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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 18em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Basic concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_competition_law" title="History of competition law">History of competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">oligopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coercive_monopoly" title="Coercive monopoly">Coercive monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herfindahl%E2%80%93Hirschman_index" title="Herfindahl–Hirschman index">Herfindahl–Hirschman index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_concentration" title="Market concentration">Market concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">Market power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_but_significant_and_non-transitory_increase_in_price" title="Small but significant and non-transitory increase in price">SSNIP test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevant_market" title="Relevant market">Relevant market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merger_control" title="Merger control">Merger control</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">Anti-competitive practices</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolization" title="Monopolization">Monopolization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collusion" title="Collusion">Collusion</a> <ul><li>Formation of <a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">cartels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_fixing" title="Price fixing">Price fixing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Price_fixing_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Price fixing cases">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bid_rigging" title="Bid rigging">Bid rigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_collusion" title="Tacit collusion">Tacit collusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_licensing" title="Occupational licensing">Occupational licensing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_bundling" title="Product bundling">Product bundling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tying_(commerce)" title="Tying (commerce)">tying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_deal" title="Refusal to deal">Refusal to deal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_boycott" title="Group boycott">Group boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_facilities_doctrine" title="Essential facilities doctrine">Essential facilities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_dealing" title="Exclusive dealing">Exclusive dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_territories" title="Dividing territories">Dividing territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_closure" title="Occupational closure">Occupational closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predatory_pricing" title="Predatory pricing">Predatory pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_misuse" title="Patent misuse">Misuse of patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_misuse" title="Copyright misuse">copyrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Enforcement authorities and organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Competition_Network" title="International Competition Network">International Competition Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_regulator" title="Competition regulator">List of competition regulators</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Competition_law" title="Template:Competition law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Competition_law" title="Template talk:Competition law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Competition_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Competition law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">U.S. competition law</a>, the <b>consumer welfare standard</b> (CWS) or <b>consumer welfare principle</b> (CWP)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a legal doctrine used to determine the applicability of antitrust enforcement. </p><p>Under the consumer welfare standard, a <a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">corporate merger</a> is deemed <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">anti-competitive</a> “only when it harms both allocative efficiency and raises the prices of goods above competitive levels or diminishes their quality".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrasts with earlier frameworks of antitrust theory, and more recently the <a href="/wiki/New_Brandeis_movement" title="New Brandeis movement">New Brandeis movement</a>, which argue that corporate mergers are inherently detrimental to consumers because of the diminishing competition resulting from it. </p><p>In other words, the consumer welfare standard does not analyze antitrust issues from a "big is bad"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perspective that condemns corporate consolidation as a negative phenomenon in of itself<i>.</i> Instead, the framework stipulates that corporate consolidation is not <i>necessarily</i> harmful to consumers, as long as a merger (or series of mergers) does not lead to individuals having to pay more for a product or service. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_origins">Background and origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consumer_welfare_standard&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background and origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg/220px-Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg/330px-Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg/440px-Robert_Heron_Bork.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2081" data-file-height="2662" /></a><figcaption>The work of legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a> is often cited as having contributed to the development of the consumer welfare standard </figcaption></figure> <p>The roots of the consumer welfare standard can be found in the work of <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</a> legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a>, most notably in his 1978 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Antitrust_Paradox" title="The Antitrust Paradox">The Antitrust Paradox</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consumer welfare standard gradually replaced the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_reason" title="Rule of reason">rule of reason</a> principle as the dominant legal theory behind antitrust enforcement by the 1980s. </p><p>The consumer welfare standard was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomic</a> theory and is related to the economic theories of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school of economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adoption of the consumer welfare standard by courts and regulatory agencies has been credited with the sharp drop in antitrust enforcement in recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consumer_welfare_standard&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 21st century, antitrust advocates affiliated with the progressive "<a href="/wiki/New_Brandeis_movement" title="New Brandeis movement">New Brandeis movement</a>" have called into question the value of the consumer welfare standard. These critics argue that, by emerging as the dominant form of antitrust analysis by courts and regulators, the consumer welfare standard has led to less competition and an increase in the average <a href="/wiki/Market_share" title="Market share">market share</a> of firms in a given sector. </p><p>Many of these critics favor an approach to antitrust enforcement tools to promote of <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic equality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">labor rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Biden_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Biden administration">Biden administration</a>, multiple noted critics of the consumer welfare standard were appointed to federal office. These include <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Kanter" title="Jonathan Kanter">Jonathan Kanter</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assistant Attorney General for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Antitrust_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division">Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lina_Khan" title="Lina Khan">Lina Khan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chair of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> (FTC). </p><p>Some conservatives, such as <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Landry" title="Jeff Landry">Jeff Landry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, have also argued that the consumer welfare standard is insufficient, stating that he believes that "defining any corporate behavior that leads to lower prices for consumers as acceptable is not true to the original intent of antitrust legislation."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consumer_welfare_standard&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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colspan="2"><div>the philosophy of and activism for <a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">consumer protection</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_privacy" title="Consumer privacy">Consumer privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_revolution" title="Consumer revolution">Consumer revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Consumer welfare standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consumer" title="Informed consumer">Informed consumer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_activism" title="Consumer activism">Consumer activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_Bill_of_Rights" title="Consumer Bill of Rights">Consumer Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_complaint" title="Consumer complaint">Consumer complaint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_education" title="Consumer education">Consumer education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_movement" title="Consumer movement">Consumer movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_consumption" title="Collaborative 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