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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">2003 United States Supreme Court case</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox scotus" style="line-height: 1.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #99c0ff; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; font-size:125%; font-style: italic">Grutter v. Bollinger</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top: 0.5em; font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Argued April 1, 2003<br />Decided June 23, 2003</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Full case name</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Barbara Grutter, Petitioner v. <a href="/wiki/Lee_Bollinger" title="Lee Bollinger">Lee Bollinger</a>, et al.</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Docket no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/docketfiles/02-241.htm">02-241</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citations</th><td class="infobox-data">539 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/us/539/306/case.html">306</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">more</a></i>)<div>123 S.Ct. 2325; 156 <a href="/wiki/L._Ed._2d" class="mw-redirect" title="L. Ed. 2d">L. Ed. 2d</a> 304; 71 U.S.L.W. 4498; 91 Fair Empl.Prac.Cas. (<a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_BNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomberg BNA">BNA</a>) 1761; 84 Empl. Prac. Dec. (<a href="/wiki/CCH_(company)" title="CCH (company)">CCH</a>) ¶ 41,415; 177 Ed. Law Rep. 801; 03 Cal. Daily Op. Serv. 5378; 2003 Daily Journal D.A.R. 6800; 16 Fla. L. Weekly Fed. S 367</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data">Held for Plaintiff and enjoined use of current admissions policy, 137 <a href="/wiki/F._Supp._2d" class="mw-redirect" title="F. Supp. 2d">F. Supp. 2d</a> 821 (<a href="/wiki/E.D._Mich." class="mw-redirect" title="E.D. Mich.">E.D. Mich.</a> 2001); reversed, 288 <a href="/wiki/F.3d" class="mw-redirect" title="F.3d">F.3d</a> 732 (<a href="/wiki/6th_Cir." class="mw-redirect" title="6th Cir.">6th Cir.</a> 2002) (en banc); certiorari granted 537 U.S. 1043 (2002)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subsequent</th><td class="infobox-data">Rehearing denied, 539 U.S. 982 (2003)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">University of Michigan Law School admissions program that gave special consideration for being a certain racial minority did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John P. Stevens</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">O'Connor, joined by Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer; Scalia, Thomas (in part)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Concurrence</th><td class="infobox-data">Ginsburg, joined by Breyer</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Concur/dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Scalia, joined by Thomas</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Concur/dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Thomas, joined by Scalia (Parts I–VII)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Rehnquist, joined by Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Kennedy</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Laws applied</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">U.S. Const. amend. XIV</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="background-color: #B60000; color: white; font-weight: bold">Abrogated by</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i> (2023)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._University_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina">Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</a></i> (2023)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Grutter v. Bollinger</b></i>, 539 U.S. 306 (2003), was a <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases">case</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> concerning <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a> in <a href="/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States" title="College admissions in the United States">student admissions</a>. The Court held that a student admissions process that favors "underrepresented <a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">minority groups</a>" did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> so long as it took into account other factors evaluated on an individual basis for every applicant. The decision largely upheld the Court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i> (1978), which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy but held <a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">racial quotas</a> to be unconstitutional. In its <a href="/wiki/Companion_case" title="Companion case">companion case</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003), the Court struck down a points-based admissions system that awarded an automatic bonus to the admissions scores of minority applicants. </p><p>The case arose after a prospective student to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">University of Michigan Law School</a> alleged that she had been denied admission because the school gave certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission. The school admitted that its admission process favored certain minority groups, but argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups. In a majority opinion joined by four other justices, Justice <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a> held that the Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body." </p><p>In her majority opinion, O'Connor wrote that "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time," adding that the "Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." Justices <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> joined the Court's opinion, but did not subscribe to the belief that the affirmative measures in question would be unnecessary in 25 years. In a dissent joined by three other justices, Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> argued that the university's admissions system was, in fact, a thinly veiled and unconstitutional quota system. </p><p>In 2023, the Supreme Court effectively overruled <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._University_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina">Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</a></i>, finding that affirmative action in student admissions violated the Equal Protection Clause of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispute">Dispute</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dispute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Case_(Supreme_Court)"></span> When the University of Michigan Law School denied admission to Barbara Grutter, a Michigan resident with a 3.8 <a href="/wiki/GPA" class="mw-redirect" title="GPA">GPA</a> and 161 <a href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test#Scoring" title="Law School Admission Test">LSAT score</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she filed this suit, alleging that respondents had discriminated against her on the basis of race in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_of_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_VI_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, as well as 42 U.S.C. § 1981; that she was rejected because the Law School uses race as a "predominant" factor, giving applicants belonging to certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission than students with similar credentials from disfavored racial groups; and that respondents had no compelling interest to justify that use of race. <a href="/wiki/Lee_Bollinger" title="Lee Bollinger">Lee Bollinger</a> (then-President of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>), was the named defendant of this case.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The University argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups, particularly African Americans and Hispanics, which is realized within the student body. They argued that this aims to "ensure that these minority students do not feel isolated or like spokespersons for their race; to provide adequate opportunities for the type of interaction upon which the educational benefits of diversity depend; and to challenge all students to think critically and re-examine stereotypes." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lower_courts">Lower courts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lower courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 2001, U.S. District Court Judge <a href="/wiki/Bernard_A._Friedman" title="Bernard A. Friedman">Bernard A. Friedman</a> ruled that the admissions policies were unconstitutional because they "clearly consider" race and are "practically indistinguishable from a quota system." Due to the significance of the case, the Court of Appeals agreed to hear the case <i><a href="/wiki/En_banc" title="En banc">en banc</a></i>. In May 2002, in a closely divided 5–4 ruling, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals</a> reversed the decision, citing the <i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Bakke</a></i> decision and allowing the use of race to further the "compelling interest" of diversity. The plaintiffs subsequently requested the Supreme Court review. The Court agreed to hear the case, the first time the Court had heard a case on affirmative action in education since the landmark <i>Bakke</i> decision of 25 years prior. </p><p>On April 1, 2003 the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments for <i>Grutter</i>. The Court allowed the recordings of the arguments to be released to the public the same day, only the second time the Court had allowed same-day release of oral arguments. The first time was <i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i>, 531 U.S. 98 (2000), the case that ultimately ended the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Presidential_Election,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Presidential Election, 2000">2000 presidential election</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supreme_Court's_decision"><span id="Supreme_Court.27s_decision"></span>Supreme Court's decision</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Supreme Court's decision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Court's majority ruling, authored by Justice <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a>, held that the United States Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body." The Court held that the law school's interest in obtaining a "critical mass" of minority students was indeed a "tailored use". O'Connor noted that sometime in the future, perhaps twenty-five years hence, racial affirmative action would no longer be necessary in order to promote diversity. It implied that <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> should not be allowed permanent status and that eventually a "colorblind" policy should be implemented. The opinion read, "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time." "The Court takes the Law School at its word that it would like nothing better than to find a race-neutral admissions formula and will terminate its use of racial preferences as soon as practicable. The Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." The phrase "25 years from now" was echoed by Justice Thomas in his dissent. Justice Thomas, writing that the system was "illegal now", concurred with the majority only on the point that he agreed the system would still be illegal 25 years hence.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decision largely upheld the position asserted in Justice Powell's concurrence in <i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i>, which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy, but held that quotas were illegal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Public universities and other public institutions of higher education across the nation are now allowed to use race as a plus factor in determining whether a student should be admitted. While race may not be the only factor, the decision allows admissions bodies to take race into consideration along with other individualized factors in reviewing a student's application. O'Connor's opinion answers the question for the time being as to whether "diversity" in higher education is a compelling governmental interest. As long as the program is "narrowly tailored" to achieve that end, it seems likely that the Court will find it constitutional.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the majority were Justices O'Connor, Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer. Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas dissented. Much of the dissent concerned a disbelief in the validity of the law school's claim that the system was necessary to create a "critical mass" of minority students and provide a diverse educational environment. In the dissent, Chief Justice Rehnquist used admissions data to argue that unconstitutional discrimination occurred, despite the precedent set in <i><a href="/wiki/McCleskey_v._Kemp" title="McCleskey v. Kemp">McCleskey v. Kemp</a></i> that dismisses statistical racial disparities as doctrinally irrelevant in equal protection claims.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case was heard in conjunction with <i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/244/">244</a> (2003), in which the Court struck down the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>'s more rigid, point-based undergraduate admission policy, which was essentially deemed a quota system. The case generated a record number of <a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amicus curiae</a> briefs from institutional supporters of affirmative action. A lawyer who filed an amicus curiae brief on behalf of members and former members of the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly" title="Pennsylvania General Assembly">Pennsylvania legislature</a>, State Rep. Mark B. Cohen of Philadelphia, said that <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a>'s majority decision in <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i> was a "ringing affirmation of the goal of an inclusive society." In both <i>Grutter</i> and <i>Gratz</i>, O'Connor was the swing vote.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissent">Dissent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chief Justice Rehnquist, joined by Justice Scalia, Justice Kennedy, and Justice Thomas, argued the Law School's admissions policy was an attempt to achieve an unconstitutional type of racial balancing. The Chief Justice attacked the Law School's asserted goal of reaching a "critical mass" of minority students, finding the absolute number of African-American, Hispanic, and Native American students varied markedly, which is inconsistent with the concept in that one would think the same size critical mass would be needed for all minority groups. He noted that "[f]rom 1995 through 2000, the Law School admitted... between 13 and 19... Native American[s], between 91 and 108... African American[s], and between 47 and 56... Hispanic[s]... One would have to believe that the objectives of 'critical mass' offered by respondents are achieved with only half the number of Hispanics, and one-sixth the number of Native Americans as compared to African Americans." Citing admissions statistics, the Chief Justice noted the tight correlation between the percentage of applicants and admittees of a given race and argued that the numbers were "far too precise to be dismissed as merely the result of the school paying 'some attention to [the] numbers.'" </p><p>Justice Thomas, joined by Justice Scalia, issued a strongly worded opinion, concurring in part and dissenting in part, arguing that if Michigan could not remain a prestigious institution and admit students under a race-neutral system, the "Law School should be forced to choose between its classroom aesthetic and its exclusionary admissions system." In Justice Thomas' opinion, there is no compelling state interest in Michigan maintaining an elite law school, because a number of states do not have law schools, let alone elite ones. Moreover, Justice Thomas noted that in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_518" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 518">518</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/518/515/">515</a> (1996), the Court required the Virginia Military Institute to radically reshape its admissions process and the character of that institution. </p><p>Another criticism raised by Justice Thomas compared Michigan Law to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley_School_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California, Berkeley School of Law">University of California, Berkeley School of Law</a>, where California's <a href="/wiki/Proposition_209" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposition 209">Proposition 209</a> had barred Berkeley Law from "granting preferential treatment on the basis of race in the operation of public education." Despite Proposition 209, however, Berkeley Law was still able to achieve a diverse student body. According to Thomas, "the Court is willfully blind to the very real experience in California and elsewhere, which raises the inference that institutions with 'reputations for excellence'...rivaling [Michigan Law's] have satisfied their sense of mission without resorting to prohibited racial discrimination." </p><p>A final criticism leveled at Justice O'Connor's opinion was the length of time the racial admissions policy will be lawful. Justice Thomas concurred that racial preferences would be unlawful in 25 years, however, he contended that in fact the Court should have found race-based affirmative action programs in higher education unlawful now: </p> <blockquote> <p>I therefore can understand the imposition of a 25-year ban limit only as a holding that the deference the Court pays to the Law School's educational judgments and refusal to change its admissions policies will itself expire. At that point these policies will clearly have failed to "'eliminate the [perceived] need for any racial or ethnic'" discrimination because the academic credentials gap will still be there. [citation omitted] The Court defines this time limit in terms of narrow tailoring, [internal citation omitted] but I believe this arises from its refusal to define rigorously the broad state interest vindicated today. [internal citation omitted]. With these observations, I join the last sentence of Part III of the opinion of the Court. </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline_of_federal_courts'_decisions"><span id="Timeline_of_federal_courts.27_decisions"></span>Timeline of federal courts' decisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Timeline of federal courts' decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The District Court found the Law School's use of race as an admissions factor unlawful.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Sixth Circuit reversed, holding that Justice Powell's opinion in <i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Bakke</a></i> was binding precedent establishing diversity as a compelling state interest, and that the Law School's use of race was narrowly tailored because race was merely a "potential 'plus' factor" and because the Law School's program was virtually identical to the Harvard admissions program described approvingly by Justice Powell and appended to his Bakke opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Supreme Court affirmed the Sixth Circuit's reversal of the District Court decision, thereby upholding the University's admissions policy.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_adopted_post_case">Law adopted post case</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Law adopted post case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the decision, petitions were circulated to change the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Michigan Constitution">Michigan State Constitution</a>. The measure, called the <a href="/wiki/Michigan_Civil_Rights_Initiative" title="Michigan Civil Rights Initiative">Michigan Civil Rights Initiative</a>, or Proposal 2, passed in November 2006 and prohibited the use of race in the Law School admissions processes. In this respect, Proposal 2 is similar to California's <a href="/wiki/Proposition_209" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposition 209">Proposition 209</a> and Washington's <a href="/wiki/Initiative_200" title="Initiative 200">Initiative 200</a>, other initiatives that also banned the use of race in public university admissions decisions. </p><p>The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit overturned MCRI on July 1, 2011. Judges R. Guy Cole Jr. and Martha Craig Daughtrey said that "Proposal 2 reorders the political process in Michigan to place special burdens on minority interests." This decision was upheld by the full Court of Appeals on November 16, 2012. After the ruling, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette announced he would appeal the court ruling to the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 25, 2013 the Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari, agreeing to hear the case. The Court ultimately upheld MCRI in <i><a href="/wiki/Schuette_v._Coalition_to_Defend_Affirmative_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action">Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court decided a challenge to the University of Texas at Austin's admission policy, <a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2013)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)">Fisher v. University of Texas</a>, in June 2013. In this case, the Court reaffirmed that universities were entitled to deference on their judgment that diversity is a compelling state interest. Importantly, though, the Court ruled that a university was entitled to "no deference" on its judgment that race-based affirmative action was necessary to achieve diversity and its educational benefits. The Court remanded the case to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for reconsideration, and that court again upheld UT's use of race. The plaintiff again <a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2016)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)">appealed to the Supreme Court in 2016</a>, which held that the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit correctly found that the University of Texas at Austin's undergraduate admissions policy survived strict scrutiny, in accordance with Fisher v. University of Texas (2013). </p><p>The same advocacy group and legal team challenging UT Austin also filed lawsuits against Harvard University (<i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i>) and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (<i>Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</i>) in November 2014. On June 29, 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a> decided in <i>Harvard</i> that the university's affirmative action program constituted unlawful racial discrimination, effectively overturning <i>Grutter</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_challenge">Further challenge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further challenge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Supreme Court granted certiorari to <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College">Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College">Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. University of North Carolina</a></i>, two cases dealing with race-based admissions at Harvard College and The University of North Carolina in January.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court issued its opinion in the two cases and found that the colleges did not properly follow the <i>Grutter</i> standard in the manner in which race was incorporated into the admissions process.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2013)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)"><i>Fisher v. University of Texas</i> (2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_at_the_University_of_Michigan" title="Affirmative action at the University of Michigan">Affirmative action at the University of Michigan</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoggs2023" class="citation web cs1">Boggs, Justin (June 29, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kivitv.com/news/national/supreme-court-overturns-college-affirmative-action-policies">"Supreme Court overturns college affirmative action policies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/KIVI-TV" title="KIVI-TV">KIVI-TV</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+overturns+college+affirmative+action+policies&rft.pub=KIVI-TV&rft.date=2023-06-29&rft.aulast=Boggs&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kivitv.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fsupreme-court-overturns-college-affirmative-action-policies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pg. 73 The Legal & Regulatory Environment of Business</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Past Presidents of the University of Michigan; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://president.umich.edu/past-presidents/">"Past Presidents | Office of the President"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150409073818/http://president.umich.edu/past-presidents/">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Law and Statistics in Conflict: Reflections on McCleskey v. Kemp". In Kagehiro, Dorothy K.; Laufer, William S. (eds.). Handbook of Psychology and Law. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 271–291. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97568-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-97568-3">0-387-97568-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/306/">306</a> (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/15/justice/michigan-affirmative-action-ban/index.html?hpt=hp_bn1">"Appeals court strikes down Michigan's affirmative action ban"</a>. CNN News. November 16, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221533/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/15/justice/michigan-affirmative-action-ban/index.html?hpt=hp_bn1">Archived</a> from the original on October 4, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Appeals+court+strikes+down+Michigan%27s+affirmative+action+ban&rft.pub=CNN+News&rft.date=2012-11-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2012%2F11%2F15%2Fjustice%2Fmichigan-affirmative-action-ban%2Findex.html%3Fhpt%3Dhp_bn1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/13grantednotedlist.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170706045502/https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/13grantednotedlist.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on July 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Forders%2F13grantednotedlist.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSherman2023" class="citation news cs1">Sherman, Mark (June 29, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230629143022/https://apnews.com/article/supreme-court-affirmative-action-college-race-f83d6318017ec9b9029b12ee2256e744">"Divided Supreme Court outlaws affirmative action in college admissions, says race can't be used"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/supreme-court-affirmative-action-college-race-f83d6318017ec9b9029b12ee2256e744">the original</a> on June 29, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 31,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=Divided+Supreme+Court+outlaws+affirmative+action+in+college+admissions%2C+says+race+can%27t+be+used&rft.date=2023-06-29&rft.aulast=Sherman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fsupreme-court-affirmative-action-college-race-f83d6318017ec9b9029b12ee2256e744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/ncna1287915">"Supreme Court will consider challenge to affirmative action in college admissions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a></i>. January 24, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+will+consider+challenge+to+affirmative+action+in+college+admissions&rft.date=2022-01-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Famp%2Fncna1287915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/students-for-fair-admissions-inc-v-president-fellows-of-harvard-college/">"Students for Fair Admissions Inc. v. President & Fellows of Harvard College"</a>. <i>SCOTUSblif</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SCOTUSblif&rft.atitle=Students+for+Fair+Admissions+Inc.+v.+President+%26+Fellows+of+Harvard+College&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2Fcase-files%2Fcases%2Fstudents-for-fair-admissions-inc-v-president-fellows-of-harvard-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBankston2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bankston, Carl (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205858/http://tulane.edu/liberal-arts/sociology/upload/soci_201_bollinger_11-1.pdf">"<i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>: Weak Foundations?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ohio State Law Journal</i>. <b>67</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>13. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tulane.edu/liberal-arts/sociology/upload/soci_201_bollinger_11-1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ohio+State+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Grutter+v.+Bollinger%3A+Weak+Foundations%3F&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bankston&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftulane.edu%2Fliberal-arts%2Fsociology%2Fupload%2Fsoci_201_bollinger_11-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDevins2003" class="citation journal cs1">Devins, Neal (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/facpubs/353">"Explaining <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>"</a>. <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i>. <b>152</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">347–</span>383. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3313063">10.2307/3313063</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3313063">3313063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Explaining+Grutter+v.+Bollinger&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E347-%3C%2Fspan%3E383&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3313063&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3313063%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Devins&rft.aufirst=Neal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.wm.edu%2Ffacpubs%2F353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevyMellor,_William_H.2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Levy" title="Robert A. Levy">Levy, Robert A.</a>; Mellor, William H. (2008). "Equal Protection and Racial Preferences". <i>The Dirty Dozen: How Twelve Supreme Court Cases Radically Expanded Government and Eroded Freedom</i>. New York: Sentinel. pp. <span class="nowrap">198–</span>214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59523-050-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59523-050-8"><bdi>978-1-59523-050-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Equal+Protection+and+Racial+Preferences&rft.btitle=The+Dirty+Dozen%3A+How+Twelve+Supreme+Court+Cases+Radically+Expanded+Government+and+Eroded+Freedom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E198-%3C%2Fspan%3E214&rft.pub=Sentinel&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59523-050-8&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Mellor%2C+William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerry2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_A._Perry" title="Barbara A. Perry">Perry, Barbara A.</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/michiganaffirmat0000perr"><i>The Michigan Affirmative Action Cases</i></a></span>. University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1549-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1549-0"><bdi>978-0-7006-1549-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Michigan+Affirmative+Action+Cases&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1549-0&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Barbara+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmichiganaffirmat0000perr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPollak2005" class="citation journal cs1">Pollak, Louis H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F0011526053124488">"Race, law & history: the Supreme Court from <i>Dred Scott</i> to <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>"</a>. <i>Dædalus</i>. <b>134</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F0011526053124488">10.1162/0011526053124488</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57560611">57560611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%A6dalus&rft.atitle=Race%2C+law+%26+history%3A+the+Supreme+Court+from+Dred+Scott+to+Grutter+v.+Bollinger&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F0011526053124488&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57560611%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Pollak&rft.aufirst=Louis+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252F0011526053124488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilkenfeld2004" class="citation journal cs1">Wilkenfeld, Joshua (2004). "Newly Compelling: Reexamining Judicial Construction of Juries in the Aftermath of <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>". <i>Columbia Law Review</i>. <b>104</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">2291–</span>2327. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4099360">10.2307/4099360</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4099360">4099360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Newly+Compelling%3A+Reexamining+Judicial+Construction+of+Juries+in+the+Aftermath+of+Grutter+v.+Bollinger&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2291-%3C%2Fspan%3E2327&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4099360&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4099360%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilkenfeld&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrutter+v.+Bollinger" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grutter_v._Bollinger&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Grutter_v._Bollinger" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Grutter v. Bollinger">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Text of <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 306 (2003) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/539/306">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=539&page=306">Findlaw</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/539/306/case.html">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep539/usrep539306/usrep539306.pdf">Library of Congress</a> </li> <li>Text of <i>Gratz v. Bollinger</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 244 (2003) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/539/244">Cornell</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=539&page=244">Findlaw</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/539/244/case.html">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.loc.gov/service/ll/usrep/usrep539/usrep539244/usrep539244.pdf">Library of Congress</a> </li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://conlaw.usatoday.findlaw.com/supreme_court/docket/2002/april.html">Briefs, Decisions and audio recordings (mp3 & realmedia)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" 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title="Rackham Graduate School">Graduate Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_School_of_Information" title="University of Michigan School of Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Kinesiology" title="School of Kinesiology">Kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Literature,_Science,_and_the_Arts" title="College of Literature, Science, and the Arts">Literature, Science, and the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Medicine" title="University of Michigan Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Music,_Theatre,_and_Dance" title="School of Music, Theatre, and Dance">Music, Theatre, and Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_School_of_Nursing" title="University of Michigan School of Nursing">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_College_of_Pharmacy" title="University of Michigan College of Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_School_of_Public_Health" title="University of Michigan School of Public Health">Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_School_of_Public_Policy" title="Ford School of Public Policy">Public Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_School_of_Social_Work" title="University of Michigan School of Social Work">Social Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines" title="Michigan Wolverines"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Athletics</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;">Teams</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines" title="Michigan Wolverines">Michigan Wolverines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_baseball" title="Michigan Wolverines baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_men%27s_basketball" title="Michigan Wolverines men's basketball">Men's basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_women%27s_basketball" title="Michigan Wolverines women's basketball">Women's basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_field_hockey" title="Michigan Wolverines field hockey">Field hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_football" title="Michigan Wolverines football">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_men%27s_gymnastics" title="Michigan Wolverines men's gymnastics">Men's gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_women%27s_gymnastics" title="Michigan Wolverines women's gymnastics">Women's gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_men%27s_ice_hockey" title="Michigan Wolverines men's ice hockey">Men's ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_men%27s_lacrosse" title="Michigan Wolverines men's lacrosse">Men's lacrosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_women%27s_lacrosse" title="Michigan Wolverines women's lacrosse">Women's lacrosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Rugby_Football_Club" title="University of Michigan Rugby Football Club">Rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_men%27s_soccer" title="Michigan Wolverines men's soccer">Men's soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_women%27s_soccer" title="Michigan Wolverines women's soccer">Women's soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_softball" title="Michigan Wolverines softball">Softball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_swimming_and_diving" title="Michigan Wolverines swimming and diving">Swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_track_and_field" title="Michigan Wolverines track and field">Track and field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_women%27s_volleyball" title="Michigan Wolverines women's volleyball">Women's volleyball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;">Venues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alumni_Field_at_Carol_Hutchins_Stadium" title="Alumni Field at Carol Hutchins Stadium">Alumni Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canham_Natatorium" title="Canham Natatorium">Canham Natatorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisler_Center" title="Crisler Center">Crisler Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferry_Field" title="Ferry Field">Ferry Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Stadium" title="Michigan Stadium">Michigan Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Ocker_Field" title="Phyllis Ocker Field">Phyllis Ocker Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Fisher_Stadium" title="Ray Fisher Stadium">Ray Fisher Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regents_Field" title="Regents Field">Regents Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterman_Gymnasium" title="Waterman Gymnasium">Waterman Gymnasium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yost_Ice_Arena" title="Yost Ice Arena">Yost Ice Arena</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(ice_hockey)" title="Cold War (ice hockey)">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Brown_Jug_(college_football_trophy)" title="Little Brown Jug (college football trophy)">Little Brown Jug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bunyan_Trophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Bunyan Trophy">Paul Bunyan Trophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Chill_at_the_Big_House" title="The Big Chill at the Big House">The Big Chill at the Big House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan%E2%80%93Michigan_State_men%27s_basketball_rivalry" title="Michigan–Michigan State men's basketball rivalry">Michigan–Michigan State basketball rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan%E2%80%93Michigan_State_men%27s_ice_hockey_rivalry" title="Michigan–Michigan State men's ice hockey rivalry">Michigan–Michigan State ice hockey rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan%E2%80%93Ohio_State_football_rivalry" title="Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry">Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan%E2%80%93Ohio_State_men%27s_basketball_rivalry" title="Michigan–Ohio State men's basketball rivalry">Michigan–Ohio State basketball rivalry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">Campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angell_Hall" title="Angell Hall">Angell Hall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angell_Hall_Observatory" title="Angell Hall Observatory">Observatory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Memorial_Tower" title="Burton Memorial Tower">Burton Memorial Tower</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Endover" title="Endover">The Cube</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Diag" title="The Diag">The Diag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Nuclear_Reactor" title="Ford Nuclear Reactor">Ford Nuclear Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_Auditorium" title="Hill Auditorium">Hill Auditorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Library" title="University of Michigan Library">Library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_R._Ford_Presidential_Library" title="Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library">Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Clements_Library" title="William L. Clements Library">William L. Clements Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_Sciences_Institute" title="Life Sciences Institute">Life Sciences Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lurie_Biomedical_Engineering_Center" title="Lurie Biomedical Engineering Center">Lurie Biomedical Engineering Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lurie_Tower" title="Lurie Tower">Lurie Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Union" title="Michigan Union">Michigan Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mcity" title="Mcity">Mcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House,_University_of_Michigan" title="President's House, University of Michigan">President's House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rock_(University_of_Michigan)" title="The Rock (University of Michigan)">The Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_student_housing" title="University of Michigan student housing">Student housing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bursley_Hall" title="Bursley Hall">Bursley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betsy_Barbour_House" title="Betsy Barbour House">Barbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Cook_Building" title="Martha Cook Building">Martha Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Markley_Hall" title="Mary Markley Hall">Markley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockwell_Hall" title="Stockwell Hall">Stockwell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weiser_Hall" title="Weiser Hall">Weiser Hall</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;">Museums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kelsey_Museum_of_Archaeology" title="Kelsey Museum of Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behind_the_Walls_(sculpture)" title="Behind the Walls (sculpture)"><i>Behind the Walls</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(sculpture)" title="Daedalus (sculpture)">Daedalus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(sculpture)" title="Orion (sculpture)"><i>Orion</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Romanovs_Collect:_European_Art_from_the_Hermitage_(exhibition)" title="The Romanovs Collect: European Art from the Hermitage (exhibition)">The Romanovs Collect</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shang_(sculpture)" title="Shang (sculpture)">Shang</a></i></li> <li><i> <a href="/wiki/Stiff_Box_12" title="Stiff Box 12">Stiff Box 12</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindecuse_Museum_of_Dentistry" title="Sindecuse Museum of Dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="University of Michigan Museum of Natural History">Natural History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;">Botanical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Herbarium" title="University of Michigan Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthaei_Botanical_Gardens" title="Matthaei Botanical Gardens">Matthaei Botanical Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichols_Arboretum" title="Nichols Arboretum">Nichols Arboretum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Michiganensian" title="Michiganensian">Michiganensian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Michigan_Daily" title="The Michigan Daily">Daily</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Michigan_Every_Three_Weekly" title="The Michigan Every Three Weekly">Every Three Weekly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Mathematical_Journal" title="Michigan Mathematical Journal">Michigan Mathematical Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gargoyle_Humor_Magazine" title="Gargoyle Humor Magazine">The Gargoyle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Channel" title="Michigan Channel">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Public" title="Michigan Public">Michigan Public</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WFUM" class="mw-redirect" title="WFUM">WFUM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WUOM" class="mw-redirect" title="WUOM">WUOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WVGR" class="mw-redirect" title="WVGR">WVGR</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Michigan_Review" title="The Michigan Review">Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Street_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Monroe Street Journal">Street Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Michigan_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Michigan Times">Times</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WCBN-FM" title="WCBN-FM">WCBN-FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WJJX_(defunct)" class="mw-redirect" title="WJJX (defunct)">WJJX</a> (defunct)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Michigan_alumni" title="List of University of Michigan alumni">General alumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Michigan_arts_alumni" title="List of University of Michigan arts alumni">Arts alumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Michigan_business_alumni" title="List of University of Michigan business alumni">Business alumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Michigan_law_and_government_alumni" title="List of University of Michigan law and government alumni">Law and government alumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_University_of_Michigan_faculty_and_staff" title="List of University of Michigan faculty and staff">Faculty and staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_University_of_Michigan" title="President of the University of Michigan">University presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Regents of the University of Michigan">Board of Regents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_National_Election_Studies" title="American National Election Studies">American National Election Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Business_Engagement_Center" title="University of Michigan Business Engagement Center">Business Engagement Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_Research_Center_for_Wireless_Integrated_Microsystems" title="Engineering Research Center for Wireless Integrated Microsystems">Engineering Research Center for Wireless Integrated Microsystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Research_Institute_of_Michigan" title="Environmental Research Institute of Michigan">Environmental Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Feminisms_Project" title="Global Feminisms Project">Global Feminisms Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Integrated_Sciences_and_Assessments" title="Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments">Great Lakes Integrated Sciences and Assessments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Institute_for_Social_Research" title="University of Michigan Institute for Social Research">Institute for Social Research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-university_Consortium_for_Political_and_Social_Research" title="Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research">Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Survey_of_Black_Americans" title="National Survey of Black Americans">National Survey of Black Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Aeronautical_Research_Center" title="Michigan Aeronautical Research Center">Michigan Aeronautical Research Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Life_Sciences_Corridor" title="Michigan Life Sciences Corridor">Michigan Life Sciences Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_and_Behavioral_Neuroscience_Institute" title="Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute">Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Quality_Research_Center" title="National Quality Research Center">National Quality Research Center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Customer_Satisfaction_Index" title="American Customer Satisfaction Index">American Customer Satisfaction Index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Consumer_Sentiment_Index" title="University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index">University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">Student life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Action_Movement" title="Black Action Movement">Black Action Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsive_Lyres" title="Compulsive Lyres">Compulsive Lyres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Detroit_Partnership" title="The Detroit Partnership">The Detroit Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_Jazz" title="Eclipse Jazz">Eclipse Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_Employees%27_Organization_3550" title="Graduate Employees' Organization 3550">Graduate Employees' Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Cooperative_Council_at_the_University_of_Michigan" title="Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan">Inter-Cooperative Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escher_Cooperative_House" title="Escher Cooperative House">Escher Cooperative House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs_Cooperative_House" title="Eugene V. Debs Cooperative House">Eugene V. Debs Cooperative House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Cooperative_House" title="Michigan Cooperative House">Michigan Cooperative House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefan_T._Vail_Cooperative_House" title="Stefan T. Vail Cooperative House">Stefan T. Vail Cooperative House</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Let%27s_Go_Blue" title="Let's Go Blue">Let's Go Blue</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MHacks" title="MHacks">MHacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Marching_Band" title="Michigan Marching Band">Michigan Marching Band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Ultras" title="Michigan Ultras">Michigan Ultras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Alpha_Chapter_House_of_Phi_Delta_Theta" title="Michigan Alpha Chapter House of Phi Delta Theta">Phi Delta Theta House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Men%27s_Glee_Club" title="University of Michigan Men's Glee Club">Men's Glee Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naked_Mile_(event)" title="Naked Mile (event)">Naked Mile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Angell" title="Order of Angell">Order of Angell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Pops_Orchestra" title="University of Michigan Pops Orchestra">Pops Orchestra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Social_Venture_Fund" title="University of Michigan Social Venture Fund">Social Venture Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Les_Voyageurs" title="Society of Les Voyageurs">Society of Les Voyageurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Solar_Car_Team" title="University of Michigan Solar Car Team">Solar Car Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">Students for a Democratic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_Phi_Alpha" title="Theta Phi Alpha">Theta Phi Alpha</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Victors" title="The Victors">The Victors</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Varsity_(fight_song)" title="Varsity (fight song)">Varsity</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Yellow_and_Blue" title="The Yellow and Blue">The Yellow and Blue</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_University_of_Michigan" title="History of the University of Michigan"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">History</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teach-in" title="Teach-in">1965 Teach-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Michigan_graduate_students%27_strike" title="2020 Michigan graduate students' strike">2020 graduate students' strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_at_the_University_of_Michigan" title="Affirmative action at the University of Michigan">Affirmative action</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Civil_Rights_Initiative" title="Michigan Civil Rights Initiative">Michigan Civil Rights Initiative</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._University_of_Michigan" title="Doe v. University of Michigan">Doe v. University of Michigan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Paralyzed_Veterans_of_America_v._The_University_of_Michigan" title="Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan">Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Meigs" title="Treaty of Fort Meigs">Treaty of Fort Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War_protests_at_the_University_of_Michigan" title="Vietnam War protests at the University of Michigan">Vietnam War protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;;width:1%">Campuses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">Ann Arbor (Main)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Dearborn" title="University of Michigan–Dearborn">Dearborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint" title="University of Michigan–Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Detroit_Center" title="University of Michigan Detroit Center">Detroit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#00274C;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #FFCB05, inset -2px -2px 0 #FFCB05;"><div> <ul><li><b>Founded:</b> 1817</li> <li><b>Students:</b> 52,065 (2023)</li> <li><b>Endowment:</b> $17.9 billion (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States273" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Affirmative action in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Affirmative action in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Affirmative action in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">Affirmative action in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> and<br />lower court decisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/DeFunis_v._Odegaard" title="DeFunis v. Odegaard">DeFunis v. Odegaard</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Fordice" title="United States v. Fordice">United States v. Fordice</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hopwood_v._Texas" title="Hopwood v. Texas">Hopwood v. Texas</a></i> (5th Cir. 1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Texas_v._Lesage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Texas v. Lesage (page does not exist)">Texas v. Lesage</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Doe_v._Kamehameha_Schools/Bernice_Pauahi_Bishop_Estate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate (page does not exist)">Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate</a></i> (9th Cir. 2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2013)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)">Fisher v. University of Texas I</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schuette_v._Coalition_to_Defend_Affirmative_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action">Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2016)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)">Fisher v. University of Texas II</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coalition_for_TJ_v._Fairfax_County_School_Board" title="Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board">Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board</a></i> (4th Cir. 2023)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Employment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morton_v._Mancari" title="Morton v. Mancari">Morton v. Mancari</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schlesinger_v._Ballard" title="Schlesinger v. Ballard">Schlesinger v. Ballard</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hazelwood_School_District_v._United_States" title="Hazelwood School District v. United States">Hazelwood School District v. United States</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_Steelworkers_v._Weber" title="United Steelworkers v. Weber">United Steelworkers v. Weber</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Firefighters_v._Stotts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firefighters v. Stotts (page does not exist)">Firefighters v. Stotts</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wygant_v._Jackson_Board_of_Education" title="Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education">Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sheet_Metal_Workers_v._EEOC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC (page does not exist)">Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Firefighters_v._City_of_Cleveland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Firefighters v. City of Cleveland (page does not exist)">Firefighters v. City of Cleveland</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Paradise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Paradise (page does not exist)">United States v. Paradise</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._Transportation_Agency" title="Johnson v. Transportation Agency">Johnson v. Transportation Agency</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wards_Cove_Packing_Co._v._Atonio" title="Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio">Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piscataway_School_Board_v._Taxman" title="Piscataway School Board v. Taxman">Piscataway School Board v. Taxman</a></i> (3d Cir. 1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ricci_v._DeStefano" title="Ricci v. DeStefano">Ricci v. DeStefano</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charlton-Perkins_v._University_of_Cincinnati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati (page does not exist)">Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati</a></i> (6th Cir. 2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grants,<br />Contracting,<br />and Set-Asides</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kahn_v._Shevin" title="Kahn v. Shevin">Kahn v. Shevin</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Califano_v._Webster" title="Califano v. Webster">Califano v. Webster</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fullilove_v._Klutznick" title="Fullilove v. Klutznick">Fullilove v. Klutznick</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Richmond_v._J.A._Croson_Co." title="City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.">City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metro_Broadcasting,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC">Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lamprecht_v._FCC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lamprecht v. FCC (page does not exist)">Lamprecht v. FCC</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Fla._Chapter,_Associated_Gen._Contractors_of_America_v._City_of_Jacksonville&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. City of Jacksonville (page does not exist)">Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. City of Jacksonville</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Slater&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater (page does not exist)">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Mineta" class="mw-redirect" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitolo_v._Guzman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vitolo v. Guzman (page does not exist)">Vitolo v. Guzman</a></i> (6th Cir. 2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">legislation</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Executive_order" title="Executive order">edicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Section 1981 of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10925" title="Executive Order 10925">Executive Order 10925</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_VI_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Title_VII_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_11246" title="Executive Order 11246">Executive Order 11246</a> (1965)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State <a href="/wiki/Initiatives_and_referendums_in_the_United_States" title="Initiatives and referendums in the United States">initiatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_California_Proposition_209" title="1996 California Proposition 209">Proposition 209</a> (<a href="/wiki/California" title="California">CA</a>, 1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_200" title="Initiative 200">Initiative 200</a> (<a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">WA</a>, 1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Civil_Rights_Initiative" title="Michigan Civil Rights Initiative">Proposal 2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">MI</a>, 2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Amendment_46" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado Amendment 46">Amendment 46</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">CO</a>, 2008, failed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Initiative_424" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebraska Initiative 424">Initiative 424</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">NE</a>, 2008)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arizona_Proposition_107_(2010)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arizona Proposition 107 (2010) (page does not exist)">Proposition 107</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">AZ</a>, 2010)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_Question_759&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="State Question 759 (page does not exist)">State Question 759</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">OK</a>, 2012)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Referendum_88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Referendum 88 (page does not exist)">Referendum 88</a> (<a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">WA</a>, 2019, failed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_California_Proposition_16" title="2020 California Proposition 16">Proposition 16</a> (<a href="/wiki/California" title="California">CA</a>, 2020, failed)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Arcidiacono" title="Peter Arcidiacono">Peter Arcidiacono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Blum_(litigant)" title="Edward Blum (litigant)">Edward Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Cohen_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Cohen (professor)">Carl Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Connerly" title="Ward Connerly">Ward Connerly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Fletcher" title="Arthur Fletcher">Arthur Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Kahlenberg" title="Richard Kahlenberg">Richard Kahlenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sander" title="Richard Sander">Richard Sander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Taylor_Jr." title="Stuart Taylor Jr.">Stuart Taylor Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abigail_Thermstrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abigail Thermstrom (page does not exist)">Abigail Thermstrom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephan_Thermstrom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephan Thermstrom (page does not exist)">Stephan Thermstrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Unz" title="Ron Unz">Ron Unz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Fourteenth_Amendment_case_law235" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US14thAmendment" title="Template:US14thAmendment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US14thAmendment" title="Template talk:US14thAmendment"><abbr 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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a></i> (1873)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minor_v._Happersett" title="Minor v. Happersett">Minor v. Happersett</a></i> (1875)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">United States v. Wong Kim Ark</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_v._Hare" title="Mackenzie v. Hare">Mackenzie v. Hare</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perez_v._Brownell" title="Perez v. Brownell">Perez v. Brownell</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afroyim_v._Rusk" title="Afroyim v. Rusk">Afroyim v. Rusk</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Bellei" title="Rogers v. Bellei">Rogers v. Bellei</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saenz_v._Roe" title="Saenz v. Roe">Saenz v. Roe</a></i> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Due_Process_Clause235" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Economic substantive<br />due process</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mugler_v._Kansas" title="Mugler v. Kansas">Mugler v. Kansas</a></i> (1887)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Allgeyer_v._Louisiana" title="Allgeyer v. Louisiana">Allgeyer v. Louisiana</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holden_v._Hardy" title="Holden v. Hardy">Holden v. Hardy</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muller_v._Oregon" title="Muller v. Oregon">Muller v. Oregon</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coppage_v._Kansas" title="Coppage v. Kansas">Coppage v. Kansas</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adams_v._Tanner" title="Adams v. Tanner">Adams v. Tanner</a></i> (1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Gorman_%26_Young,_Inc._v._Hartford_Fire_Insurance_Co." title="O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.">O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a></i> (1937)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Right to privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Meyer_v._Nebraska" title="Meyer v. Nebraska">Meyer v. Nebraska</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pierce_v._Society_of_Sisters" title="Pierce v. Society of Sisters">Pierce v. Society of Sisters</a></i> (1925)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster_v._Reproductive_Health_Services" title="Webster v. Reproductive Health Services">Webster v. Reproductive Health Services</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Vuitch" title="United States v. Vuitch">United States v. Vuitch</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_of_Central_Missouri_v._Danforth" title="Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth">Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellotti_v._Baird_(1976)" title="Bellotti v. Baird (1976)">Bellotti v. Baird I</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colautti_v._Franklin" title="Colautti v. Franklin">Colautti v. Franklin</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellotti_v._Baird_(1979)" title="Bellotti v. Baird (1979)">Bellotti v. Baird II</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/H._L._v._Matheson" title="H. L. v. Matheson">H. L. v. Matheson</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Akron_v._Akron_Center_for_Reproductive_Health" title="City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health">City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thornburgh_v._American_College_of_Obstetricians_%26_Gynecologists" title="Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists">Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webster_v._Reproductive_Health_Services" title="Webster v. Reproductive Health Services">Webster v. Reproductive Health Services</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodgson_v._Minnesota" title="Hodgson v. Minnesota">Hodgson v. Minnesota</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_v._Akron_Center_for_Reproductive_Health&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health (page does not exist)">Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leavitt_v._Jane_L.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leavitt v. Jane L. (page does not exist)">Leavitt v. Jane L.</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lambert_v._Wicklund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lambert v. Wicklund (page does not exist)">Lambert v. Wicklund</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mazurek_v._Armstrong" title="Mazurek v. Armstrong">Mazurek v. Armstrong</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stenberg_v._Carhart" title="Stenberg v. Carhart">Stenberg v. Carhart</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ayotte_v._Planned_Parenthood_of_Northern_New_England" title="Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England">Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Azar_v._Garza" title="Azar v. Garza">Azar v. Garza</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Box_v._Planned_Parenthood_of_Indiana_and_Kentucky,_Inc." title="Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.">Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/June_Medical_Services,_LLC_v._Russo" title="June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo">June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Litigation under<br /><a href="/wiki/Revised_Statutes_of_the_United_States" title="Revised Statutes of the United States">R.S. </a><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Enforcement Act of 1871">§ 1979 (42 U.S.C. 1983)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_v._Pape" title="Monroe v. Pape">Monroe v. Pape</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i>McNeese v. Board of Education</i> (1963)</li> <li><i>Pierson v. Ray</i> (1967)</li> <li><i>Jenkins v. McKeithen</i> (1969)</li> <li><i>Scheuer v. Rhodes</i> (1974)</li> <li><i>Wood v. Strickland</i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Donaldson" title="O'Connor v. Donaldson">O'Connor v. Donaldson</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paul_v._Davis" title="Paul v. Davis">Paul v. Davis</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imbler_v._Pachtman" title="Imbler v. Pachtman">Imbler v. Pachtman</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monell_v._Department_of_Social_Services_of_the_City_of_New_York" title="Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York">Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i>Procunier v. Navarette</i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Owen_v._City_of_Independence" title="Owen v. City of Independence">Owen v. City of Independence</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Felder_v._Casey" title="Felder v. Casey">Felder v. Casey</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Will_v._Michigan_Department_of_State_Police" title="Will v. Michigan Department of State Police">Will v. Michigan Department of State Police</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzaga_University_v._Doe" title="Gonzaga University v. Doe">Gonzaga University v. Doe</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inyo_County_v._Paiute-Shoshone_Indians_of_the_Bishop_Community" title="Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community">Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Rancho_Palos_Verdes_v._Abrams" title="City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams">City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzgerald_v._Barnstable_School_Committee" title="Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee">Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._Iqbal" title="Ashcroft v. Iqbal">Ashcroft v. Iqbal</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_v._Humphries" title="Los Angeles County v. Humphries">Los Angeles County v. Humphries</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Connick_v._Thompson" title="Connick v. Thompson">Connick v. Thompson</a></i> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jacobson_v._Massachusetts" title="Jacobson v. Massachusetts">Jacobson v. Massachusetts</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zucht_v._King" title="Zucht v. King">Zucht v. King</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i> (1932)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mullane_v._Central_Hanover_Bank_%26_Trust_Co." title="Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.">Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hoyt_v._Florida" title="Hoyt v. Florida">Hoyt v. Florida</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyler_v._Boles" title="Oyler v. Boles">Oyler v. Boles</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Winship" title="In re Winship">In re Winship</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._LaFleur" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur">Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arnett_v._Kennedy" title="Arnett v. Kennedy">Arnett v. Kennedy</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taylor_v._Louisiana" title="Taylor v. Louisiana">Taylor v. Louisiana</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goss_v._Lopez" title="Goss v. Lopez">Goss v. Lopez</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathews_v._Eldridge" title="Mathews v. Eldridge">Mathews v. Eldridge</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._City_of_East_Cleveland" title="Moore v. City of East Cleveland">Moore v. City of East Cleveland</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duren_v._Missouri" title="Duren v. Missouri">Duren v. Missouri</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parham_v._J.R." title="Parham v. J.R.">Parham v. J.R.</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parratt_v._Taylor" title="Parratt v. Taylor">Parratt v. Taylor</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logan_v._Zimmerman_Brush_Co." title="Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.">Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kolender_v._Lawson" title="Kolender v. Lawson">Kolender v. Lawson</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Palmer" title="Hudson v. Palmer">Hudson v. Palmer</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._Loudermill" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill">Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_v._Safley" title="Turner v. Safley">Turner v. Safley</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/DeShaney_v._Winnebago_County" title="DeShaney v. Winnebago County">DeShaney v. Winnebago County</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michael_H._v._Gerald_D." title="Michael H. v. Gerald D.">Michael H. v. Gerald D.</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruzan_v._Director,_Missouri_Department_of_Health" title="Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health">Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_v._Glucksberg" title="Washington v. Glucksberg">Washington v. Glucksberg</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Troxel_v._Granville" title="Troxel v. Granville">Troxel v. Granville</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caperton_v._A.T._Massey_Coal_Co." title="Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.">Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Pennsylvania" title="Williams v. Pennsylvania">Williams v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Equal_Protection_Clause235" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Race</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pace_v._Alabama" title="Pace v. Alabama">Pace v. Alabama</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cumming_v._Richmond_County_Board_of_Education" title="Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education">Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lum_v._Rice" title="Lum v. Rice">Lum v. Rice</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Texas_(1940)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Texas (1940) (page does not exist)">Smith v. Texas</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hirabayashi_v._United_States" title="Hirabayashi v. United States">Hirabayashi v. United States</a></i> (1943)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sipuel_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma" title="Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma">Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perez_v._Sharp" title="Perez v. Sharp">Perez v. Sharp</a></i> (Cal. 1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (M.D. Ala. 1956)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anderson_v._Martin" title="Anderson v. Martin">Anderson v. Martin</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaughlin_v._Florida" title="McLaughlin v. Florida">McLaughlin v. Florida</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reitman_v._Mulkey" title="Reitman v. Mulkey">Reitman v. Mulkey</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Washington" title="Lee v. Washington">Lee v. Washington</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunter_v._Erickson" title="Hunter v. Erickson">Hunter v. Erickson</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hadnott_v._Amos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hadnott v. Amos (page does not exist)">Hadnott v. Amos</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Montgomery_County_Board_of_Education" title="United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education">United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_v._Holmes_County_Board_of_Education" title="Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education">Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swann_v._Charlotte-Mecklenburg_Board_of_Education" title="Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education">Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=McDaniel_v._Barresi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McDaniel v. Barresi (page does not exist)">McDaniel v. Barresi</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmer_v._Thompson" title="Palmer v. Thompson">Palmer v. Thompson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coit_v._Green" title="Coit v. Green">Coit v. Green</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guey_Heung_Lee_v._Johnson" title="Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson">Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jefferson_v._Hackney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jefferson v. Hackney (page does not exist)">Jefferson v. Hackney</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keyes_v._School_District_No._1,_Denver" title="Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver">Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norwood_v._Harrison" title="Norwood v. Harrison">Norwood v. Harrison</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milliken_v._Bradley" title="Milliken v. Bradley">Milliken v. Bradley</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Village_of_Arlington_Heights_v._Metropolitan_Housing_Development_Corp." title="Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.">Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dayton_Bd._of_Ed._v._Brinkman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman (page does not exist)">Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Washington_v._Seattle_School_Dist._No._1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1 (page does not exist)">Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crawford_v._Los_Angeles_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education (page does not exist)">Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmore_v._Sidoti" title="Palmore v. Sidoti">Palmore v. Sidoti</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunter_v._Underwood" title="Hunter v. Underwood">Hunter v. Underwood</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wygant_v._Jackson_Board_of_Education" title="Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education">Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Richmond_v._J.A._Croson_Co." title="City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.">City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_of_Oklahoma_City_v._Dowell" title="Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell">Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Freeman_v._Pitts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Freeman v. Pitts (page does not exist)">Freeman v. Pitts</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Fordice" title="United States v. Fordice">United States v. Fordice</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Fla._Chapter,_Associated_Gen._Contractors_of_America_v._Jacksonville&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville (page does not exist)">Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Jenkins" title="Missouri v. Jenkins">Missouri v. Jenkins</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Texas_v._Lesage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Texas v. Lesage (page does not exist)">Texas v. Lesage</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson_v._California_(2005)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson v. California (2005) (page does not exist)">Johnson v. California</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2013)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2013)">Fisher v. University of Texas I</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schuette_v._Coalition_to_Defend_Affirmative_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action">Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fisher_v._University_of_Texas_(2016)" title="Fisher v. University of Texas (2016)">Fisher v. University of Texas II</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._President_and_Fellows_of_Harvard_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College">Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College</a></i> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sex</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goesaert_v._Cleary" title="Goesaert v. Cleary">Goesaert v. Cleary</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reed_v._Reed" title="Reed v. Reed">Reed v. Reed</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moritz_v._Commissioner" title="Moritz v. Commissioner">Moritz v. Commissioner</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kahn_v._Shevin" title="Kahn v. Shevin">Kahn v. Shevin</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geduldig_v._Aiello" title="Geduldig v. Aiello">Geduldig v. Aiello</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stanton_v._Stanton" title="Stanton v. Stanton">Stanton v. Stanton</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Healy" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwards v. Healy">Edwards v. Healy</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Craig_v._Boren" title="Craig v. Boren">Craig v. Boren</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orr_v._Orr" title="Orr v. Orr">Orr v. Orr</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parham_v._Hughes" title="Parham v. Hughes">Parham v. Hughes</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caban_v._Mohammed" title="Caban v. Mohammed">Caban v. Mohammed</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Personnel_Administrator_of_Massachusetts_v._Feeney" title="Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney">Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wengler_v._Druggists_Mut._Ins._Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co. (page does not exist)">Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kirchberg_v._Feenstra" title="Kirchberg v. Feenstra">Kirchberg v. Feenstra</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michael_M._v._Superior_Court_of_Sonoma_County" title="Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County">Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_University_for_Women_v._Hogan" title="Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan">Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lehr_v._Robertson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lehr v. Robertson (page does not exist)">Lehr v. Robertson</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/J.E.B._v._Alabama_ex_rel._T.B." title="J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.">J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Skrmetti" title="United States v. Skrmetti">United States v. Skrmetti</a></i> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual orientation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romer_v._Evans" title="Romer v. Evans">Romer v. Evans</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alienage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patsone_v._Pennsylvania" title="Patsone v. Pennsylvania">Patsone v. Pennsylvania</a></i> (1914)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truax_v._Raich" title="Truax v. Raich">Truax v. Raich</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heim_v._McCall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heim v. McCall (page does not exist)">Heim v. McCall</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crane_v._New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crane v. New York (page does not exist)">Crane v. New York</a></i> (1915)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terrace_v._Thompson" title="Terrace v. Thompson">Terrace v. Thompson</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Porterfield_v._Webb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Porterfield v. Webb (page does not exist)">Porterfield v. Webb</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Webb_v._O%27Brien" title="Webb v. O'Brien">Webb v. O'Brien</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frick_v._Webb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frick v. Webb (page does not exist)">Frick v. Webb</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_ex_rel._Clark_v._Deckebach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach (page does not exist)">Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takahashi_v._Fish_and_Game_Comm%27n" class="mw-redirect" title="Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n">Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graham_v._Richardson" title="Graham v. Richardson">Graham v. Richardson</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sugarman_v._Dougall" title="Sugarman v. Dougall">Sugarman v. Dougall</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_re_Griffiths&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In re Griffiths (page does not exist)">In re Griffiths</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Examining_Board_v._Flores_de_Otero" title="Examining Board v. Flores de Otero">Examining Board v. Flores de Otero</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nyquist_v._Mauclet" title="Nyquist v. Mauclet">Nyquist v. Mauclet</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foley_v._Connelie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foley v. Connelie (page does not exist)">Foley v. Connelie</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ambach_v._Norwick" title="Ambach v. Norwick">Ambach v. Norwick</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cabell_v._Chavez-Salido" title="Cabell v. Chavez-Salido">Cabell v. Chavez-Salido</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plyler_v._Doe" title="Plyler v. Doe">Plyler v. Doe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bernal_v._Fainter" title="Bernal v. Fainter">Bernal v. Fainter</a></i> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Residency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shapiro_v._Thompson" title="Shapiro v. Thompson">Shapiro v. Thompson</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arlington_County_Board_v._Richards" title="Arlington County Board v. Richards">Arlington County Board v. Richards</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Life_Insurance_Co._v._Ward" title="Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward">Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward</a></i> (1985)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1876)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_County_v._Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.">Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quaker_City_Cab_Co._v._Commonwealth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth (page does not exist)">Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breedlove_v._Suttles" title="Breedlove v. Suttles">Breedlove v. Suttles</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Oklahoma" title="Skinner v. Oklahoma">Skinner v. Oklahoma</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyama_v._California" title="Oyama v. California">Oyama v. California</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oyler_v._Boles" title="Oyler v. Boles">Oyler v. Boles</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rinaldi_v._Yeager&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rinaldi v. Yeager (page does not exist)">Rinaldi v. Yeager</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Levy_v._Louisiana" title="Levy v. Louisiana">Levy v. Louisiana</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Rhodes" title="Williams v. Rhodes">Williams v. Rhodes</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boddie_v._Connecticut" title="Boddie v. Connecticut">Boddie v. Connecticut</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eisenstadt_v._Baird" title="Eisenstadt v. Baird">Eisenstadt v. Baird</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lehnhausen_v._Lake_Shore_Auto_Parts_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co. (page does not exist)">Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/San_Antonio_Independent_School_District_v._Rodriguez" title="San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez">San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Richardson_v._Ramirez" title="Richardson v. Ramirez">Richardson v. Ramirez</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Village_of_Belle_Terre_v._Boraas" title="Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas">Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Retirement_v._Murgia" title="Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia">Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trimble_v._Gordon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trimble v. Gordon (page does not exist)">Trimble v. Gordon</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zablocki_v._Redhail" title="Zablocki v. Redhail">Zablocki v. Redhail</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Transit_Authority_v._Beazer" title="New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer">New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mills_v._Habluetzel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mills v. Habluetzel (page does not exist)">Mills v. Habluetzel</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Cleburne_v._Cleburne_Living_Center,_Inc." title="City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.">City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clark_v._Jeter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clark v. Jeter (page does not exist)">Clark v. Jeter</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kadrmas_v._Dickinson_Public_Schools&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools (page does not exist)">Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._Ashcroft" title="Gregory v. Ashcroft">Gregory v. Ashcroft</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vacco_v._Quill" title="Vacco v. Quill">Vacco v. Quill</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Armour_v._Indianapolis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Armour v. Indianapolis (page does not exist)">Armour v. Indianapolis</a></i> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Enforcement_Clause235" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Enforcement Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._Morgan" title="Katzenbach v. Morgan">Katzenbach v. Morgan</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_v._Bitzer" title="Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer">Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dellmuth_v._Muth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dellmuth v. Muth (page does not exist)">Dellmuth v. Muth</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_Prepaid_Postsecondary_Education_Expense_Board_v._College_Savings_Bank" title="Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank">Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kimel_v._Florida_Board_of_Regents" title="Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents">Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Morrison" title="United States v. Morrison">United States v. 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