赫歇爾">威廉·赫歇爾</a>是第一位描述銀河系形狀和太陽位置的天文學家。他通過計算天空中不同位置的恆星數量，在1785年完成這項工作。他以太陽靠近中心的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="星系中心論（页面不存在）">星系中心論</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactocentrism" class="extiw" title="en:Galactocentrism">Galactocentrism</a>）繪製了一張銀河系形狀的圖<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-paul1993-36">[36]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%90%84%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E6%99%AE%E5%9D%A6" title="雅各布斯·卡普坦">雅各布斯·卡普坦</a>採用精益求精的方法，在1920年得到了一個太陽靠近中心的小橢圓形星系（直徑15,000秒差距）圖片。<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E6%B2%99%E6%99%AE%E5%88%A9" title="哈罗·沙普利">哈羅·沙普利</a>基於<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" title="球狀星團">球狀星團</a>的分布，採用不同的方法，得到了一個完全不同的畫面：直徑約70,000秒差距的平坦盤面，而且太陽遠離盤面中心<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-33">[33]</a>。這兩種分析都沒有考慮到<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E5%B9%B3%E9%9D%A2" title="銀河平面">銀河平面</a>中存在的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%A1%B5%E5%9F%83" title="宇宙塵埃">宇宙塵埃</a>對<a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E5%85%89" title="消光">光的吸收</a>，但是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%9D%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="川普勒（页面不存在）">川普勒</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Julius_Trumpler" class="extiw" title="en:Robert Julius Trumpler">Robert Julius Trumpler</a>）通過對<a href="/wiki/%E7%96%8F%E6%95%A3%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="疏散星團">疏散星團</a>的研究，在1930年量化了這種影響之後，就出現了我們宿主星系當前的圖片<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>。 <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milky_Way_Arch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Milky_Way_Arch.jpg/600px-Milky_Way_Arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Milky_Way_Arch.jpg/900px-Milky_Way_Arch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Milky_Way_Arch.jpg/1200px-Milky_Way_Arch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>以<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%9A%E7%9C%BC%E9%8F%A1%E9%A0%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="魚眼鏡頭">魚眼鏡頭</a>在智利拍攝的銀河系馬賽克。銀河在黑暗的夜空中以很高的傾角隆起，銀河系的衛星星系，<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%80%AB%E9%9B%B2" title="麥哲倫雲">麥哲倫雲</a>出現在左邊的邊緣附近</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="與其他星雲的區別">與其他星雲的區別</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：與其他星雲的區別">编辑</a>]</div> 在黑暗的夜晚，<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%89%E7%9C%BC" title="肉眼">裸眼</a>可以看到銀河<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="银河系">系</a>之外的一些星系，包括<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E4%BC%A6%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="大麦哲伦星系">大麥哲倫星系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%8F%E9%BA%A6%E5%93%B2%E4%BC%A6%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="小麦哲伦星系">小麥哲倫星系</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="三角座星系">三角座星系</a>。在10世紀，波斯天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%8D%9C%E6%9D%9C%E5%8B%92-%E6%8B%89%E8%B5%AB%E6%9B%BC%C2%B7%E8%8B%8F%E8%8F%B2" title="阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼·苏菲">阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼·蘇菲</a>對仙女座星系進行了有紀錄以來最早的鑑定，將其描述為一個"小雲"<a href="#cite_note-NSOG-38">[38]</a>。在964年，蘇菲可能在他的《<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E4%B9%8B%E6%9B%B8" title="恆星之書">恆星之書</a>》（指在"阿拉伯南部的阿爾巴克爾"<a href="#cite_note-obspm2-39">[39]</a>，因為在他居住的緯度是看不到南緯70；直到16世紀<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%90%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E9%BA%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%80%AB" title="斐迪南·麥哲倫">麥哲倫</a>航海，麥哲倫雲才為歐洲人熟知。）中提到了大麥哲倫星系<a href="#cite_note-obspm-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-obspm2-39">[39]</a>。仙女座星系後來在1612年被<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E9%96%80%C2%B7%E9%A6%AC%E9%87%8C%E7%83%8F%E6%96%AF" title="西門·馬里烏斯">西門·馬里烏斯</a>獨立地發現<a href="#cite_note-NSOG-38">[38]</a>。在1734年，哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E7%B4%90%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%A8%81%E7%99%BB%E5%A0%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="伊曼紐·斯威登堡">伊曼紐·斯威登堡</a>在他的《Principia》中推測，在我們自己的銀河系之外，可能會有星系形成星系團，這些星系團只是宇宙中極小的部分，宇宙遠遠超出我們能看到的。這樣的觀點"非常接近當今的宇宙觀"<a href="#cite_note-Gordon2002-41">[41]</a>。 在1745年，<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E5%9F%83%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E8%8E%AB%E4%BD%A9%E7%88%BE%E8%92%82" title="皮埃爾·莫佩爾蒂">皮埃爾·莫佩爾蒂</a>推測一些類似<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9B%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="星雲">星雲</a>的天體是具有獨特性質恆星的集合，包括自身產生<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA%E6%80%A7%E5%96%B7%E6%B5%81" title="相对论性喷流">發光超光速體</a>的恆星；並重複了<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E7%B6%AD%E7%95%99" title="約翰·赫維留">約翰·赫維留</a>的觀點，即亮點的質量是巨大，而由於自身的旋轉而變得扁平<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>。在1750年，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%AF%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%90%8A%E7%89%B9_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6)" title="湯姆斯·萊特 (天文學家)">湯姆斯·萊特</a>推測銀河系是一個扁平的星盤，在夜空中可見的一些星雲可能是獨立的星系<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>。 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/220px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/330px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pic_iroberts1.jpg/440px-Pic_iroberts1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="371" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%92%92%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="以撒·羅伯斯">以撒·羅伯斯</a>在1899年拍攝的"仙女座大星雲"，後來被確認是<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a></figcaption></figure> 在18世紀末，<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E8%A5%BF%E8%80%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="查尔斯·梅西耶">查爾斯·梅西耶</a>編製了<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E8%A5%BF%E8%80%B6%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94" title="梅西耶天體">星表</a>，收錄了109個最亮的天體，而它們都是外觀模糊的。隨後，威廉·赫歇爾收集了5,000個星雲，集結成目錄<a href="#cite_note-our_galaxy-33">[33]</a>。在1845年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%B8%95%E6%A3%AE%E6%80%9D%EF%BC%8C%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E4%BB%A3%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF%E4%BC%AF%E7%88%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="威廉·帕森思，第三代羅斯伯爵">羅西勳爵</a>建造了一架新的望遠鏡，能够區分橢圓星雲和螺旋星雲。他還設法找出這些星雲中個別的點光源，為康德早期的推測提供了依據<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>。 在1912年，<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%AF%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%87%8C%E5%BC%97" class="mw-redirect" title="維斯托·斯里弗">維斯托·斯里弗</a>對最亮的螺旋星雲進行光譜研究，以確定它們的組成。斯里弗發現螺旋星雲有很高的<a href="/wiki/%E9%83%BD%E5%8D%9C%E5%8B%92%E6%95%88%E6%87%89" class="mw-redirect" title="都卜勒效應">都卜勒頻移</a>，這表明它們的運動速度超過了他所測量到恆星的速度。他發現這些星雲的大多數都在遠離我們<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>。 在1917年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%C2%B7%E6%9F%AF%E8%92%82%E6%96%AF" title="希伯·柯蒂斯">希伯·柯蒂斯</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7" title="仙女座">仙女座</a>星雲中觀測到新星<a href="/wiki/SN_1885A" title="SN 1885A">仙女座S</a>（當時已經將仙女座星系收錄為梅西耶天體，稱為<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">M31</a>）。在蒐索攝影紀錄時，他又發現了11顆。柯蒂斯注意到，這些新星平均比我們銀河系的新星要暗10個<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%AD%89" title="星等">星等</a>。由於這個結果，他估計仙女座星系的距離在150,000<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%92%E5%B7%AE%E8%B7%9D" title="秒差距">秒差距</a>。他成為所謂"島宇宙"假說的支持者，該假說認為螺旋星雲實際上是獨立的星系<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>。 <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E6%B2%99%E6%99%AE%E5%88%A9" title="哈罗·沙普利">哈羅·沙普利</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%C2%B7%E6%9F%AF%E8%92%82%E6%96%AF" title="希伯·柯蒂斯">希伯·柯蒂斯</a>在1920年，就關於星系的性質、螺旋星雲和宇宙的維度的進行了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99%E6%99%AE%E5%88%A9-%E6%9F%AF%E8%92%82%E6%96%AF%E4%B9%8B%E4%BA%89" title="沙普利-柯蒂斯之争">世紀大辯論</a>。為了支持他關於仙女座星雲是銀河系外的一個星系的說法，柯蒂斯注意到銀河系中出現類似於塵埃雲的暗帶，以及顯著的都卜勒頻移<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>。 在1922年，<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E6%B2%99%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="愛沙尼亞">愛沙尼亞</a>天文學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E5%8C%B9%E5%85%8B" title="恩斯特·奧匹克">恩斯特·奧匹克</a>給出了一個距離測定，支持仙女座星雲確實是一個銀河系外天體的理論<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E5%BE%B7%E6%BA%AB%C2%B7%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="愛德溫·哈伯">愛德溫·哈伯</a>使用<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%B0%94%E9%80%8A%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%8F%B0" title="威尔逊山天文台">威爾遜山天文台</a>新的100英吋望遠鏡，可以解析出一些螺旋星雲外側那些恆星集合中的單獨個體，並識別初一些<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E7%88%B6%E8%AE%8A%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="造父變星">造父變星</a>，從而能夠讓他測量出這些星雲的距離：它們太遙遠，不能成為銀河系的一部分<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>。在1926年，哈伯提出了一個至今能在使用的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9E%8B%E6%85%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E#哈伯序列" title="星系型態分類">星系型態分類法</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="現代研究">現代研究</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：現代研究">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GalacticRotation2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GalacticRotation2.svg/langzh-200px-GalacticRotation2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GalacticRotation2.svg/langzh-300px-GalacticRotation2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GalacticRotation2.svg/langzh-400px-GalacticRotation2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption>典型的螺旋星系<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E8%87%AA%E8%BD%89%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" title="星系自轉問題">自轉曲線</a>：（A）根據可見物質預測的曲線，和（B）實際觀測的曲線。距離是從<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%90%83" title="核球">星系核心</a>起算</figcaption></figure> 在1944年，<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7C%C2%B7%E8%8C%83%E5%BE%B7%E8%83%A1%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9" title="亨德里克·C·范德胡斯特">亨德里克·C·范德胡斯特</a>預測可以從星際原子<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="氫">氫</a>氣體中探測到<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2%E7%BA%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="氢线">21公分</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E6%B3%A2" title="微波">微波</a>輻射<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>；並且在1951年有人探測到。這種輻射不受塵埃吸收的影響，因此他的都卜勒頻移可以用來繪製星系中氣體的運動圖。這些觀測的結果導致在我們的星系中心有一個旋轉的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">棒狀結構</a>的假說<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>。隨著<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="電波望遠鏡">電波望遠鏡</a>的改進，也可以追蹤在其他星系中的氫氣。在1970年代，<a href="/wiki/%E8%96%87%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E8%B3%93" title="薇拉·魯賓">薇拉·魯賓</a>的觀測揭示了星系<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E8%87%AA%E8%BD%89%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" title="星系自轉問題">自轉速度</a>與可見的恆星和氣體總質量預測值之間的差異。今天，星系自轉問題被認為是存在著大量看不見的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="暗物質">暗物質</a>來<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>。 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GOODS_South_field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/GOODS_South_field.jpg/220px-GOODS_South_field.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/GOODS_South_field.jpg/330px-GOODS_South_field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/GOODS_South_field.jpg/440px-GOODS_South_field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="31813" data-file-height="19425" /></a><figcaption>科學家們利用<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%8F%B0%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA%E5%B7%A1%E5%A4%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大天文台起源深空巡天（页面不存在）">大天文台起源深空巡天</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Observatories_Origins_Deep_Survey" class="extiw" title="en:Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey">Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey</a>）（GOODS）調查中可見的星系來重新計算星系的總數<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></figcaption></figure> 從20世紀的90年代開始，<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="哈伯太空望遠鏡">哈伯太空望遠鏡</a>獲得了更好的觀測結果。除此之外，哈伯的數據幫助我們確定了銀河系中缺失的暗物質，不可能僅僅由本來就很小很暗的恆星組成<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="哈伯深空">哈伯深空</a>是對天空中非常空曠的部分進行極長時間的曝光，它提供了證據，證明在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%80%E6%B8%AC%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="可觀測宇宙">可觀測宇宙</a>中大約有1,250億（7011125000000000000♠1.25×1011）星系<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>。探測人類看不見的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E9%A0%BB%E8%AD%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="電磁頻譜">光譜</a>的科技進步（電波望遠鏡、紅外線照相機、和<a href="/wiki/X%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="X射线天文学">X射線望遠鏡</a>），可以探測到哈伯未能探測到的星系。特別是在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9A%B1%E5%B8%B6" title="隱帶">隱帶</a>（在可見光波段被銀河系遮蔽的天空區域）的星系調查，揭示了許多新的星系<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>。 在2016年，發表在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E6%9C%9F%E5%88%8A" title="天文物理期刊">天文物理期刊</a>上，由<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%BE%E4%B8%81%E6%BC%A2%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="諾丁漢大學">諾丁漢大學</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Conselice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christopher Conselice（页面不存在）">Christopher Conselice</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Conselice" class="extiw" title="en:Christopher Conselice">Christopher Conselice</a>）領導的一項研究，通過對哈伯太空望遠鏡20年來所收集的影像進行三維建模得出的結論，在可觀測宇宙中有超過2兆個（7012200000000000000♠2×1012）星系<a href="#cite_note-Conselice-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20161017-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="類型和形態">類型和形態</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：類型和形態">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9E%8B%E6%85%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E" title="星系型態分類">星系型態分類</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_sequence_photo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/360px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/540px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hubble_sequence_photo.png/720px-Hubble_sequence_photo.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>根據哈伯分類方案的星系類型： E表示橢圓星系，S是螺旋星系，SB是棒旋星系<a href="#cite_note-62">[note 1]</a></figcaption></figure> 星系主要有三種類型：橢圓星系、螺旋星系和不規則星系。<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%97" title="哈伯序列">哈伯序列</a>根據其外觀，對星系類型的描述更為廣泛。由於哈伯序列完全基於視覺型態的類型（形狀），因此它可能錯過星系的某些重要特徵，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星暴星系">星暴星系</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90" title="恆星形成">恆星形成</a>速率和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="活动星系核">活動星系</a>核心的活動<a href="#cite_note-IRatlas-7">[7]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="橢圓星系">橢圓星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：橢圓星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="橢圓星系">橢圓星系</a></div> 哈伯分類系統根據橢圓度對橢圓星系進行分類，橢圓度從E0到E7（扁平率增加）。這些星系有一個<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%A2%E7%90%83%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="橢球體">橢球體</a>的輪廓，無論觀察角度為何，都呈現出橢圓形的外觀。從它們的外觀來看，幾乎沒有結構，而且通常只有相對較少的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9A%9B%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="星際物質">星際物質</a>。因此，這些星系的<a href="/wiki/%E7%96%8F%E6%95%A3%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="疏散星團">疏散星團</a>比例也很低，而且新恆星形成的速度也將低了。另一方面，它們通常由更古老、更為<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="恆星演化">演化</a>的恆星所支配，它們的恆星以隨機的方向圍繞著共同的質心運行。因為恆星在初始爆發後就停止，恆星只含有低豐度的重元素。從這個意義上說，它們與小得多的<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" title="球狀星團">球狀星團</a>有些相似<a href="#cite_note-elliptical-63">[62]</a>。 最大的星系是巨橢圓星系。許多橢圓星系被認為是由於<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="交互作用星系">星系交互作用</a>所導致的碰撞和合併而形成。它們可以長到巨大的尺寸（例如，與螺旋星系比較），巨橢圓星系通常是在大的星系團核心附近被發現<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a>。 cD 型星系 最大的星系是 cD 型星系，它們通常被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%B7%A8%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="超巨橢圓星系">超巨橢圓星系</a>，是已知暫<a href="/wiki/CD%E5%9E%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="CD型星系">CD型星系</a>最大、最亮的星系。這些星系的特徵是中央橢圓形核，帶有廣泛而微弱的恆星光環，延伸至兆秒差距尺度。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="殼層星系">殼層星系</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：殼層星系">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/220px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/330px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg/440px-NGC_3923_Elliptical_Shell_Galaxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4010" data-file-height="4040" /></a><figcaption>哈伯拍攝的殼層星系<a href="/wiki/NGC_3923" title="NGC 3923">NGC 3923</a></figcaption></figure> 殼層星系是星系暈中的恒星排列在同心殼層中的橢圓星系。大約十分之一的橢圓星系具有這種殼層狀的結構，而在螺旋星系中從未觀測到這種結構。一般認為，當一個較大的星系吸收掉一個較小的衛星星系時，就會形成這種殼層狀的結構。當兩個星系靠近時，中心的恆星就會圍繞著一個中心點開始振盪，這種振盪產生的引力漣漪，類似於在水面上傳播的漣漪，形成恆星的外殼。例如，星系<a href="/wiki/NGC_3923" title="NGC 3923">NGC 3923</a>有超過20個殼層<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="螺旋星系">螺旋星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：螺旋星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="螺旋星系">螺旋星系</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/220px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/330px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg/440px-M101_hires_STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="15852" data-file-height="12392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%A8%E8%BB%8A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="風車星系">風車星系</a>，NGC 5457</figcaption></figure> 螺旋星系類似於螺旋狀<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%A8%E8%BB%8A_(%E7%8E%A9%E5%85%B7)" class="mw-redirect" title="風車 (玩具)">風車</a>。雖然這種星系包含的恆星和其它見的物質大多位於一個平面上，但大多數的質量都存在於<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="暗物質">暗物質</a>中，以大致呈球形的星系暈環繞在星系周圍。星系暈的範圍超出可見部分，通過對<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E8%87%AA%E8%BD%89%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" title="星系自轉問題">星系自轉曲線</a>的觀察，證實了暗物質的分布<a href="#cite_note-Williams2009-66">[65]</a>。 螺旋星系由恆星和星際物質組成旋轉的盤面，較老的恆星一般聚集在中心形成凸起的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%90%83" title="核球">核球</a>，相對較明亮的螺旋臂從核球向外延伸。在哈伯分類系統中，螺旋星系以S代表類型，後面跟隨小寫字母（a、b、或c），表示螺旋臂的鬆緊度和中央核球的大小。Sa是星系的螺旋臂緊密，以致不易界定範圍和辨識，並且擁有相對較大的核球。另一端的例子是Sc，呈現開放的狀態，螺旋臂可以明確的辨認，核球也相對較小<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a>。螺旋臂不明確的螺旋星系有時會稱為<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%AE%E7%B5%90%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="絮結螺旋星系">絮結螺旋星系</a>；與擁有突出且可明確辨識螺旋臂的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8F%E8%A7%80%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="宏觀螺旋星系">宏觀螺旋星系</a>形成鮮明的對比<a href="#cite_note-bergh1998-68">[67]</a>。因為有些螺旋星系的盤面有厚厚的凸起，而另一些則很薄又密實，因此星系旋轉的速度被認為與圓盤的平坦度相關<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a>。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/300px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/450px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg/600px-Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6637" data-file-height="3787" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NGC_1300" title="NGC 1300">NGC 1300</a>：一個<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">棒旋星系</a>的例子</figcaption></figure> 在螺旋星系中，螺旋臂的形狀確實具有近似<a href="/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E8%A7%92%E8%9E%BA%E7%B7%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="等角螺線">等角螺線</a>的形狀。從理論上講，這種模式可以證明是恆星均勻旋轉質量的擾動造成的。與恆星一樣，螺旋臂圍繞中心旋轉，但它們以恆定的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E9%80%9F%E5%BA%A6" title="角速度">角速度</a>旋轉。螺旋臂被認為是物質密度高的區域，或"<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6%E6%B3%A2%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="密度波理论">密度波</a>"<a href="#cite_note-bertin_lin1996-70">[69]</a>。當恆星穿過螺旋臂時，每顆恆星的系統的空間速度被高密度的引力改變（當恆星從另一側離開後，速度恢復正常。）。這種效應類似於在高速公路上行駛的汽車因局部擁塞時減速的"浪潮"。因為高密度促進恆星的形成，因此它們蘊藏著許多明亮且年輕的恆星，這使螺旋臂較顯而易見<a href="#cite_note-belkora355-71">[70]</a>。 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoag%27s_object.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/220px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/330px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hoag%27s_object.jpg/440px-Hoag%27s_object.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1521" data-file-height="1489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E6%A0%BC%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93" title="霍格天体">霍格天體</a>：一個<a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="環星系">環星系</a>的例子</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="棒旋星系">棒旋星系</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：棒旋星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">棒旋星系</a></div> 大多數的螺旋星系，包括我們自己的<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a>，都有一個線性的條狀帶，向外延伸至核心的兩側，然後銜接到螺旋臂的結構上<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a>。在哈伯分類系統中，這類星系以"SB"表示，後面跟隨小寫字母（a、b、或c），表示螺旋臂的形態（與正常螺旋星系的分類相同）。棒被認為是臨時結構，由於密度波從核心向外輻射，或可能是與其他星系的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%BD%AE%E6%B1%90" title="星系潮汐">潮汐交互作用</a>而發生<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a>。可能是氣體沿著螺旋臂被引導至核心，許多棒旋星系是活躍的<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a>。 我們自己的星系，<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a>，是有著巨大圓盤形狀的棒旋星系<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a>，直徑大約30,000秒差距，厚約1,000秒差距。包含大約2千億（2×1011）顆恆星<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a>。恆星的總質量大約是6,000億（6×1011）<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽質量">太陽質量</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="超亮螺旋星系">超亮螺旋星系</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：超亮螺旋星系">编辑</a>]</div> 最近，研究人描述了一種稱為超亮螺旋的星系。它們非常巨大，直徑可能超過437,000光年（銀河系的直徑只有100,000光年）。它們的質量估計為3,400億太陽質量，產生大量的紫外線和中紅外線。科學家認為它們的恆星形成速度比我們的銀河系快30倍左右<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="其他型態">其他型態</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：其他型態">编辑</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="特殊星系">特殊星系</a>是由於和其他星系的潮汐交互作用而形成的星系結構。 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="環星系">環星系</a>有一個由恆星和星際物質組成的環狀結構，圍繞著一個裸露的核心。環星系被認為是在一個較小的星系穿過一個螺旋星系的核心時產生的<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a>。此類事件可能影響了<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#結構" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>，因為當使用<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%85%E5%A4%96%E7%B7%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="紅外線">紅外線</a>觀測它時，它顯示出多環狀的結構<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a>。</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%8F%E9%8F%A1%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="透鏡狀星系">透鏡星系</a>是一種兼具橢圓星系和螺旋星系性質的中間形式。它們在<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%97" title="哈伯序列">哈伯分類系統</a>被歸類為S0型，有著界線不明確的螺旋臂和橢圓的恆星<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%8F%E9%8F%A1%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#棒狀" title="透鏡狀星系">透鏡星系</a>在哈伯分類為SB0。）。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="不規則星系">不規則星系</a>是指不能明確劃分為橢圓或螺旋形態的星系。 <ul><li>Irr-I有一些結構，但並不符合哈伯分類系統的結構，可能是遠本的結構已經被破壞了。</li> <li>Irr-II沒有任何類似哈伯分類系統的結構，也可能是完全被破壞了。 <a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a>。附近的（矮星系）不規則星系包括<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%80%AB%E9%9B%B2" title="麥哲倫雲">麥哲倫雲</a>。</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E7%A8%80%E7%96%8F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="超稀疏星系">超稀疏星系</a>（ultra diffuse galaxy，UDG）是密度極低的星系。這種星系可能與銀河系大小相同，但可見的恆星數量僅為銀河系的1%。缺乏光度是因為它缺少形成恆星的氣體，這導致它只有古老的恆星族群。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="矮星系">矮星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：矮星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮星系">矮星系</a></div> 儘管有突出的橢圓星系和螺旋星系，但大多數星系都是矮星系。與其它星系比較，這些星系相對嬌小，大小大約是銀河系的1%，只包含數十億顆恆星。最近發現有超緻密的矮星系，它們的大小只有100秒差距 <a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a>。 許多矮星系可能圍繞著一個更大的星系運行；我們的銀河系至少有十餘顆這樣的衛星星系，估計還有300-500顆尚未發現<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a>。矮星系也可以分為<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮橢圓星系">橢圓</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮螺旋星系">螺旋</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="不規則星系">不規則</a>。由於小的矮橢圓星系與大的橢圓星系幾乎沒有相似之處，所以它們通常會被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%A9%A2%E7%90%83%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮橢球星系">矮橢球星系</a>來取代。 一項對銀河系附近27個矮星系的研究發現，不管這個矮星系有數千萬顆還是數億顆恆星，它的核心質量均約為1,000萬<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="太陽質量">太陽質量</a>。這導致了這樣的一種說法：星系主要由<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="暗物質">暗物質</a>形成，最小的尺寸可能表明一種<a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA#溫暗物質" class="mw-redirect" title="暗物質">溫暗物質</a>無法在較小的尺度上進行引力合併的形式（性質）<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="其它類型的星系">其它類型的星系</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：其它類型的星系">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="交互作用">交互作用</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：交互作用">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="交互作用星系">交互作用星系</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/200px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/300px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg/400px-Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3915" data-file-height="3885" /></a><figcaption>正在經歷一場碰撞中的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%B8%E9%AC%9A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="觸鬚星系">觸鬚星系</a>，最終將導致它們合併</figcaption></figure> 星系間的交互作用相對頻繁，這在<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%92%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="星系的形成和演化">星系演化</a>中扮演重要的角色。星系間的擦身而過會由於<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%BD%AE%E6%B1%90" title="星系潮汐">潮汐交互作用</a>而導致扭曲變形，並可能導致一些氣體和塵埃的交換<a href="#cite_note-umda-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-88">[87]</a>。 當兩個星系直接穿過彼此，就會發生碰撞，但如果有足夠的相對動量，就不會合併。交互作用星系中的恆星通常不會發生碰撞，但在兩者中的氣體和塵埃會相互作用，由實惠觸發恆星的生成。碰撞也會嚴重扭曲星系的型狀，形成棒狀、環狀或尾狀結構<a href="#cite_note-umda-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-88">[87]</a> 最極端的交互作用是星系合併。在這種情況下，兩個星系的相對動量不足以讓兩個星系彼此通過。取而代之的是它們逐漸合併成一個更大的單一星系。與原本的星系對比，合併會導致形態上顯著的改變。如果合併的星系之一比另一個星系大很多，那麼過程的結果會被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#吞噬" title="交互作用星系">吞噬</a>。質量相對大很多的星系，相對的不會受到合併的影響，而較小的星系則會四分五裂。銀河系目前正在吞噬<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A6%AC%E5%BA%A7%E7%9F%AE%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="人馬座矮橢圓星系">人馬座矮橢圓星系</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%8A%AC%E5%BA%A7%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="大犬座矮星系">大犬座矮星系</a> <a href="#cite_note-umda-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-suia-88">[87]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="星暴星系">星暴星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：星暴星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星暴星系">星暴星系</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/200px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/300px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg/400px-M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9500" data-file-height="7400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E8%8C%84%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="雪茄星系">M82</a>是一個<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星暴星系">星暴星系</a>。它的恆星形成量是正常星系的10倍<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></figcaption></figure> 在星系中的恆星是由巨大<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%B2" title="分子雲">分子雲</a>中儲備的冷氣體形成的。一些星系被觀察到以異常的速度形成恆星，這就是所謂的恆星爆發。如果它繼續這樣做，那麼將會在比星系壽命短的時間內消耗掉它們儲備的氣體。因此，恆星爆發通常只會持續大約一千萬年，這在星系的生命史上是相對較短的時間。星暴星系在宇宙早期更為常見<a href="#cite_note-chandra-90">[89]</a>，即使在現在，估計仍有15%的星系有這樣的恆星產生率<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a>。 星暴星系的特徵是氣體塵埃的濃度和新形成恆星的出現，包括大質量恆星電離周圍的雲氣形成<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A6%BB%E6%B0%A2%E5%8C%BA" title="电离氢区">H II區域</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a>。這些大質量恆星產生<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%96%B0%E6%98%9F" title="超新星">超新星</a>爆炸，導致膨脹的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%96%B0%E6%98%9F%E9%81%BA%E8%B7%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="超新星遺跡">殘餘物</a>與周圍的氣體發生強而有力的交互作用。這些爆發引發恆星形成的連鎖反應，擴散到整個氣態區域。只有當可用的氣體幾乎被消耗或分散時，星爆活動才會結束<a href="#cite_note-chandra-90">[89]</a>。 恆星爆發通常與星系合併或交互作用相關。這種星暴形成交互作用的原型例子是<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E8%8C%84%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="雪茄星系">M82</a>，它曾經與較大的<a href="/wiki/M81" class="mw-disambig" title="M81">M81</a>有過一次親密接觸。不規則星系經常表現出星爆活動的間隔結<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="活躍星系">活躍星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：活躍星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E8%BA%8D%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="活躍星系核">活躍星系核</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M87_jet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/200px-M87_jet.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/300px-M87_jet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/M87_jet.jpg/400px-M87_jet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>從核心發射出一股粒子噴流的橢圓電波星系<a href="/wiki/M87" class="mw-redirect" title="M87">M87</a></figcaption></figure> 如果星系中包含一個活躍星系核（AGN），那麼有一部分觀測到的星系會被歸類為活躍星系。這種星系輸出的總能量有很大的一部分來是活躍星系核的發射，而不是由恆星、塵埃和星系的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9A%9B%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="星際物質">星際物質</a>發射。 <a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E8%BA%8D%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="活躍星系核">活躍星系核</a>的標準模型是基於圍繞該星系核心區<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="超大質量黑洞">超大質量黑洞</a>（SMBH）形成的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B8%E7%A7%AF%E7%9B%98" title="吸积盘">吸積盤</a><a href="#cite_note-keel-94">[93]</a>。在大約10%的星系中，一對方向截然相反的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA%E6%80%A7%E5%96%B7%E6%B5%81" title="相对论性喷流">高能噴流</a>已接近<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%80%9F" title="光速">光速</a>的速度從星系核新噴出粒子。產生這種噴流的機制尚不清楚<a href="#cite_note-monster-95">[94]</a>。 <ul><li>依據它們亮度來分類的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BD%9B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="西佛星系">西佛星系</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%9E%E6%98%9F%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="類星體">類星體</a>，是以<a href="/wiki/X%E5%B0%84%E7%B7%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="X射線">X射線</a>的形式發射高能輻射的活躍星系。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="耀變體">耀變體</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：耀變體">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%80%E5%8F%98%E4%BD%93" title="耀变体">耀變體</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%E8%80%80%E5%8F%98%E4%BD%93" title="耀变体">耀變體</a>（Blazar）被認為是一種活躍星系，有一個指向地球方向的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA%E6%80%A7%E5%96%B7%E6%B5%81" title="相对论性喷流">相對論性噴流</a>。一個<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="電波星系">電波星系</a>從相對論性噴流發射電波的頻率。活動星系的統一模型認為，可以根據觀察者的視角解釋它們之間的差異<a href="#cite_note-monster-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="低電離星系核">低電離星系核</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：低電離星系核">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E9%9B%BB%E9%9B%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="低電離星系核">低電離星系核</a></div> 可能與活躍星系核（以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4" title="星暴">星暴</a>區域）有關的是<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E9%9B%BB%E9%9B%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="低電離星系核">低電離星系核發射區域</a>（LINERs）。這種類型星系的發射主要由弱<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E9%9B%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="電離">電離</a>的元素控制。弱電離輻射的激發元包括後<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%B8%E8%BF%91%E5%B7%A8%E6%98%9F%E6%94%AF" title="漸近巨星支">AGB</a>星、AGN、和激波<a href="#cite_note-heckman1980-96">[95]</a>。在鄰近的星系中，大約三分之一的被歸類為含有低電離星系核的核心<a href="#cite_note-keel-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-heckman1980-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoetal1997b-97">[96]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="西佛星系">西佛星系</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：西佛星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BD%9B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="西佛星系">西佛星系</a></div> 西佛星系是最大的兩個活耀星系群之一，另一群是類星體。它們有類似於類星體的核心（非常高光度、遙遠和明亮的電磁輻射源），表面亮度非常高，但與類星體不同的是可以清楚的探測到它們的宿主星系。西佛星系約佔所有星系的10%。在可見光下，大多數西佛星系看起來像正常的螺旋星系，但在使用其它波長研究時，其核心的亮度相當於整個銀河系大小星系的光度。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="類星體">類星體</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：類星體">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%9E%E6%98%9F%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="類星體">類星體</a></div> 類星體（/ˈkweɪzɑr/）或準恆星電波源是能量最大、距離最遠的活躍星系核成員。類星體具有極高的亮度，最初被認為是包括電波和可見光的高紅移電磁能量源。它們看起來類似於恆星，而不是類似星系的擴展源。它們的亮度可以是我們銀河系的100倍。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="亮紅外星系">亮紅外星系</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节：亮紅外星系">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AE%E7%B4%85%E5%A4%96%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="亮紅外星系">亮紅外星系</a></div> 亮紅外星系（LIRGs）是亮度測量值超過1011 L☉的星系。在可比較的總光度下，LIRGs比星暴星系、西佛星系、和類星體的數量更為豐富。亮紅外星系在紅外線中發射的能量比其它所有波長的總和還要多。LIRGs的亮度是太陽的1,000億倍。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="性質">性質</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=24" title="编辑章节：性質">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="磁場">磁場</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节：磁場">编辑</a>]</div> 星系有自己的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%A0%B4" title="磁場">磁場</a><a href="#cite_note-galactic_magnetic_fields-98">[97]</a>。它們強大到足以在動力學上起重要的作用：它們推動質量流入星系中心，改變螺旋壁的形成，並影響星系周邊氣體的旋轉。磁場提供了氣體雲崩塌和新恆星形成所需要的角動量傳輸。 [螺旋星系]]的平均均分強度約為1010μG（<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="高斯">微高斯</a>）或1 nT （<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%B9%E6%96%AF%E6%8B%89_(%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D)" title="特斯拉 (单位)">奈特斯拉</a>）。相較之下，地球磁場的平均強度約為0.3G（高斯或30μT（特斯拉|微特斯拉]]））。像<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">M31</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E8%A7%92%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="三角座星系">M33</a>，我們<a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="銀河系">銀河系</a>的鄰居，這樣的弱電波星系，其磁場較弱（約5 μG）。而恆星形成率高、富含氣體的星系，例如M51、M83、和NGC 6946，平均有15μG。在突出的螺旋臂中，也是楞氣體和塵埃其中的區域，磁場强度可達25μG。最強的總均分場（50-100μG）出現在<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星暴星系">星暴星系</a>中，例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%AA%E8%8C%84%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="雪茄星系">M82</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%B8%E9%AC%9A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="觸鬚星系">觸鬚星系</a>，以及核星暴區域，例如NGC 1097和其它<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">棒旋星系</a>的中心<a href="#cite_note-galactic_magnetic_fields-98">[97]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="形成和演化">形成和演化</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=26" title="编辑章节：形成和演化">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%92%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="星系的形成和演化">星系的形成和演化</a></div> 星系的形成和演化在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="天體物理學">天體物理學</a>中是一個活躍的研究領域。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="形成">形成</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=27" title="编辑章节：形成">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/220px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/330px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg/440px-Artist%27s_impression_of_a_protocluster_forming_in_the_early_Universe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>藝術家對早期宇宙形成源生星團的想像<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> 現時早期宇宙的宇宙學模型是基於<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸">大爆炸</a>理論。大約在大爆炸30萬年後，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="氫">氫</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>原子開始形成，這一事件被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%A9%E5%90%88_(%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%B8)" title="復合 (宇宙學)">復合</a>。幾乎所有的氫都是中性的（非電離的），在這之前光子很容易被吸收，而且恆星也還沒有開始形成。因此，這個時期之前被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8#黑暗時期" title="宇宙年表">黑暗時期</a>。正是由於這種原始物質的密度波動（或<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%84%E5%90%91%E5%BC%82%E6%80%A7" title="各向异性">各向異性</a>的不規則性），<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90" title="結構形成">大尺度結構</a>開始出現。結果，大量的<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="重子">重子</a>開始在<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%B7%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="冷暗物质">冷暗物質</a>暈內凝結<a href="#cite_note-hqrdvj-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-rmaa17_107-101">[100]</a>。這些原始結構最終將成為我們今天看到的星系。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/200px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/300px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg/400px-Young_Galaxy_Accreting_Material.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>藝術家對年輕星系吸積物質的想像</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="早期星系">早期星系</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=28" title="编辑章节：早期星系">编辑</a>]</div> 2006年發現了星系出現的最早期證據，當時人們發現星系<a href="/wiki/IOK-1" title="IOK-1">IOK-1</a>有著高達6.96的異常<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%85%E7%A7%BB" title="紅移">紅移</a>，相當於大爆炸發生後的7.5億年，是迄今所見最遙遠、最原始的星系<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a>。 雖然一些科學家聲稱其它天體（例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE1835_IR1916" title="阿貝爾1835 IR1916">阿貝爾1835 IR1916</a>）具有更高的紅移（因此可以在宇宙演化的早期階段看到），但IOK-1的年齡和組成以敬更可靠的確定。在2012年12月，天文學家報告說<a href="/wiki/UDFj-39546284" title="UDFj-39546284">UDFj-39546284</a>是已知最遠的天體，紅移值11.9。估計這個天體存在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸">大爆炸</a>（大約在138億年前）之後3.8億年<a href="#cite_note-Space-20121212-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cosmic_Detectives-104">[103]</a>，距離我們大約134.2<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%9D%E9%9B%A2%E6%B8%AC%E9%87%8F_(%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%AD%B8)" title="距離測量 (宇宙學)">光行程年</a>。這種早期<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="原星系">原星系</a>的存在表明，它們一定是在所謂的"黑暗時代"生長的<a href="#cite_note-hqrdvj-100">[99]</a>。截至2015年5月，星系<a href="/wiki/EGS-zs8-1" title="EGS-zs8-1">EGS-zs8-1</a>是測量到最遙遠、最早的星系，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8" title="大爆炸">大爆炸</a>之後6.7億年形成。EGS-zs8-1的光花了130億年才到達地球，而因為在130億年裡<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E8%86%A8%E8%84%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="宇宙膨脹">宇宙膨脹</a>的緣故，它現在距離地球遠達300億光年<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-phys.org-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="早期星系形成">早期星系形成</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=29" title="编辑章节：早期星系形成">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/220px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/330px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg/440px-Signatures_of_the_Earliest_Galaxies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="929" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="哈伯太空望遠鏡">哈伯太空望遠鏡</a>在深空探測中檢測到不同成分的近紅外背景光<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a></figcaption></figure> 在天體物理學中，早期星系形成的詳細過程是一個懸而未決的問題。理論上可以分為兩類：自上而下和自下而上。在自上而下的關聯（例如Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage的[ELS]模型）中，原星系在持續大約一億年的大規模同時的坍塌中形成<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a>。在自下而上的理論中（如Searle-Zinn的[SZ]模型），如<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" title="球狀星團">球狀星團</a>的小結構首先形成，然後大量這樣的天體吸積形成一個更大的<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a>。 一但原星系開始形成和收縮，第一顆<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#星系扁球體" title="螺旋星系">暈星</a>（稱為<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%97%8F#最老的恆星" title="星族">第三族恆星</a>）出現在它們的內部。它們幾乎完全由氫組成，而且可能是巨大的。如果是這樣的話，這些巨大的恆星會很快耗盡它們的燃料，變成<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%96%B0%E6%98%9F" title="超新星">超新星</a>，將重元素釋放出並成為到<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9A%9B%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="星際物質">星際物質</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a>。第一代恆星重新電離了周圍的中性氫，形成在空間中不斷膨脹的氣泡，光子很容易通過這些氣泡傳播<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a>。 在2015年6月，天文學家報告發現<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%97%8F#最老的恆星" title="星族">第三族恆星</a>存在於 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r58896141">.mw-parser-output .serif{font-family:Times,serif}</style>z = 6.60的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%B4%85%E7%A7%BB7%E8%99%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="宇宙紅移7號星系">宇宙紅移7號星系</a>的證據。這類恆星很可能存在於非常早期的宇宙中（即高紅移），並且可能已經開始產生比<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="氫">氫</a>重的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="化學元素">化學元素</a>，而這些元素是我們所知之後形成行星和生命所需要的<a href="#cite_note-AJ-20150604-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150617-116">[115]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="演化">演化</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=30" title="编辑章节：演化">编辑</a>]</div> 在星系形成的10億年內，關鍵的結構開始出現。<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" title="球狀星團">球狀星團</a>、中央的超大質量黑洞，和一個缺乏金屬的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%90%83" title="核球">核球</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%B1%AC%E9%87%8F" title="金屬量">第二星族星</a>開始形成。超大質量黑洞似乎在通過限制過量的物質和總質量，來積極調節星系的增長方面，起著關鍵作用<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a>。在這個早期，星系經歷了一次恆星形成的大爆發<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a>。 在接下來的20億年裡，積累的物質沉澱成一個<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9B%A4" title="星系盤">星系盤</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a>。星系將在其整個生命週期內，不斷吸收來自<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%80%9F%E9%9B%B2" title="高速雲">高速雲</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮星系">矮星系</a>的物質<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a>，這些物質主要是氫和氦。恆星誕生和死亡的循環，緩慢地增加重元素的豐度，最終允許<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F" title="行星">行星</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9B%B2%E5%81%87%E8%AA%AA" title="星雲假說">形成</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a>。 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E6%A5%B5%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA" title="哈伯極深空">哈伯極深空</a>（XDF）</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/200px-XDF-scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/300px-XDF-scale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/XDF-scale.jpg/400px-XDF-scale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2489" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E6%A5%B5%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA" title="哈伯極深空">哈伯極深空</a>（XDF）的視野與<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%88%E7%90%83" title="月球">月球</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E7%9B%B4%E5%BE%91" title="角直徑">角尺寸</a>的比較。在這個小視野中有幾千個星系，而每一個星系都由數十億顆<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="恆星">恆星</a>組成。</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/200px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/300px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg/400px-The_Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="2078" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">2012年的<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E6%A5%B5%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA" title="哈伯極深空">哈伯極深空</a>（XDF）觀點：每個光點都是一個星系，其中一些有132億年的歷史<a href="#cite_note-Space-20120925-122">[121]</a>；估計<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%80%E6%B8%AC%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="可觀測宇宙">可觀測宇宙</a>包含2,000億到2兆個星系。</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:XDF-separated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/200px-XDF-separated.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/300px-XDF-separated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/XDF-separated.jpg/400px-XDF-separated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2101" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"> <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E6%A5%B5%E6%B7%B1%E7%A9%BA" title="哈伯極深空">哈伯極深空</a>（XDF）的影像顯示（從左至右）完全成熟的星系（少於50億年）、接近成熟的星系（從50億到90億年前）、和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="原星系">原星系</a>、燃燒著的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B9%B4%E8%BC%95%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="年輕恆星（页面不存在）">年輕恆星</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_age_estimation" class="extiw" title="en:Stellar age estimation">Stellar age estimation</a>）（超過90億年）。</div></div></div></div></div> 星系的演化會受到交互作用和碰撞的顯著影響。星系合併在早期是很常見的，而且大多數的星系型態都很特殊<a href="#cite_note-sa296-123">[122]</a>。考慮到恆星之間的距離，碰撞星系中絕大多數的恆星系統並不會受到影響。然而，構成螺旋臂的星際氣體和塵埃受到引力剝離，會產生一長串稱為潮汐尾的恆星流。在<a href="/wiki/NGC_4676" class="mw-redirect" title="NGC 4676">NGC 4676</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%B8%E9%AC%9A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="觸鬚星系">觸鬚星系</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a>的例子可以看見形成的潮汐尾。 銀河系和附近的仙女座星系正以大約130<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%83%E7%B1%B3/%E7%A7%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="千米/秒（页面不存在）">千米/秒</a>的速度相互接近。根據徑向速度，兩者在大約50到60億年後相撞。儘管銀河系以前從未與仙女座星系那麼大的星係發生碰撞，但過去曾與較小的矮星系碰撞的證據越來越多<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a>。 如此大規模的相互作用是罕見的。隨著時間的推移，兩個規模相等的星系核變得越來越罕見。在過去的數十億年裡，大多數明亮的星系基本上保持不變，恆星形成的速率可能也在100億年前就達到頂峰<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="未來趨勢">未來趨勢</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=31" title="编辑章节：未來趨勢">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A8%E8%84%B9%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%AA%E4%BE%86" class="mw-redirect" title="膨脹宇宙的未來">膨脹宇宙的未來</a></div> 螺旋星系和銀河系一樣，只要螺旋臂中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%B2" title="分子雲">分子雲</a>有密集的星際氫，就會產生新一代的恆星<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a>。橢圓星系基本上沒有這種氣體，因此形成的新恒星很少<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a>。恒星形成物質的供應是有限的；一旦恒星將可用的氫供應轉化為更重的元素，新恒星的形成就會結束<a href="#cite_note-cosmic_battle-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a>。 目前的恆星形成時代，預計將持續長達1,000億年。然後"恒星時代"將因為我們宇宙中最小、壽命最長的恆星，微小的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%85%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F" title="紅矮星">紅矮星</a>開始衰亡，在大約10兆到100兆年（1013–1014年）逐漸消退。在恒星時代末期，星系將由<a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%BB%E5%AF%86%E6%98%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="緻密星">緻密天體</a>組成：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%95%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F" title="棕矮星">棕矮星</a>、冷卻中或已經冷卻的<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F" title="白矮星">白矮星</a>（即<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F" title="黑矮星">黑矮星</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90%E6%98%9F" title="中子星">中子星</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="黑洞">黑洞</a>。最終，由於<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%9B%E8%B1%AB%E6%99%82%E9%96%93" class="mw-redirect" title="弛豫時間">引力弛豫</a>，所有的恆星若不是落入星系中心的超大質量黑洞，就是由於碰撞而落入星系間空間<a href="#cite_note-cosmic_battle-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="大尺度結構">大尺度結構</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=32" title="编辑章节：大尺度結構">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度結構">大尺度結構</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%BA%96%E7%B6%AD%E7%8B%80%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度纖維狀結構">大尺度纖維狀結構</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=Galaxy_groups_and_clusters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galaxy groups and clusters（页面不存在）">Galaxy groups and clusters</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_groups_and_clusters" class="extiw" title="en:Galaxy groups and clusters">Galaxy groups and clusters</a>）</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:234px;max-width:234px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/230px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/345px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg/460px-Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1392" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BD%9B%E5%85%AD%E9%87%8D%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="西佛六重星系">西佛六重星系</a>是一個緻密星系群的例子。</div></div></div></div></div> 深空探測顯示，星系通常以群或<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="星系團">團</a>的形式存在。在過去的十億年裡，沒有與另一個質量相當的星系發生明顯交互作用的孤立星系相對稀少。在被調查的星系中，大約只有5%的星系被發現是真正孤立的；然而，這些孤立的星系在過去可能與其它星系發生交互作用，甚至合併，而且可能還有較小的衛星星系在軌道上圍繞著它運行。孤立星系<a href="#cite_note-133">[note 2]</a>的氣體不會被附近的星系剝離，所以產生恆星的速率比正常的要高<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a>。 在最大的尺度上，宇宙不斷的膨脹，導致各個星系之間的平均距離增加（參見<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="哈伯定律">哈伯定律</a>）。星系集團中的成員可以通過相互間的引力，在局部的尺度上克服這種膨脹。當暗物質將這些星系拉在一起時，這種關聯性很早就已經形成了。鄰近的群體，後來又合併成更大規模的群聚。這個正在進行的合併過程（以及流入氣體的湧入）將星系團內的星系際氣體加熱到非常高的溫度，達到30-100兆<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E6%BA%AB%E6%A8%99" class="mw-redirect" title="熱力學溫標">K</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a>。在一個星系團中，大約70–80% 的質量是以暗物質的形態存在著，另外10-30%的質量是由這種被加熱的氣體組成，剩下的少部分才以星系的形式存在<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a>。 大多數星系在引力作用下與許多其它星系相連。它們形成了一個類似<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%BD%A2" title="分形">分形</a>的簇狀結構層次分佈，最小的這種關聯稱為群。星系群是最常見的星系團類型，這些構造包含了宇宙中大多數的星系（以及大部分<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="重子">重子</a>的質量）<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a>。為了維持這樣一個星系群的引力束縛，每個成員星系的速度必須足夠的低，才不至於逃逸（參見<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E9%87%8C%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="維里定理">維里定理</a>）。然而，若沒有足夠的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E8%83%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="動能">動能</a>，這些星系可能會通過合併，演化成星系數量較少的星系群<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a>。 <div role="note" style="margin-left: 1em;" class="unresolved skin-invert"><div style="display: inline-block; border: 1px solid #aaa; background-color: #fcf9f9; margin-right: 0.5em; padding: 0.3em 0.5em;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Red_question_mark.svg/20px-Red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Red_question_mark.svg/30px-Red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Red_question_mark.svg/40px-Red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="450" /> 宇宙中<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="宇宙最大結構（页面不存在）">宇宙最大結構</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cosmic_structures" class="extiw" title="en:List of largest cosmic structures">List of largest cosmic structures</a>）比預期的還要大。這些是實際的結構，還是隨機的密度波動？</div> – 物理學</div> 星系團由數百至數千個星系組成，它們被引力束縛在一起<a href="#cite_note-Hubble_protocluster-140">[138]</a>。星系團通常由一個巨大的橢圓星系控制，這個星系稱為<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E4%BA%AE%E5%9C%98%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="最亮團星系">最亮團星系</a>，隨著時間的推移，<a href="/wiki/%E6%BD%AE%E6%B1%90%E5%8A%9B" title="潮汐力">潮汐力</a>摧毀了它的衛星星系，並將它們的質量據為己有<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a>。 <a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" title="超星系團">超星系團</a>包含數以萬計的星系，其中的成員以星系團、星系群、甚至個別的星系存在。在宇宙的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度結構">大尺度結構</a>中，星系被排列成薄片和細絲圍繞著巨大的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E" class="mw-disambig" title="空洞">空洞</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a>。在這個尺度之上，宇宙似乎在所有方向上都是相同的（<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%84%E5%90%91%E5%90%8C%E6%80%A7" title="各向同性">各向同性</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9D%87%E8%B3%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="均質（页面不存在）">均質</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikt:Homogeneity" class="extiw" title="en:wikt:Homogeneity">wikt:Homogeneity</a>）<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a>，儘管此一概念在最近幾年受到許多大型結構的挑戰，但這些發現似乎超過了這個規模。<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A6%E4%BB%99%EF%BC%8D%E5%8C%97%E5%86%95%E5%BA%A7%E9%95%B7%E5%9F%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="武仙－北冕座長城">武仙－北冕座長城</a>的長度為100億光年（30億秒差距），是目前在宇宙中發現的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="最大結構（页面不存在）">最大結構</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cosmic_structures" class="extiw" title="en:List of largest cosmic structures">List of largest cosmic structures</a>）<a href="#cite_note-HBHT2-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-HBHT-145">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-cookie-146">[144]</a>。 銀河系是名為<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="本星系群">本星系群</a>集團的成員，這是一個相對較小的星系群，直徑大約100萬秒差距。銀河系和仙女座星系是其中最亮的兩個星系；其它許多成員都是矮星系，是這兩個星系的衛星星系<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a>。本星系團本身又是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A4%E5%A5%B3%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="室女超星系團">室女超星系團</a>內的一個似雲狀結構的一部分，這是以<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A4%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" title="室女座星系團">室女座星系團</a>為中心的星系群和星系團組成的擴張形結構<a href="#cite_note-tully1982-148">[146]</a>。而室女超星系團本身又是巨大的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%AD%9A-%E9%AF%A8%E9%AD%9A%E5%BA%A7%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98%E8%A4%87%E5%90%88%E9%AB%94" title="雙魚-鯨魚座超星系團複合體">雙魚-鯨魚座超星系團複合體</a>的一部分。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/225px--NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="225" height="127" data-durationhint="50" data-mwtitle="NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="3840" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/57/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm/NASA-HubbleLegacyFieldZoomOut-20190502.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption><div align="center"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E4%BC%AF%E9%81%BA%E8%B4%88%E5%A0%B4" title="哈伯遺贈場">哈伯遺贈場</a>（50秒的短片）<a href="#cite_note-EA-2019052-149">[147]</a></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/220px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/330px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg/440px-The_southern_plane_of_the_Milky_Way_from_the_ATLASGAL_survey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4746" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption>次毫米波長觀看的銀河系盤面南側<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="多波段觀測">多波段觀測</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=33" title="编辑章节：多波段觀測">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E6%B8%AC%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="觀測天文學">觀測天文學</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Andromeda_galaxy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/220px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/330px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Andromeda_galaxy.jpg/440px-Andromeda_galaxy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6200" data-file-height="6200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">這張<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%99%E5%A5%B3%E5%BA%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="仙女座星系">仙女座星系</a>的紫外線影像顯示的藍色區域包含年輕大質量的恒星。</div></div></div></div></div> 大部分恆星的輻射峰值都在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A6%8B%E5%85%89" class="mw-redirect" title="可見光">可見光譜</a>中，因此觀測形成星系的恆星一直是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%81%E5%85%89%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="可见光天文学">可見光天文學</a>的重要組成部分。它也是以光譜觀測<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A6%BB%E6%B0%A2%E5%8C%BA" title="电离氢区">電離氫區</a>和研究塵埃臂分布的有利部分。 存在<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%9A%9B%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="星際物質">星際物質</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%A1%B5%E5%9F%83" title="宇宙塵埃">塵埃</a>對可見光是不透明的。它對<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%A0%E7%B4%85%E5%A4%96%E7%B7%9A%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="遠紅外線天文學">遠紅外線</a>較為透明，可以用來非常詳細地觀察巨大分子雲和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%90%83" title="核球">核球</a>的內部區域<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a>。紅外線也被用來觀察形成得更早的遙遠的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%85%E7%A7%BB" title="紅移">紅移</a>星系。水蒸氣和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3" title="二氧化碳">二氧化碳</a>吸收了許多有用的紅外光譜部分，因此高空或太空望遠鏡被用於<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A2%E5%A4%96%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="红外天文学">紅外天文學</a>。 第一次對星系，特別是活躍星系的非可見光研究是利用<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="電波天文學">電波頻率</a>進行的。地球大氣層對在5<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%AB%E8%8C%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="赫茲">Hz</a>到30GHz之間的電波幾乎是透明的（<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E9%9B%A2%E5%B1%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="電離層">電離層</a>阻止低於此頻率的信號）<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a>。大的電波<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%B2%E6%B6%89%E6%B8%AC%E9%87%8F%E8%A1%93" title="干涉測量術">干涉儀</a>被用來繪製活躍星系核發射的活躍噴流。 <a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E6%9C%9B%E9%81%A0%E9%8F%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="電波望遠鏡">電波望遠鏡</a>也可以用於觀測中性氫（通過<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2%E7%BA%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="氢线">21公分輻射</a>），包括，潛在的，早期宇宙中後來崩塌形成星系的非電離<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a>。 <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%AB%E5%A4%96%E7%B7%9A%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="紫外線天文學">紫外線</a>和<a href="/wiki/X%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="X射线天文学">X射線望遠鏡</a>可以觀測到高能量的星系現象。當遙遠星系中的恆星被附近黑洞的潮汐力撕裂時，有時會觀測到紫外線閃焰（耀斑）<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a>。熱氣體在星系團中的分布可以用X射線來描繪。通過X射線天文學證實了星系核心存在超大質量黑洞<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="相關條目">相關條目</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=34" title="编辑章节：相關條目">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79074265">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width:30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="暗星系">暗星系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Galactic_orientation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galactic orientation（页面不存在）">Galactic orientation</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_orientation" class="extiw" title="en:Galactic orientation">Galactic orientation</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%92%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="星系的形成和演化">星系的形成和演化</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%AD%E7%A4%BA%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB" title="揭示計畫">揭示計畫</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="星系列表">星系列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E7%9A%84%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="最近的星系列表">最近的星系列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AE%E7%B4%85%E5%A4%96%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="亮紅外星系">亮紅外星系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_galaxies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Outline of galaxies（页面不存在）">Outline of galaxies</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_galaxies" class="extiw" title="en:Outline of galaxies">Outline of galaxies</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="超大質量黑洞">超大質量黑洞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="星系年表">星系年表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" class="mw-redirect" title="星團">星團</a>較星系小得多的恆星集團</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=UniverseMachine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UniverseMachine（页面不存在）">UniverseMachine</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniverseMachine" class="extiw" title="en:UniverseMachine">UniverseMachine</a>）</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註解">註解</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=35" title="编辑章节：註解">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> 在哈伯分類系統左側的星系有時被稱為"早期型"，而右側的星系則被稱為"晚期型"。 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> "場星系"這個名詞有時被用來指孤立的星系，但也被用來描述不屬於星系團，但可能是星系群成員的星系。 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考資料">參考資料</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=36" title="编辑章节：參考資料">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1411a/">A Milky Arc Over Paranal</a>. 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Space.com. 2005-09-02 [2007-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101031092648/http://www.space.com/spacewatch/050902_teapot.html">存档</a>于2010-10-31）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.btitle=Explore+the+Archer%27s+Realm&rft.date=2005-09-02&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Space.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2Fspacewatch%2F050902_teapot.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Plutarch-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Plutarch_22-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I34rSPrX1tQC">The Complete Works Volume 3: Essays and Miscellanies</a>. Chapter 3: Echo Library. 2006: 66 [2020-11-25]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4068-3224-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4068-3224-2">ISBN 978-1-4068-3224-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324071205/https://books.google.com/books?id=I34rSPrX1tQC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Plutarch&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Works+Volume+3%3A+Essays+and+Miscellanies&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4068-3224-2&rft.pages=66&rft.place=Chapter+3&rft.pub=Echo+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI34rSPrX1tQC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Montada-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Montada_23-0">23.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montada_23-1">23.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montada_23-2">23.2</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Montada, J. P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-bajja">Ibn Bâjja</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. September 28, 2007 [July 11, 2008]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200316085852/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-bajja/">存档</a>于2020-03-16）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.atitle=Ibn+B%C3%A2jja&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.aulast=Montada&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2007-09-28&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fibn-bajja&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-heidarzadeh23-24"><a href="#cite_ref-heidarzadeh23_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeidarzadeh2008">Heidarzadeh 2008</a>，第23–25頁 </li> <li id="cite_note-mohamed-25"><a href="#cite_ref-mohamed_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMohamed2000">Mohamed 2000</a>，第49–50頁 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Bouali, H.-E.; Zghal, M.; Lakhdar, Z. B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spie.org/etop/ETOP2005_080.pdf">Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography</a> (PDF). The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference. 2005 [2008-07-08]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110524041243/http://spie.org/etop/ETOP2005_080.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2011-05-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Lakhdar%2C+Z.+B.&rft.au=Zghal%2C+M.&rft.aufirst=H.-E.&rft.aulast=Bouali&rft.btitle=Popularisation+of+Optical+Phenomena%3A+Establishing+the+First+Ibn+Al-Haytham+Workshop+on+Photography&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Education+and+Training+in+Optics+and+Photonics+Conference&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2Fetop%2FETOP2005_080.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite id="CITEREF約翰·J·奧康納埃德蒙·F·羅伯遜" class="citation">約翰·J·奧康納; <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%BE%B7%E8%92%99%C2%B7F%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E9%81%9C" title="埃德蒙·F·羅伯遜">埃德蒙·F·羅伯遜</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html">Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacTutor%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88" title="MacTutor数学史档案">MacTutor数学史档案</a> （英语）</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.atitle=Abu+Arrayhan+Muhammad+ibn+Ahmad+al-Biruni&rft.au=%E5%9F%83%E5%BE%B7%E8%92%99%C2%B7F%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E4%BC%AF%E9%81%9C&rft.au=%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7J%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E5%BA%B7%E7%B4%8D&rft.btitle=-%7Bzh-hans%3AMacTutor%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%3Bzh-hant%3AMacTutor%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2%E6%AA%94%E6%A1%88%3B%7D-&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAl-Biruni.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-heidarzadeh25-28"><a href="#cite_ref-heidarzadeh25_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeidarzadeh2008">Heidarzadeh 2008</a>，第25, Table 2.1頁 </li> <li id="cite_note-Livingston-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Livingston_29-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Livingston, J. W. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutation. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of the American Oriental Society（页面不存在）">Journal of the American Oriental Society</a>. 1971, 91 (1): 96–103 [99]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/600445">JSTOR 600445</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F600445">doi:10.2307/600445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.atitle=Ibn+Qayyim+al-Jawziyyah%3A+A+Fourteenth+Century+Defense+against+Astrological+Divination+and+Alchemical+Transmutation&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft.aulast=Livingston&rft.date=1971&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.pages=96-103+99&rft.volume=91&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F600445&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F600445&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Galileo Galilei, Sidereus Nuncius (Venice, (Italy): Thomas Baglioni, 1610), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Sidereusnuncius00Gali#page/n37/mode/2up">pages 15 and 16.</a> English translation: Galileo Galilei with Edward Stafford Carlos, trans., The Sidereal Messenger (London, England: Rivingtons, 1880), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/siderealmessenge80gali#page/42/mode/2up/">pages 42 and 43.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite class="citation web">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120530/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Galileo.html">Galileo Galilei</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_St._Andrews&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of St. Andrews（页面不存在）">University of St. Andrews</a>. November 2002 [2007-01-08]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Galileo.html">原始内容</a>存档于2012-05-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.btitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.date=2002-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+St.+Andrews&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk%2F~history%2FBiographies%2FGalileo.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Thomas Wright, An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe ... (London, England: H. Chapelle, 1750). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA48">From p.48:</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161120194825/https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA48">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） "... the stars are not infinitely dispersed and distributed in a promiscuous manner throughout all the mundane space, without order or design, ... this phænomenon [is] no other than a certain effect arising from the observer's situation, ... To a spectator placed in an indefinite space, ... it [i.e., the Milky Way (Via Lactea)] [is] a vast ring of stars ..." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA73">On page 73</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161120194830/https://books.google.com/books?id=80VZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA73">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）, Wright called the Milky Way the Vortex Magnus (the great whirlpool) and estimated its diameter at 8.64×1012 miles (13.9×1012 km). </li> <li id="cite_note-our_galaxy-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-our_galaxy_33-0">33.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-our_galaxy_33-1">33.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-our_galaxy_33-2">33.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-our_galaxy_33-3">33.3</a> <cite class="citation web">Evans, J. C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120630/http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm">Our Galaxy</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" class="mw-redirect" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a>. 1998-11-24 [2007-01-04]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.gmu.edu/~jevans/astr103/CourseNotes/ECText/ch20_txt.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2012-06-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.btitle=Our+Galaxy&rft.date=1998-11-24&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=George+Mason+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.gmu.edu%2F~jevans%2Fastr103%2FCourseNotes%2FECText%2Fch20_txt.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Immanuel Kant, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nCcaAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9">（[//web.archive.org/web/20161120195036/https://books.google.com/books?id=nCcaAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9 页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161120195036/https://books.google.com/books?id=nCcaAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161120195036/https://books.google.com/books?id=nCcaAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels ...] （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20230326143011/https://books.google.com/books?id=nCcaAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP9">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） [Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens ...], (Königsberg and Leipzig, (Germany): Johann Friederich Petersen, 1755). Available in English translation by Ian Johnston at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/kant/kant2e.htm">Vancouver Island University, British Columbia, Canada</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">互联网档案馆</a>的<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140829071546/http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/kant/kant2e.htm">存檔</a>，存档日期August 29, 2014，. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation book">William Herschel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/75/213.full.pdf+html">XII. On the construction of the heavens</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IU9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213">Giving Some Accounts of the Present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours, of the Ingenious, in Many Considerable Parts of the World</a>. vol. 75. London. 1785: 213–266 [2020-11-25]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-0523">ISSN 0261-0523</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186213203">S2CID 186213203</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1785.0012">doi:10.1098/rstl.1785.0012</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161120170623/https://books.google.com/books?id=IU9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA213">存档</a>于2016-11-20）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.atitle=XII.+On+the+construction+of+the+heavens&rft.au=William+Herschel&rft.btitle=Giving+Some+Accounts+of+the+Present+Undertakings%2C+Studies%2C+and+Labours%2C+of+the+Ingenious%2C+in+Many+Considerable+Parts+of+the+World&rft.date=1785&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.issn=0261-0523&rft.pages=213-266&rft.place=London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frstl.royalsocietypublishing.org%2Fcontent%2F75%2F213.full.pdf%2Bhtml&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186213203&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1785.0012&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|journal=</code>被忽略 (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#parameter_discarded" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) Herschel's diagram of the galaxy appears immediately after the article's last page. </li> <li id="cite_note-paul1993-36"><a href="#cite_ref-paul1993_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPaul1993">Paul 1993</a>，第16–18頁 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Trimble, V. 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[2007-01-02]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120717/http://www-xray.ast.cam.ac.uk/xray_introduction/">存档</a>于2012-07-17）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+X-ray+Astronomy&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Institute+of+Astronomy+X-Ray+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-xray.ast.cam.ac.uk%2Fxray_introduction%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="來源">來源</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=37" title="编辑章节：來源">编辑</a>]</div> <ul><li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109032310/http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2000/pr-12-00.html">Unveiling the Secret of a Virgo Dwarf Galaxy</a>. <a href="/wiki/ESO" class="mw-redirect" title="ESO">ESO</a>. 2000-05-03 [2007-01-03]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2000/pr-12-00.html">原始内容</a>存档于2009-01-09）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.btitle=Unveiling+the+Secret+of+a+Virgo+Dwarf+Galaxy&rft.date=2000-05-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=ESO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eso.org%2Foutreach%2Fpress-rel%2Fpr-2000%2Fpr-12-00.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考文獻">參考文獻</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=38" title="编辑章节：參考文獻">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">Belkora, L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cTdsuAEACAAJ">Minding the Heavens: the Story of our Discovery of the Milky Way</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=CRC_Press&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CRC Press（页面不存在）">CRC Press</a>. 2003 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7503-0730-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7503-0730-7">ISBN 978-0-7503-0730-7</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072023/https://books.google.com/books?id=cTdsuAEACAAJ">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.aulast=Belkora&rft.btitle=Minding+the+Heavens%3A+the+Story+of+our+Discovery+of+the+Milky+Way&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0730-7&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcTdsuAEACAAJ&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Bertin, G.; Lin, C.-C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=06yfwrdpTk4C">Spiral Structure in Galaxies: a Density Wave Theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. 1996 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-262-02396-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-262-02396-2">ISBN 978-0-262-02396-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324074538/https://books.google.com/books?id=06yfwrdpTk4C">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Lin%2C+C.-C.&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.aulast=Bertin&rft.btitle=Spiral+Structure+in+Galaxies%3A+a+Density+Wave+Theory&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-262-02396-2&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D06yfwrdpTk4C&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Binney, J.; Merrifield, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0CKLswEACAAJ">Galactic Astronomy</a>. Princeton University Press. 1998 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-691-00402-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-691-00402-0">ISBN 978-0-691-00402-0</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/39108765">OCLC 39108765</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072040/https://books.google.com/books?id=0CKLswEACAAJ">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Merrifield%2C+M.&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Binney&rft.btitle=Galactic+Astronomy&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00402-0&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0CKLswEACAAJ&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39108765&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Dickinson, T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/universebeyond0004dick">The Universe and Beyond</a> 4th. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Firefly_Books&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firefly Books（页面不存在）">Firefly Books</a>. 2004. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-55297-901-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-55297-901-3">ISBN 978-1-55297-901-3</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/55596414">OCLC 55596414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.aulast=Dickinson&rft.btitle=The+Universe+and+Beyond&rft.date=2004&rft.edition=4th&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-55297-901-3&rft.pub=Firefly+Books&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funiversebeyond0004dick&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55596414&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Heidarzadeh, T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acraAAAAMAAJ">A History of Physical Theories of Comets, from Aristotle to Whipple</a>. Springer. 2008 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4020-8322-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4020-8322-8">ISBN 978-1-4020-8322-8</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072049/https://books.google.com/books?id=acraAAAAMAAJ">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.aulast=Heidarzadeh&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Physical+Theories+of+Comets%2C+from+Aristotle+to+Whipple&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-8322-8&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacraAAAAMAAJ&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Mo, Houjun; van den Bosch, Frank; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simon_White&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simon White（页面不存在）">White, Simon</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj7fDU3Z4wsC">Galaxy Formation and Evolution</a> 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 2010 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-85793-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-85793-2">ISBN 978-0-521-85793-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072050/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj7fDU3Z4wsC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=White%2C+Simon&rft.au=van+den+Bosch%2C+Frank&rft.aufirst=Houjun&rft.aulast=Mo&rft.btitle=Galaxy+Formation+and+Evolution&rft.date=2010&rft.edition=1&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85793-2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZj7fDU3Z4wsC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Kepple, G. R.; Sanner, G. W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aCocRAAACAAJ">The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Willmann-Bell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Willmann-Bell（页面不存在）">Willmann-Bell</a>. 1998 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-943396-58-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-943396-58-3">ISBN 978-0-943396-58-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072055/https://books.google.com/books?id=aCocRAAACAAJ">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Sanner%2C+G.+W.&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rft.aulast=Kepple&rft.btitle=The+Night+Sky+Observer%27s+Guide%2C+Volume+1&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-943396-58-3&rft.pub=Willmann-Bell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaCocRAAACAAJ&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Merritt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Merritt（页面不存在）">Merritt, D.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOa1ku640zAC">Dynamics and Evolution of Galactic Nuclei</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. 2013 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4008-4612-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4008-4612-2">ISBN 978-1-4008-4612-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324074542/https://books.google.com/books?id=cOa1ku640zAC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.aulast=Merritt&rft.btitle=Dynamics+and+Evolution+of+Galactic+Nuclei&rft.date=2013&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4612-2&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOa1ku640zAC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Mohamed, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8uEFaPCpAdgC">Great Muslim Mathematicians</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penerbit_UTM&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penerbit UTM（页面不存在）">Penerbit UTM</a>. 2000 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-983-52-0157-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-983-52-0157-8">ISBN 978-983-52-0157-8</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/48759017">OCLC 48759017</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072117/https://books.google.com/books?id=8uEFaPCpAdgC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.aulast=Mohamed&rft.btitle=Great+Muslim+Mathematicians&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-983-52-0157-8&rft.pub=Penerbit+UTM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8uEFaPCpAdgC&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48759017&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Paul, E. R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A7PA9EsFB84C">The Milky Way Galaxy and Statistical Cosmology, 1890–1924</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1993 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-35363-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-35363-2">ISBN 978-0-521-35363-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072121/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7PA9EsFB84C">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.btitle=The+Milky+Way+Galaxy+and+Statistical+Cosmology%2C+1890%E2%80%931924&rft.date=1993&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35363-2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA7PA9EsFB84C&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linda_Sparke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linda Sparke（页面不存在）">Sparke, L. S.</a>; Gallagher, J. S. III. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzNF79roUfoC">Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. 2000 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-59740-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-59740-1">ISBN 978-0-521-59740-1</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072126/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzNF79roUfoC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Gallagher%2C+J.+S.+III&rft.aufirst=L.+S.&rft.aulast=Sparke&rft.btitle=Galaxies+in+the+Universe%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59740-1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzNF79roUfoC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Van den Bergh, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=geEVkpueEPcC">Galaxy Morphology and Classification</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1998 [2020-11-28]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-62335-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-62335-3">ISBN 978-0-521-62335-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072137/https://books.google.com/books?id=geEVkpueEPcC">存档</a>于2021-03-24）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.aulast=Van+den+Bergh&rft.btitle=Galaxy+Morphology+and+Classification&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62335-3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgeEVkpueEPcC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Waller, W. H.; Hodge, P. W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galaxiescosmicfr0000wall">Galaxies and the Cosmic Frontier</a><img alt="需要免费注册" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/14px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Lock-blue-alt-2.svg/18px-Lock-blue-alt-2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-674-01079-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-674-01079-6">ISBN 978-0-674-01079-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.au=Hodge%2C+P.+W.&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rft.aulast=Waller&rft.btitle=Galaxies+and+the+Cosmic+Frontier&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01079-6&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalaxiescosmicfr0000wall&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9%E9%9C%80%E7%99%BB%E5%85%A5%E6%9F%A5%E7%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有內容需登入查看的頁面">link</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部連結">外部連結</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&section=39" title="编辑章节：外部連結">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83112147">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655520">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> 星系在维基百科的<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%AA%92%E4%BD%93%E5%A7%8A%E5%A6%B9%E9%A1%B9%E7%9B%AE" title="Wikipedia:维基媒体姊妹项目">姊妹项目</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" />维基词典上的<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/galaxy" class="extiw" title="wikt:galaxy">字词解释</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" />维基共享资源上的<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Galaxies" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Galaxies">多媒体资源</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" />维基新闻上的<a href="https://zh.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/星系">新闻</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />维基教科书上的<a href="https://zh.wikibooks.org/wiki/High_School_Earth_Science/Galaxies" class="extiw" title="b:High School Earth Science/Galaxies">教科书和手册</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/">NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED)</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20180212062750/http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/">NED-Distances</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210327090712/http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003c1cn">Galaxies</a>，<a href="/w/index.php?title=In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)（页面不存在）">In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" class="extiw" title="en:BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a>）的《In Our Time》節目。(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003c1cn/In_Our_Time_Galaxies">現在聆聽</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150718054637/http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/">An Atlas of The Universe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150912191650/http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies/">Galaxies — Information and amateur observations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060411094750/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm">The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galaxyzoo.org/">Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20180309083234/http://www.galaxyzoo.org/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.org/facts/sand-galaxies.asp">How many galaxies are in our universe?</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150821071507/http://www.physics.org/facts/sand-galaxies.asp">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150715160713/http://www.astronoo.com/en/galaxies.html">The most beautiful galaxies on Astronoo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08LBltePDZw">3-D Video (01:46) – Over a Million Galaxies of Billions of Stars each – BerkeleyLab/animated.</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210324072513/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08LBltePDZw">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="Template talk:星系"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:星系"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="星系" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">星系</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9E%8B%E6%85%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E" title="星系型態分類">形態學</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%93%E7%9B%A4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="圓盤星系">圓盤星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮星系">矮星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%A9%A2%E5%9C%93%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮橢圓星系">橢圓</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#Common_dwarf_galaxy_types" title="矮星系">不規則</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%A9%A2%E7%90%83%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮橢球星系">橢球</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮螺旋星系">螺旋</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E8%A7%84%E5%88%99%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="不规则星系">不规则星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%A3%92%E4%B8%8D%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="有棒不規則星系">有棒</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%8F%E9%8F%A1%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="透鏡狀星系">透鏡星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E6%A3%92%E9%80%8F%E9%8F%A1%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="無棒透鏡星系">無棒的</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E9%80%8F%E9%95%9C%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒透镜星系">有棒的</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="特殊星系">特殊星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="環星系">環星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="極環星系">極</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="螺旋星系">螺旋星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">有棒的</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%AE%E7%B5%90%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="絮結螺旋星系">絮結的</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8F%E8%A7%80%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="宏觀螺旋星系">宏觀的</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E9%96%93%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="中間螺旋星系">中間的</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%93%B2%E5%80%AB%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="麥哲倫螺旋星系">麥哲倫</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E6%A3%92%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="無棒螺旋星系">無棒的</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%AD%E5%9C%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="椭圆星系">椭圆星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD%E5%9E%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="CD型星系">cD-星系</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A8%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="巨大星系（页面不存在）">巨大星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%AD%E5%9C%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="椭圆星系">巨大橢圓</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9E%8B%E6%85%8B%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E" title="星系型態分類">D-星系</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">構造</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%92%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="棒旋星系">棒</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%90%83" title="核球">核球</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E6%9A%88" title="暗物質暈">暗物質暈</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9B%A4" title="星系盤">盤</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%99%95" title="星系晕">星系晕</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%99%95" title="星系晕">暈</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E5%BF%83" title="銀心">銀心</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E5%B9%B3%E9%9D%A2" title="銀河平面">銀河平面</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E9%99%85%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="星际物质">星际物质</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="原星系">原星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#螺旋臂" title="螺旋星系">螺旋臂</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E9%BB%91%E6%B4%9E" title="超大質量黑洞">超大質量黑洞</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="活动星系核">活躍核</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA%E6%80%A7%E5%96%B7%E6%B5%81" title="相对论性喷流">相对论性喷流</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%BB%E6%98%9F%E4%BD%93" title="类星体">类星体</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E4%BD%9B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="西佛星系">赛弗特星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E9%9B%BB%E9%9B%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="低電離星系核">LINER星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E4%BB%81%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="馬克仁星系">马卡良星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="電波星系">電波星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=X%E5%9E%8B%E9%9B%BB%E6%B3%A2%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X型電波星系（页面不存在）">X型</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-shaped_radio_galaxy" class="extiw" title="en:X-shaped radio galaxy">X-shaped radio galaxy</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%80%E5%8F%98%E4%BD%93" title="耀变体">耀变体</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%A0%B8" title="活动星系核">活躍星系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%9A%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="星暴星系">星暴星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB#藍緻密矮星系" title="矮星系">藍緻密矮星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B1%8C%E8%B1%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="豌豆星系">豌豆星系</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%AE%E7%B4%85%E5%A4%96%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="亮紅外星系">亮紅外星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%90%8A%E6%9B%BC%CE%B1%E7%99%BC%E5%B0%84%E9%AB%94" title="萊曼α發射體">萊曼α發射體</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">低活動</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8E%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E4%BA%AE%E5%BA%A6%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="低表面亮度星系">低表面亮度星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E7%A8%80%E7%96%8F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="超稀疏星系">超稀疏星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="暗星系">暗星系</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">交互作用</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8#恆星流" title="恆星動力學">恆星流</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="交互作用星系">交互作用星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%90%88%E5%B9%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="星系合并">合併</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_merger" class="extiw" title="en:Galaxy merger">Galaxy merger</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%9B%E6%98%9F%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="衛星星系">衛星星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9B%A2" title="星系团">星系群和星系團</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="星系群">星系群</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9B%A2" title="星系团">星系团</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BE%A4" title="化石星系群">化石星系群</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E4%BA%AE%E5%9C%98%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="最亮團星系">最亮團星系</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98" title="超星系團">超星系團</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%BA%E5%BA%A6%E7%BA%96%E7%B6%AD%E7%8B%80%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="大尺度纖維狀結構">星系絲狀結構</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%95%BF%E5%9F%8E_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6)" title="长城 (天文学)">长城</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A0%B4%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="場星系">視場星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="空洞星系">空洞星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_(%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6)" title="空洞 (天文学)">空洞和超空洞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E6%BD%AE%E6%B1%90" title="星系潮汐">星系潮汐</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E9%9B%B2" title="星系雲">星系雲</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="星系列表">列表</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="星系列表">星系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E7%9A%84%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="最近的星系列表">最近的星系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="螺旋星系列表（页面不存在）">螺旋星系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_spiral_galaxies" class="extiw" title="en:List of spiral galaxies">List of spiral galaxies</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="極環星系列表">極環星系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%92%B0%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="環星系列表（页面不存在）">環星系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ring_galaxies" class="extiw" title="en:List of ring galaxies">List of ring galaxies</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="星系團列表">星系團</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%9C%98#超星系團列表" title="超星系團">超星系团</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%A4%A7%E9%A1%9E%E6%98%9F%E9%AB%94%E7%BE%A4#超大類星體群列表" title="超大類星體群">超大類星體群</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%BB%E6%98%9F%E4%BD%93%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="类星体列表">类星体</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="空洞列表（页面不存在）">空洞</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_voids" class="extiw" title="en:List of voids">List of voids</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">相關條目</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="暗星系">暗星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9A%97%E8%97%8D%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="暗藍星系">暗藍星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="星系天文學">星系天文學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E6%B2%B3%E7%B3%BB%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="銀河系天文學">銀河系天文學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%80%E5%BF%83" title="銀心">銀心</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%93%B6%E9%81%93%E5%9D%90%E6%A0%87%E7%B3%BB" title="银道坐标系">银道坐标系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E5%92%8C%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="星系的形成和演化">星系的形成和演化</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E9%9A%9B%E5%A1%B5%E5%9F%83" title="星系際塵埃">星系際塵埃</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E9%9A%9B%E6%97%85%E8%A1%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="星系際旅行">星系際旅行</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E9%9A%9B%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F" title="星系際恆星">星系際恆星</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%AD%E7%A4%BA%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB" title="揭示計畫">揭示計畫</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="维基百科图书" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Book:Galaxies&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Book:Galaxies（页面不存在）">書籍</a></li> <li><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="Category:星系">星系分类</a></li> <li><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:天文学">天文学主题</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F" title="Portal:恒星">恒星主题</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="恆星系統" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="Template:恆星系統"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="Template talk:恆星系統"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:恆星系統"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="恆星系統" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="恆星系統">恆星系統</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">有邊界的</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AE%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="矮星系">矮星系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%9B%A2" title="星团">星团</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E7%8B%80%E6%98%9F%E5%9C%98" title="球狀星團">球狀星團</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%96%8F%E6%95%A3%E6%98%9F%E5%9B%A2" title="疏散星团">疏散星团</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%81%AF%E6%98%9F" title="聯星">聯星</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="恆星系統">多星系統</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB" title="行星系">行星系</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">無邊界的</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E6%B5%81" title="星流">星流</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%8D%8F" title="星协">星协</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%BB%E5%8B%95%E6%98%9F%E7%BE%A4" title="移動星群">移動星群</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AD%B8#速逃星" title="恆星運動學">速逃星</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">目視集團</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E6%98%9F" title="雙星">雙星</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E6%98%9F" title="聚星">聚星</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E5%BA%A7" title="星座">星座</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%81%86%E6%98%9F%E9%9B%B2" title="恆星雲">恆星雲</a> · <a href="/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%BE%A4" title="星群">星群</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="分类" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="Category:恒星系统">分类</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84365013">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/32px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/42px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:天文學">天文學主題</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth-moon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/24px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="24" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/36px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/48px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA" title="Portal:太空">太空主題</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79005747">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="Help:规范控制">规范控制数据库</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318#identifiers" title="編輯維基數據鏈接"><img alt="編輯維基數據鏈接" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941212g">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941212g">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4057375-8">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555549005171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85052763">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562458">日本</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vthpd","wgBackendResponseTime":195,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.956","walltime":"2.358","ppvisitednodes":{"value":12248,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":409850,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6291,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":25,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":33,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":278159,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1974.838 1 -total"," 42.00% 829.477 2 Template:Reflist"," 11.89% 234.850 47 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.00% 217.146 60 Template:Cite_web"," 6.47% 127.810 1 Template:Request_translation"," 5.92% 116.848 1 Template:Ambox"," 5.90% 116.539 1 Template:Sister_project_links"," 5.45% 107.711 2 Template:Navbox"," 5.32% 105.133 1 Template:星系"," 5.31% 104.893 1 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