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id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alfred_Thayer_Mahan_and_sea_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alfred_Thayer_Mahan_and_sea_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Alfred Thayer Mahan and sea power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alfred_Thayer_Mahan_and_sea_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homer_Lea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homer_Lea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Homer Lea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homer_Lea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kissinger,_Brzezinski,_and_the_Grand_Chessboard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kissinger,_Brzezinski,_and_the_Grand_Chessboard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Kissinger, Brzezinski, and the Grand Chessboard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kissinger,_Brzezinski,_and_the_Grand_Chessboard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United Kingdom subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emil_Reich" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emil_Reich"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Emil Reich</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emil_Reich-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mackinder_and_the_Heartland_Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mackinder_and_the_Heartland_Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mackinder and the Heartland Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mackinder_and_the_Heartland_Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Germany-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Germany subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Friedrich_Ratzel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Friedrich_Ratzel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Friedrich Ratzel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Friedrich_Ratzel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_association_of_German_Geopolitik_with_Nazism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_association_of_German_Geopolitik_with_Nazism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The association of German Geopolitik with Nazism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_association_of_German_Geopolitik_with_Nazism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disciplinary_differences_in_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disciplinary_differences_in_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Disciplinary differences in perspectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disciplinary_differences_in_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-France-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle France subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Montesquieu_and_climate_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Montesquieu_and_climate_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Montesquieu and climate theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Montesquieu_and_climate_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancel,_Braudel,_and_the_rejection_of_determinism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancel,_Braudel,_and_the_rejection_of_determinism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ancel, Braudel, and the rejection of determinism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancel,_Braudel,_and_the_rejection_of_determinism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lacoste_and_the_renaissance_of_French_geopolitics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lacoste_and_the_renaissance_of_French_geopolitics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Lacoste and the renaissance of French geopolitics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lacoste_and_the_renaissance_of_French_geopolitics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_of_geopolitics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_of_geopolitics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Study of geopolitics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Study_of_geopolitics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Study of geopolitics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Study_of_geopolitics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notable Institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > 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<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitiek" title="Geopolitiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geopolitiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جيوسياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيوسياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeopol%C3%ADtica" title="Xeopolítica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xeopolítica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosiyas%C9%99t" title="Geosiyasət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Geosiyasət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-ch%C3%A8ng-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tē-chèng-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-chèng-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геапалітыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геапалітыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геапалітыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Геапалітыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douarbolitikerezh" title="Douarbolitikerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Douarbolitikerezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8D" title="Геополитикэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Геополитикэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopol%C3%ADtica" title="Geopolítica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geopolítica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utongachisi" title="Utongachisi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Utongachisi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giupulitica" title="Giupulitica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Giupulitica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daearwleidyddiaeth" title="Daearwleidyddiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Daearwleidyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geopolitik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9" title="جيوسياسة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="جيوسياسة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geopolitik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopoliitika" title="Geopoliitika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geopoliitika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γεωπολιτική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γεωπολιτική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopol%C3%ADtica" title="Geopolítica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geopolítica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitiko" title="Geopolitiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geopolitiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژئوپلیتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژئوپلیتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9opolitique" title="Géopolitique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géopolitique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeopol%C3%ADtica" title="Xeopolítica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeopolítica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%A0%95%ED%95%99" title="지정학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지정학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աշխարհաքաղաքականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհաքաղաքականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="भूराजनीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूराजनीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitiko" title="Geopolitiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Geopolitiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geopolitik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitica" title="Geopolitica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geopolitica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גאופוליטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאופוליטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="გეოპოლიტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეოპოლიტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Геосаясат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геосаясат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Геосаясат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Геосаясат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A2eopolitika" title="Ģeopolitika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ģeopolitika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geopolitik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Геополитик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Геополитик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="ပထဝီနိုင်ငံရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပထဝီနိုင်ငံရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitiek" title="Geopolitiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geopolitiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E6%94%BF%E5%AD%A6" title="地政学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地政学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitikk" title="Geopolitikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geopolitikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosiyosat" title="Geosiyosat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geosiyosat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopol%C3%ACtica" title="Geopolìtica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Geopolìtica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolityka" title="Geopolityka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geopolityka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopol%C3%ADtica" title="Geopolítica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geopolítica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitic%C4%83" title="Geopolitică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geopolitică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeopolitika" title="Gjeopolitika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeopolitika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%96-%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="භූ-දේශපාලනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භූ-දේශපාලනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geopolitics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%BD%DA%AA%D8%B3" title="جيو پاليٽڪس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جيو پاليٽڪس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%BE%DB%86%D9%84%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جیۆپۆلەتیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جیۆپۆلەتیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitika" title="Geopolitika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geopolitika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitiikka" title="Geopolitiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geopolitiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geopolitik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takelsertit" title="Takelsertit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Takelsertit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ภูมิรัฐศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิรัฐศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D2%B7%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%91%D3%A3" title="Сиёсати ҷуғрофиёӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сиёсати ҷуғрофиёӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeopolitik" title="Jeopolitik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jeopolitik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополитика – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Геополитика" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геополітика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геополітика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جغرافیائی سیاسیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جغرافیائی سیاسیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_ch%C3%ADnh_tr%E1%BB%8B" title="Địa chính trị – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa chính trị" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyopolitika" title="Heyopolitika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Heyopolitika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%BC%98%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="地缘政治学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地缘政治学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%B7%A3%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%B8" title="地緣政治學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地緣政治學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%BC%98%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="地缘政治学 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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href="/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">Neorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_realism" title="Offensive realism">Offensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_realism" title="Defensive realism">Defensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_peace_theory" title="Territorial peace theory">Territorial peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Other theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_security_studies" title="Critical security studies">Critical security studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_international_relations_theory" title="Critical international relations theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmentalism" title="Intergovernmentalism">Intergovernmentalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_intergovernmentalism" title="Liberal intergovernmentalism">liberal intergovernmentalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_theory" title="Green theory">Green theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_stability_theory" title="Hegemonic stability theory">Hegemonic stability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_School_(international_relations)" title="Copenhagen School (international relations)">Copenhagen School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(international_relations)" title="Functionalism (international relations)">Functionalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neofunctionalism" title="Neofunctionalism">neofunctionalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_school_of_international_relations" title="Chinese school of international relations">Chinese school of international relations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Classifications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism_(international_relations)" title="Postpositivism (international relations)">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(international_relations)" title="Rationalism (international relations)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Great Debates</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-paradigm_debate_in_international_relations_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-paradigm debate in international relations theory">Inter-paradigm debate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Other approaches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_ethics" title="International ethics">International ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_theory" title="Regime theory">Regime theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_cartel_theory" title="State cartel theory">State cartel theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Scholars</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._Barnett" title="Michael N. Barnett">Michael Barnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Deudney" title="Daniel Deudney">Daniel Deudney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Doyle" title="Michael W. Doyle">Michael W. Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Enloe" title="Cynthia Enloe">Cynthia Enloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fearon" title="James Fearon">James Fearon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Finnemore" title="Martha Finnemore">Martha Finnemore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gilpin" title="Robert Gilpin">Robert Gilpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ikenberry" title="John Ikenberry">John Ikenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jervis" title="Robert Jervis">Robert Jervis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Katzenstein" title="Peter J. Katzenstein">Peter J. Katzenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Krasner" title="Stephen D. Krasner">Stephen D. Krasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Morgenthau" title="Hans Morgenthau">Hans Morgenthau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nye" title="Joseph Nye">Joseph Nye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Sikkink" title="Kathryn Sikkink">Kathryn Sikkink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Ann_Tickner" title="J. Ann Tickner">J. Ann Tickner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Walt" title="Stephen Walt">Stephen Walt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wendt" title="Alexander Wendt">Alexander Wendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xuetong" title="Yan Xuetong">Yan Xuetong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Yaqing" title="Qin Yaqing">Qin Yaqing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="International_relations" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:International_relations" title="Category:International relations">International relations</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/175px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Geopolitics</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%E1%BF%86#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:γῆ">γῆ</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>gê</i></span>)</i> 'earth, land' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:πολιτική">πολιτική</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>politikḗ</i></span>)</i> 'politics') is the study of the effects of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> on <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geopolitics usually refers to <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">countries</a> and relations between them, it may also focus on two other kinds of <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> independent states with <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">limited international recognition</a> and relations between <a href="/wiki/Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">sub-national geopolitical entities</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Federated_state" title="Federated state">federated states</a> that make up a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">confederation</a>, or a quasi-federal system. </p><p>At the level of international relations, geopolitics is a method of studying <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a> to understand, explain, and predict international political behavior through geographical variables. These include <a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">area studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a> of the region being evaluated.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geopolitics focuses on <a href="/wiki/Political_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Political power">political power</a> linked to geographic space, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Territorial_waters" title="Territorial waters">territorial waters</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">land territory</a> in correlation with <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">diplomatic history</a>. Topics of geopolitics include relations between the interests of international political actors focused within an area, a space, or a geographical element, relations which create a geopolitical system.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a> deconstructs classical geopolitical theories, by showing their political or ideological functions for <a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a>. There are some works that discuss the geopolitics of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Christopher Gogwilt and other researchers, the term is currently being used to describe a broad spectrum of concepts, in a general sense used as "a synonym for international political relations", but more specifically "to imply the global structure of such relations"; this usage builds on an "early-twentieth-century term for a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> of <a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">political geography</a>" and other pseudoscientific theories of <a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">historical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_determinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic determinism">geographic determinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alfred_Thayer_Mahan_and_sea_power">Alfred Thayer Mahan and sea power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alfred Thayer Mahan and sea power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> (1840–1914) was a frequent commentator on world naval strategic and diplomatic affairs. Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea—and particularly with its commercial use in peace and its control in war. Mahan's theoretical framework came from <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Henri_Jomini" title="Antoine-Henri Jomini">Antoine-Henri Jomini</a>, and emphasized that strategic locations (such as <a href="/wiki/Choke_point" title="Choke point">choke points</a>, canals, and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet, were conducive to control over the sea. He proposed six conditions required for a nation to have <a href="/wiki/Sea_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea power">sea power</a>: </p> <ol><li>Advantageous geographical position;</li> <li>Serviceable coastlines, abundant natural resources, and favorable climate;</li> <li>Extent of territory</li> <li>Population large enough to defend its territory;</li> <li>Society with an aptitude for the sea and commercial enterprise; and</li> <li>Government with the influence and inclination to dominate the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Mahan distinguished a key region of the world in the Eurasian context, namely, the Central Zone of Asia lying between 30° and 40° north and stretching from Asia Minor to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this zone independent countries still survived – Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, China, and Japan. Mahan regarded those countries, located between Britain and Russia, as if between "Scylla and Charybdis". Of the two monsters – Britain and Russia – it was the latter that Mahan considered more threatening to the fate of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. Mahan was impressed by Russia's transcontinental size and strategically favorable position for southward expansion. Therefore, he found it necessary for the Anglo-Saxon "sea power" to resist Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homer_Lea">Homer Lea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homer Lea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homer_Lea" title="Homer Lea">Homer Lea</a>, in <i>The Day of the Saxon</i> (1912), asserted that the entire <a href="/wiki/19th-century_Anglo-Saxonism" class="mw-redirect" title="19th-century Anglo-Saxonism">Anglo-Saxon race</a> faced a threat from German (Teuton), Russian (Slav), and Japanese expansionism: The "fatal" relationship of Russia, Japan, and Germany "has now assumed through the urgency of natural forces a coalition directed against the survival of Saxon supremacy." It is "a dreadful Dreibund".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lea believed that while Japan moved against Far East and Russia against India, the Germans would strike at England, the center of the British Empire. He thought the Anglo-Saxons faced certain disaster from their militant opponents.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kissinger,_Brzezinski,_and_the_Grand_Chessboard"><span id="Kissinger.2C_Brzezinski.2C_and_the_Grand_Chessboard"></span>Kissinger, Brzezinski, and the Grand Chessboard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kissinger, Brzezinski, and the Grand Chessboard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg/300px-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg/450px-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg/600px-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="749" /></a><figcaption>World map with the concepts of Heartland and Rimland applied</figcaption></figure> <p>Two <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" title="National Security Advisor (United States)">national security advisors</a> from the Cold War period, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a>, argued to continue the United States' geopolitical focus on Eurasia and, particularly Russia, despite the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Both continued their influence on geopolitics after the end of the Cold War, writing books on the subject in the 1990s—<i><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_(Kissinger_book)" title="Diplomacy (Kissinger book)">Diplomacy</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grand_Chessboard:_American_Primacy_and_Its_Geostrategic_Imperatives" class="mw-redirect" title="The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives">The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Anglo-American classical geopolitical theories were revived. </p><p>Kissinger argued against the belief that with the dissolution of the USSR, hostile intentions had come to an end and traditional foreign policy considerations no longer applied. "They would argue … that Russia, regardless of who governs it, sits astride the territory which Halford Mackinder called the geopolitical heartland, and it is the heir to one of the most potent imperial traditions." Therefore, the United States must "maintain the global balance of power vis-à-vis the country with a long history of expansionism."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Russia, the second geopolitical threat which remained was Germany and, as Mackinder had feared ninety years ago, its partnership with Russia. During the Cold War, Kissinger argues, both sides of the Atlantic recognized that, "unless America is organically involved in Europe, it would later be obliged to involve itself under circumstances which would be far less favorable to both sides of the Atlantic. That is even more true today. Germany has become so strong that existing European institutions cannot strike a balance between Germany and its European partners all by themselves. Nor can Europe, even with the assistance of Germany, manage […] Russia" all by itself. Thus Kissinger believed that no country's interests would ever be served if Germany and Russia were to ever form a partnership in which each country would consider itself the principal partner. They would raise fears of condominium.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Without America, Britain and France cannot cope with Germany and Russia; and "without Europe, America could turn … into an island off the shores of Eurasia."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Spykman" title="Nicholas J. Spykman">Nicholas J. Spykman</a>'s vision of Eurasia was strongly confirmed: "Geopolitically, America is an island off the shores of the large landmass of Eurasia, whose resources and population far exceed those of the United States. The domination by a single power of either of Eurasia's two principal spheres—Europe and Asia—remains a good definition of strategic danger for America. Cold War or no Cold War. For such a grouping would have the capacity to outstrip America economically and, in the end, militarily. That danger would have to be resisted even if the dominant power was apparently benevolent, for if its intentions ever changed, America would find itself with a grossly diminished capacity for effective resistance and a growing inability to shape events."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main interest of the American leaders is maintaining the balance of power in Eurasia.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having converted from an ideologist into a geopolitician, Kissinger retrospectively interpreted the Cold War in geopolitical terms—an approach which was not characteristic of his works during the Cold War. Now, however, he focused on the beginning of the Cold War: "The objective of moral opposition to Communism had merged with the geopolitical task of containing Soviet expansion."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nixon, he added, was a geopolitical rather than an ideological cold warrior.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three years after Kissinger's <i>Diplomacy</i>, Zbigniew Brzezinski followed suit, launching <i>The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives</i> and, after three more years, The Geostrategic Triad: Living with China, Europe, and Russia. The Grand Chessboard described the American triumph in the Cold War in terms of control over Eurasia: for the first time ever, a "non-Eurasian" power had emerged as a key arbiter of "Eurasian" power relations.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book states its purpose: "The formulation of a comprehensive and integrated Eurasian geostrategy is therefore the purpose of this book."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the power configuration underwent a revolutionary change, Brzezinski confirmed three years later, Eurasia was still a mega-continent.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Spykman, Brzezinski acknowledges that: "Cumulatively, Eurasia's power vastly overshadows America's."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In classical Spykman terms, Brzezinski formulated his geostrategic "chessboard" doctrine of Eurasia, which aims to prevent the unification of this mega-continent.</p><blockquote><p>"Europe and Asia are politically and economically powerful…. It follows that… American foreign policy must…employ its influence in Eurasia in a manner that creates a stable continental equilibrium, with the United States as the political arbiter.… Eurasia is thus the chessboard on which the struggle for global primacy continues to be played, and that struggle involves geo- strategy – the strategic management of geopolitical interests…. But in the meantime it is imperative that no Eurasian challenger emerges, capable of dominating Eurasia and thus also of challenging America… For America the chief geopolitical prize is Eurasia…and America's global primacy is directly dependent on how long and how effectively its preponderance on the Eurasian continent is sustained."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emil_Reich">Emil Reich</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Emil Reich"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Austro-Hungarian historian <a href="/wiki/Emil_Reich" title="Emil Reich">Emil Reich</a> (1854–1910) is considered to be the first having coined the term in English<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as early as 1902 and later published in England in 1904 in his book <i>Foundations of Modern Europe</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mackinder_and_the_Heartland_Theory">Mackinder and the Heartland Theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mackinder and the Heartland Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pivot_area.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pivot_area.png/450px-Pivot_area.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pivot_area.png/675px-Pivot_area.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Pivot_area.png 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>Sir Halford Mackinder's Heartland concept showing the situation of the "pivot area" established in the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Heartland" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of the Heartland">Theory of the Heartland</a>. He later revised it to mark Northern Eurasia as a pivot while keeping area marked above as Heartland.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir_Halford_Mackinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Halford Mackinder">Sir Halford Mackinder</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Pivot_of_History" title="The Geographical Pivot of History">Heartland Theory</a> initially received little attention outside the world of geography, but some thinkers have claimed that it subsequently influenced the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policies</a> of world powers.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those scholars who look to MacKinder through critical lenses accept him as an organic strategist who tried to build a foreign policy vision for Britain with his Eurocentric analysis of historical geography. His formulation of the Heartland Theory was set out in his article entitled "<a href="/wiki/The_Geographical_Pivot_of_History" title="The Geographical Pivot of History">The Geographical Pivot of History</a>", published in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in 1904. Mackinder's doctrine of geopolitics involved concepts diametrically opposed to the notion of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of navies (he coined the term <i>sea power</i>) in world conflict. He saw navy as a basis of Colombian era empire (roughly from 1492 to the 19th century), and predicted the 20th century to be domain of land power. The Heartland theory hypothesized a huge empire being brought into existence in the Heartland—which would not need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to remain coherent. The basic notions of Mackinder's doctrine involve considering the geography of the Earth as being divided into two sections: the <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">World Island</a> or Core, comprising <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>; and the Peripheral "islands", including the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>. Not only was the Periphery noticeably smaller than the World Island, it necessarily required much sea transport to function at the technological level of the World Island—which contained sufficient natural resources for a developed economy. </p><p>Mackinder posited that the industrial centers of the Periphery were necessarily located in widely separated locations. The World Island could send its navy to destroy each one of them in turn, and could locate its own industries in a region further inland than the Periphery (so they would have a longer struggle reaching them, and would face a well-stocked industrial bastion). Mackinder called this region the <i>Heartland</i>. It essentially comprised <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, Western <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mitteleuropa" title="Mitteleuropa">Mitteleuropa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Heartland contained the grain reserves of Ukraine, and many other natural resources. Mackinder's notion of geopolitics was summed up when he said: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Who rules Central and Eastern Europe commands the Heartland. Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island. Who rules the World-Island commands the World.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Spykman" title="Nicholas J. Spykman">Nicholas J. Spykman</a> was both a follower and critic of geostrategists Alfred Mahan, and <a href="/wiki/Halford_Mackinder" title="Halford Mackinder">Halford Mackinder</a>. His work was based on assumptions similar to Mackinder's, including the unity of world politics and the world sea. He extends this to include the unity of the air. Spykman adopts Mackinder's divisions of the world, renaming some: </p> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Heartland" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of the Heartland">Heartland</a>;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Rimland" title="Rimland">Rimland</a> (analogous to Mackinder's "inner or marginal crescent" also an intermediate region, lying between the Heartland and the marginal sea powers); and</li> <li>The Offshore Islands & Continents (Mackinder's "outer or insular crescent").<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Under Spykman's theory, a Rimland separates the Heartland from ports that are usable throughout the year (that is, not frozen up during winter). Spykman suggested this required that attempts by Heartland nations (particularly <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>) to conquer ports in the Rimland must be prevented. Spykman modified Mackinder's formula on the relationship between the Heartland and the Rimland (or the inner crescent), claiming that "Who controls the rimland rules Eurasia. Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world." This theory can be traced in the origins of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a>, a U.S. policy on preventing the spread of Soviet influence after World War II (see also <a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another follower of Mackinder was <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a> who called Mackinder's <a href="/wiki/Geographical_Pivot_of_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical Pivot of History">Geographical Pivot of History</a> a "genius' scientific tractate."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He commented on it: "Never have I seen anything greater than those few pages of geopolitical masterwork."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mackinder located his Pivot, in the words of Haushofer, on "one of the first solid, geopolitically and geographically irreproachable maps, presented to one of the earliest scientific forums of the planet – the Royal Geographic Society in London"<sup id="cite_ref-:3_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haushofer adopted both Mackinder's Heartland thesis and his view of the Russian-German alliance – powers that Mackinder saw as the major contenders for control of Eurasia in the twentieth century. Following Mackinder he suggested an alliance with the Soviet Union and, advancing a step beyond Mackinder, added Japan to his design of the <i>Eurasian Bloc.</i><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In 2004, at the centenary of The Geographical Pivot of History, Historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy" title="Paul Kennedy">Paul Kennedy</a> wrote: "Right now with hundreds of thousands of US troops in the Eurasian rimlands and with administration constantly explaining why it has to stay the course, it looks as if Washington is taking seriously Mackinder's injunction to ensure control of the geographical pivot of history."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg/300px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg/450px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg/600px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1069" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption>Division of the world according to Haushofer's <a href="/wiki/Pan-region" title="Pan-region">pan-regions</a> doctrine</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germany">Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Friedrich_Ratzel">Friedrich Ratzel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Friedrich Ratzel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ratzel" title="Friedrich Ratzel">Friedrich Ratzel</a> (1844–1904), influenced by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Heinrich_Haeckel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Heinrich Haeckel">Ernst Heinrich Haeckel</a>, contributed to 'Geopolitik' by the expansion on the biological conception of geography, without a static conception of borders. Positing that states are organic and growing, with borders representing only a temporary stop in their movement, he held that the expanse of a state's borders is a reflection of the health of the nation—meaning that static countries are in decline. Ratzel published several papers, among which was the essay "Lebensraum" (1901) concerning <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>. Ratzel created a foundation for the German variant of geopolitics, <i>geopolitik</i>. Influenced by the American <a href="/wiki/Geostrategy" title="Geostrategy">geostrategist</a> Alfred Thayer Mahan, Ratzel wrote of aspirations for German naval reach, agreeing that sea power was self-sustaining, as the profit from trade would pay for the merchant marine, unlike land power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The geopolitical theory of Ratzel has been criticized as being too sweeping, and his interpretation of human history and geography being too simple and mechanistic. Critically, he also underestimated the importance of social organization in the development of power.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_association_of_German_Geopolitik_with_Nazism">The association of German Geopolitik with Nazism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The association of German Geopolitik with Nazism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the thoughts of <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kjell%C3%A9n" title="Rudolf Kjellén">Rudolf Kjellén</a> and Ratzel were picked up and extended by a number of German authors such as <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a> (1869–1946), <a href="/wiki/Erich_Obst" title="Erich Obst">Erich Obst</a>, Hermann Lautensach, and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Maull" title="Otto Maull">Otto Maull</a>. In 1923, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a> founded the <i>Zeitschrift für Geopolitik</i> (Journal for Geopolitics), which was later used in the <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. The key concepts of Haushofer's Geopolitik were Lebensraum, <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">autarky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-region" title="Pan-region">pan-regions</a>, and organic borders. States have, Haushofer argued, an undeniable right to seek <a href="/wiki/Natural_border" title="Natural border">natural borders</a> which would guarantee <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autarky" class="extiw" title="wikt:autarky">autarky</a>. </p><p>Haushofer's influence within the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> has been challenged, given that Haushofer failed to incorporate the Nazis' racial ideology into his work.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular views of the role of geopolitics in the Nazi Third Reich suggest a fundamental significance on the part of the geo-politicians in the ideological orientation of the Nazi state. Bassin (1987) reveals that these popular views are in important ways misleading and incorrect. </p><p>Despite the numerous similarities and affinities between the two doctrines, geopolitics was always held suspect by the National Socialist ideologists. This was understandable, for the underlying philosophical orientation of geopolitics did not comply with that of National Socialism. Geopolitics shared Ratzel's <a href="/wiki/Scientific_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific materialism">scientific materialism</a> and geographic determinism, and held that human society was determined by external influences—in the face of which qualities held innately by individuals or groups were of reduced or no significance. National Socialism rejected in principle both materialism and determinism and also elevated innate human qualities, in the form of a hypothesized 'racial character,' to the factor of greatest significance in the constitution of human society. These differences led after 1933 to friction and ultimately to open denunciation of geopolitics by Nazi ideologues.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, German Geopolitik was discredited by its (mis)use in Nazi expansionist policy of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and has never achieved standing comparable to the pre-war period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The resultant negative association, particularly in U.S. academic circles, between classical geopolitics and Nazi or <a href="/wiki/Imperialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperialist">imperialist</a> ideology, is based on loose justifications. This has been observed in particular by critics of contemporary academic geography, and proponents of a "neo"-classical geopolitics in particular. These include Haverluk et al., who argue that the stigmatization of geopolitics in academia is unhelpful as geopolitics as a field of positivist inquiry maintains potential in researching and resolving topical, often politicized issues such as <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">conflict resolution</a> and prevention, and mitigating <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disciplinary_differences_in_perspectives">Disciplinary differences in perspectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Disciplinary differences in perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Negative associations with the term "geopolitics" and its practical application stemming from its association with World War II and pre-World War II German scholars and students of geopolitics are largely specific to the field of academic geography, and especially sub-disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a> such as political geography. However, this negative association is not as strong in disciplines such as history or political science, which make use of geopolitical concepts. Classical geopolitics forms an important element of analysis for military history as well as for sub-disciplines of political science such as international relations and <a href="/wiki/Security_studies" title="Security studies">security studies</a>. This difference in disciplinary perspectives is addressed by Bert Chapman in <i>Geopolitics: A Guide To the Issues</i>, in which Chapman makes note that academic and professional International Relations journals are more amenable to the study and analysis of Geopolitics, and in particular Classical geopolitics, than contemporary academic journals in the field of political geography.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In disciplines outside geography, geopolitics is not negatively viewed (as it often is among academic geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Gallaher" title="Carolyn Gallaher">Carolyn Gallaher</a> or <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Dodds" title="Klaus Dodds">Klaus Dodds</a>) as a tool of imperialism or associated with Nazism, but rather viewed as a valid and consistent manner of assessing major international geopolitical circumstances and events, not necessarily related to armed conflict or military operations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France">France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Geopolitics" title="Special:EditPage/Geopolitics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Montesquieu_and_climate_theory">Montesquieu and climate theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Montesquieu and climate theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>French geopolitical doctrines broadly opposed to German <a href="/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik">Geopolitik</a> and reject the idea of a fixed geography. French geography is focused on the evolution of polymorphic territories being the result of mankind's actions. It also relies on the consideration of long time periods through a refusal to take specific events into account. This method has been theorized by Professor Lacoste according to three principles: <a href="/wiki/Social_representation" title="Social representation">Representation</a>; Diachronie; and Diatopie. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spirit of the Laws">The Spirit of the Laws</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> outlined the view that man and societies are influenced by climate. He believed that hotter climates create hot-tempered people and colder climates aloof people, whereas the mild climate of France is ideal for political systems. Considered one of the founders of French geopolitics, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus" title="Élisée Reclus">Élisée Reclus</a>, is the author of a book considered a reference in modern geography (Nouvelle Géographie universelle). Alike Ratzel, he considers geography through a global vision. However, in complete opposition to Ratzel's vision, Reclus considers geography not to be unchanging; it is supposed to evolve commensurately to the development of human society. His marginal political views resulted in his rejection by academia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancel,_Braudel,_and_the_rejection_of_determinism"><span id="Ancel.2C_Braudel.2C_and_the_rejection_of_determinism"></span>Ancel, Braudel, and the rejection of determinism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ancel, Braudel, and the rejection of determinism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a> and geopolitician <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ancel" title="Jacques Ancel">Jacques Ancel</a> (1879–1936) is considered to be the first theoretician of geopolitics in France, and gave a notable series of lectures at the European Center of the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a> in Paris and published <i>Géopolitique</i> in 1936. Like Reclus, Ancel rejects German determinist views on geopolitics (including Haushofer's doctrines). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Braudel" class="mw-redirect" title="Braudel">Braudel</a>'s broad view used insights from other social sciences, employed the concept of the <i>longue durée</i>, and downplayed the importance of specific events. This method was inspired by the French <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vidal_de_la_Blache" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vidal de la Blache">Paul Vidal de la Blache</a> (who in turn was influenced by German thought, particularly that of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ratzel" title="Friedrich Ratzel">Friedrich Ratzel</a> whom he had met in Germany). Braudel's method was to analyse the interdependence between individuals and their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vidalian geopolitics is based on varied forms of cartography and on <i><a href="/wiki/Possibilism_(geography)" title="Possibilism (geography)">possibilism</a></i> (founded on a societal approach of geography—i.e. on the principle of spaces polymorphic faces depending from many factors among them mankind, culture, and ideas) as opposed to determinism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lacoste_and_the_renaissance_of_French_geopolitics">Lacoste and the renaissance of French geopolitics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Lacoste and the renaissance of French geopolitics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the influence of German <i>Geopolitik</i> on French geopolitics, the latter were for a long time banished from academic works. In the mid-1970s, <a href="/wiki/Yves_Lacoste" title="Yves Lacoste">Yves Lacoste</a>—a French <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a> who was directly inspired by Ancel, Braudel and Vidal de la Blache—wrote <i>La géographie, ça sert d'abord à faire la guerre</i> (Geography first use is war) in 1976. This book symbolizes the birth of this new school of geopolitics (if not so far the first French school of geopolitics as Ancel was very isolated in the 1930s–40s). Initially linked with communist party evolved to a less liberal approach. At the end of the 1980s he founded the Institut Français de Géopolitique (French Institute for Geopolitics) that publishes the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9rodote" title="Hérodote">Hérodote</a> revue. While rejecting the generalizations and broad abstractions employed by the German and Anglo-American traditions (and the <i>new geographers</i>), this school does focus on spatial dimension of geopolitics affairs on different levels of analysis. This approach emphasizes the importance of multi-level (or multi-scales) analysis and maps at the opposite of critical geopolitics which avoid such tools. Lacoste proposed that every conflict (both local or global) can be considered from a perspective grounded in three assumptions: </p> <ol><li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_representation" title="Social representation">Representation</a></b>: Each group or individuals is the product of an education and is characterized by specific representations of the world or others groups or individuals. Thus, basic societal beliefs are grounded in their ethnicity or specific location. The study of representation is a common point with the more contemporary critical geopolitics. Both are connected with the work of Henri Lefebvre (La production de l'espace, first published in 1974)</li> <li><b>Diachronie.</b> Conducting an historical analysis confronting "long periods" and short periods as the prominent French historian Fernand Braudel suggested.</li> <li><b>Diatopie</b>: Conducting a cartographic survey through a multi-scale mapping.</li></ol> <p>Connected with this stream, and former member of Hérodote editorial board, the French geographer Michel Foucher developed a long term analysis of international borders. He coined various neologism among them: <i>Horogenesis</i>: Neologism that describes the concept of studying the <i>birth of borders</i>, <i>Dyade</i>: border shared by two neighbouring states (for instance US territory has two terrestrial dyades : one with Canada and one with Mexico). The main book of this searcher "Fronts et frontières" (Fronts and borders) first published in 1991, without equivalent remains untranslated in English. Michel Foucher is an expert of the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> for borders affairs. </p><p>More or less connected with this school, Stéphane Rosière can be quoted as the editor in Chief of the online journal <i>L'Espace politique</i>, this journal created in 2007 became the most prominent French journal of political geography and Geopolitics with Hérodote.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French philosopher Michel Foucault's <a href="/wiki/Dispositif" title="Dispositif">dispositif</a> introduced for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Biopolitics" title="Biopolitics">biopolitical</a> research was also adopted in the field of geopolitical thought where it now plays a role.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russia">Russia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The geopolitical stance adopted by Russia has traditionally been informed by a Eurasian perspective, and Russia's location provides a degree of continuity between the Tsarist and Soviet geostrategic stance and the position of Russia in the international order.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s, a senior researcher at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Philosophy,_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a>, Vadim Tsymbursky (1957–2009), coined the term "island-Russia" and developed the "Great <a href="/wiki/Limitrophe_states" title="Limitrophe states">Limitrophe</a>" concept. </p><p>Colonel-General <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Ivashov" title="Leonid Ivashov">Leonid Ivashov</a> (retired), a Russian geopolitics specialist of the early 21st century, headed the Academy of Geopolitical Problems (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Академия геополитических проблем</span>), which analyzes the international and domestic situations and develops geopolitical doctrine. Earlier, he headed the Main Directorate for International Military Cooperation of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation">Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation</a>. </p><p>Vladimir Karyakin, leading researcher at the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a>, has proposed the term "geopolitics of the third wave".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Summary needed, rather than the gobbledygook I removed (February 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Aleksandr Dugin</a>, a Russian political analyst who has developed a close relationship with Russia's Academy of the General Staff wrote <i>"<a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_Geopolitics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Foundations of Geopolitics">The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia</a>"</i> in 1997, which has had a large influence within the Russian military, police, and foreign policy elites <sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it has been used as a textbook in the <a href="/wiki/General_Staff_Academy_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="General Staff Academy (Russia)">Academy of the General Staff</a> of the Russian military.<sup id="cite_ref-HI01_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HI01-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its publication in 1997 was well received in Russia and powerful Russian political figures subsequently took an interest in Dugin.<sup id="cite_ref-Liverant_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liverant-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="China">China</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Li Lingqun, a major feature of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>'s geopolitics is attempting to change the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_sea" title="Law of the sea">laws of the sea</a> to advance claims in the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another geopolitical issue is PRC's claims over the territories of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">government of the Republic of China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various analysts state that China created the <a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Geostrategy" title="Geostrategy">geostrategic</a> effort to take a larger role in global affairs, and undermine what the Communist Party perceives as <a href="/wiki/American_hegemony" class="mw-redirect" title="American hegemony">American hegemony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-China_OBOR_Transform_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-China_OBOR_Transform-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-caixin100761304_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caixin100761304-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been argued that China co-founded the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Infrastructure_Investment_Bank" title="Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank">Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Development_Bank" title="New Development Bank">New Development Bank</a> to compete with the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> in <a href="/wiki/Development_finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Development finance">development finance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AIIB_NDB_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIIB_NDB-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_Economy_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_Economy-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Bobo_Lo" title="Bobo Lo">Bobo Lo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organization</a> has been advertised as a "political organization of a new type" claimed to transcend geopolitics.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political scientist Pak Nung Wong says that a major form of geopolitics between the US and China includes cybersecurity competition, policy regulations regarding technology standards and social media platforms, and traditional and non-traditional forms of espionage.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One view of the <a href="/wiki/The_New_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Great Game">New Great Game</a> is a shift to geoeconomic compared to geopolitical competition. The interest in oil and gas includes pipelines that transmit energy to China's east coast. <a href="/wiki/Xiangming_Chen" title="Xiangming Chen">Xiangming Chen</a> believes that China's role is more like Britain's than Russia's in the New Great Game, where Russia plays the role that the Russian Empire originally did. Chen stated, "Regardless of the prospect, China through the BRI is deep in playing a 'New Great Game' in Central Asia that differs considerably from its historical precedent about 150 years ago when Britain and Russia jostled with each other on the Eurasian steppes."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment</a>, Paul Stronski and Nicole Ng wrote in 2018 that China has not fundamentally challenged any Russian interests in Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study_of_geopolitics">Study of geopolitics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Study of geopolitics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_Institutions">Notable Institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notable Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy School of Government">Harvard Kennedy School of Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munk_School_of_Global_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Munk School of Global Affairs">Munk School of Global Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_H._Nitze_School_of_Advanced_International_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies">Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Princeton School of Public and International Affairs">Princeton School of Public and International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_International_and_Public_Affairs,_Columbia_University" class="mw-redirect" title="School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University">School of International and Public Affairs</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOAS,_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="SOAS, University of London">SOAS, University of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Resilience_Institute" title="National Resilience Institute">National Resilience Institute</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choke_point" title="Choke point">Choke point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasianism" title="Eurasianism">Eurasianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoeconomics" title="Geoeconomics">Geoeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitik" title="Geopolitik">Geopolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics_(journal)" title="Geopolitics (journal)">Geopolitics (journal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geojurisprudence" title="Geojurisprudence">Geojurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitical_ontology" title="Geopolitical ontology">Geopolitical ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrategy" title="Geostrategy">Geostrategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_island_chain" title="First island chain">First island chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel" title="Guns, Germs, and Steel">Guns, Germs, and Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_Region" title="Intermediate Region">Intermediate Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_fields" title="List of natural gas fields">list of natural gas fields</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_gas_pipelines" title="Category:Natural gas pipelines">Category:Natural gas pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_politics" title="Petroleum politics">Petroleum politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatter_belt_(geopolitics)" title="Shatter belt (geopolitics)">Shatter belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_geostrategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Space geostrategy">Space geostrategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">Sphere of influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Strategic depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">Think tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_politics" title="Water politics">Water politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cold War">The Cold War</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>An introduction to international relations</i>. Devetak, Richard, George, Jim, 1946-, Percy, Sarah V. (Sarah Virginia), 1977- (Third ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom. 2017-09-11. p. 816. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-63155-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-63155-3"><bdi>978-1-316-63155-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/974647995">974647995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+international+relations&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=816&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2017-09-11&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F974647995&rft.isbn=978-1-316-63155-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverland2015" class="citation book cs1">Overland, Indra (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281774890">"Future Petroleum Geopolitics: Consequences of Climate Policy and Unconventional Oil and Gas"</a>. <i>Handbook of Clean Energy Systems</i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">3517–</span>3544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118991978.hces203">10.1002/9781118991978.hces203</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2451749">11250/2451749</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118991978" title="Special:BookSources/9781118991978"><bdi>9781118991978</bdi></a> – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Future+Petroleum+Geopolitics%3A+Consequences+of+Climate+Policy+and+Unconventional+Oil+and+Gas&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Clean+Energy+Systems&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3517-%3C%2Fspan%3E3544&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2451749&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118991978.hces203&rft.isbn=9781118991978&rft.aulast=Overland&rft.aufirst=Indra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F281774890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans,_Graham1998" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Graham (1998). <i>The Penguin dictionary of international relations</i>. Newnham, Jeffrey. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-051397-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-051397-3"><bdi>0-14-051397-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41113670">41113670</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+dictionary+of+international+relations&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41113670&rft.isbn=0-14-051397-3&rft.au=Evans%2C+Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vladimir Toncea, 2006, "Geopolitical evolution of borders in Danube Basin"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverland2019" class="citation journal cs1">Overland, Indra (2019-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018">"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths"</a>. <i>Energy Research & Social Science</i>. <b>49</b>: <span class="nowrap">36–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ERSS...49...36O">2019ERSS...49...36O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018">10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2579292">11250/2579292</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2214-6296">2214-6296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Research+%26+Social+Science&rft.atitle=The+geopolitics+of+renewable+energy%3A+Debunking+four+emerging+myths&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=2019-03-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2579292&rft.issn=2214-6296&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.erss.2018.10.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019ERSS...49...36O&rft.aulast=Overland&rft.aufirst=Indra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.erss.2018.10.018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'SullivanOverlandSandalow2017" class="citation journal cs1">O'Sullivan, Meghan; Overland, Indra; Sandalow, David (2017). "The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy". <i>SSRN Working Paper Series</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2998305">10.2139/ssrn.2998305</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11250%2F2447113">11250/2447113</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157400282">157400282</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2998305">2998305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=The+Geopolitics+of+Renewable+Energy&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11250%2F2447113&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157400282%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2998305&rft.issn=1556-5068&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2998305%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Meghan&rft.au=Overland%2C+Indra&rft.au=Sandalow%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGogwilt2000" class="citation book cs1">Gogwilt, Christopher (2000). <i>The fiction of geopolitics: afterimages of geopolitics, from Wilkie Collins to Alfred Hitchcock, 1860–1940</i>. Stanford, Calif.; Cambridge: Stanford University Press; Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3726-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3726-5"><bdi>978-0-8047-3726-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44932458">44932458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+fiction+of+geopolitics%3A+afterimages+of+geopolitics%2C+from+Wilkie+Collins+to+Alfred+Hitchcock%2C+1860%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.%3B+Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press%3B+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44932458&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-3726-5&rft.aulast=Gogwilt&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDittmerSharp2014" class="citation book cs1">Dittmer, Jason; Sharp, Joanne P (2014). <i>Geopolitics: an introductory reader</i>. London; New York: Routledge. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66663-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66663-3"><bdi>978-0-415-66663-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/895013513">895013513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geopolitics%3A+an+introductory+reader&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F895013513&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66663-3&rft.aulast=Dittmer&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft.au=Sharp%2C+Joanne+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeudney2000" class="citation journal cs1">Deudney, Daniel (March 2000). "Geopolitics as Theory:: Historical Security Materialism". <i>European Journal of International Relations</i>. <b>6</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">77–</span>107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1354066100006001004">10.1177/1354066100006001004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1354-0661">1354-0661</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146194629">146194629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Relations&rft.atitle=Geopolitics+as+Theory%3A%3A+Historical+Security+Materialism&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.date=2000-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146194629%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1354-0661&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1354066100006001004&rft.aulast=Deudney&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"20". <i>Navy Basic Military Requirements (Navedtra 14325) – Nonresident Training Course</i>. Lulu.com. 2013. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-304-18585-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-304-18585-3"><bdi>978-1-304-18585-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/986982257">986982257</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=20&rft.btitle=Navy+Basic+Military+Requirements+%28Navedtra+14325%29+%E2%80%93+Nonresident+Training+Course&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F986982257&rft.isbn=978-1-304-18585-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred Thayer Mahan, <i>The Problem of Asia and the Effects upon International Politics</i>, (Washington and London: Kennikat Press, 1920, p 26–27).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred Thayer Mahan, <i>The Problem of Asia and the Effects upon International Politics</i>, (Washington and London: Kennikat Press, 1920, p 25–27, 167–8, 172).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLea,_Homer2010" class="citation book cs1">Lea, Homer (2010). <i>Day of the saxon</i>. [Place of publication not identified]: Nabu Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-171-68898-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-171-68898-3"><bdi>978-1-171-68898-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/944371816">944371816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Day+of+the+saxon.&rft.place=%5BPlace+of+publication+not+identified%5D&rft.pub=Nabu+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F944371816&rft.isbn=978-1-171-68898-3&rft.au=Lea%2C+Homer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinski2016" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Zbigniew (6 December 2016). <i>The Grand Chessboard : American Primacy and its Geostrategic Imperatives</i>. New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09435-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09435-6"><bdi>978-0-465-09435-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959877505">959877505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Chessboard+%3A+American+Primacy+and+its+Geostrategic+Imperatives&rft.place=New+York&rft.date=2016-12-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959877505&rft.isbn=978-0-465-09435-6&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 814</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 821-2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 813</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 810</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 804</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kissinger, Henry, (1994). Diplomacy, New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 703-732</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinski2009" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Zbigniew (2009). <i>The geostrategic triad: living with China, Europe, and Russia</i>. Washington (D.C.): CSIS Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89206-384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89206-384-0"><bdi>978-0-89206-384-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/780907306">780907306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+geostrategic+triad%3A+living+with+China%2C+Europe%2C+and+Russia&rft.place=Washington+%28D.C.%29&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=CSIS+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F780907306&rft.isbn=978-0-89206-384-0&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoGwilt1998" class="citation journal cs1">GoGwilt, Christopher Lloyd (1998). "The Geopolitical Image: Imperialism, Anarchism, and the Hypothesis of Culture in the Formation of Geopolitics". <i>Modernism/Modernity</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">49–</span>70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmod.1998.0058">10.1353/mod.1998.0058</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1080-6601">1080-6601</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144340839">144340839</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modernism%2FModernity&rft.atitle=The+Geopolitical+Image%3A+Imperialism%2C+Anarchism%2C+and+the+Hypothesis+of+Culture+in+the+Formation+of+Geopolitics&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144340839%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1080-6601&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fmod.1998.0058&rft.aulast=GoGwilt&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich,_Emil2010" class="citation book cs1">Reich, Emil (2010). <i>Foundations of modern europe</i>. [Place of publication not identified]: Nabu Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-171-68627-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-171-68627-9"><bdi>978-1-171-68627-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/944201019">944201019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+modern+europe.&rft.place=%5BPlace+of+publication+not+identified%5D&rft.pub=Nabu+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F944201019&rft.isbn=978-1-171-68627-9&rft.au=Reich%2C+Emil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Sloan, Geoffrey (1999). "Sir Halford J. Mackinder: The Heartland theory then and now". <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i>. <b>22</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">15–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402399908437752">10.1080/01402399908437752</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-2390">0140-2390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Strategic+Studies&rft.atitle=Sir+Halford+J.+Mackinder%3A+The+Heartland+theory+then+and+now&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402399908437752&rft.issn=0140-2390&rft.aulast=Sloan&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See map in Polelle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hp1-oyQjqTgC&pg=PA57">Raising Cartographic Consciousness</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See map in Polelle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hp1-oyQjqTgC&pg=PA118">Raising Cartographic Consciousness</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Haushofer" title="Karl Haushofer">Karl Haushofer</a>, <i>Pan-Ideas in Geopolitics</i>, 1931, (tr. Usachev I. G., Mysl', Moscow, 2004, p 312).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeffernan1998" class="citation book cs1">Heffernan, Michael J (1998). <i>The meaning of Europe: geography and geopolitics</i>. London: Arnold. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-58018-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-58018-9"><bdi>978-0-340-58018-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/925343797">925343797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+meaning+of+Europe%3A+geography+and+geopolitics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F925343797&rft.isbn=978-0-340-58018-9&rft.aulast=Heffernan&rft.aufirst=Michael+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Haushofer, "The Continental Bloc: Mittel Europa – Eurasia – Japan," 1941, (tr. Usachev I. G., Mysl', Moscow, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsSidaway2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dodds, Klaus; Sidaway, James D (December 2004). 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London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34148-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34148-6"><bdi>978-0-415-34148-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750496870">750496870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+geopolitics+reader&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750496870&rft.isbn=978-0-415-34148-6&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Tuathail&rft.aufirst=Gear%C3%B3id&rft.au=Dalby%2C+Simon&rft.au=Routledge%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassin1987" class="citation journal cs1">Bassin, Mark (April 1987). 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(2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1234503">"The Three Critical Flaws of Critical Geopolitics: Towards a Neo-Classical Geopolitics"</a>. <i>Geopolitics</i>. <b>19</b>: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2013.803192">10.1080/14650045.2013.803192</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144597416">144597416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=The+Three+Critical+Flaws+of+Critical+Geopolitics%3A+Towards+a+Neo-Classical+Geopolitics&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2013.803192&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144597416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haverluk&rft.aufirst=Terrence+W.&rft.au=Beauchemin%2C+Kevin+M.&rft.au=Mueller%2C+Brandon+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1234503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2011" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Bert (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=swINFRDahjYC"><i>Geopolitics: A Guide to the Issues</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38579-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38579-7"><bdi>978-0-313-38579-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/913615116">913615116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geopolitics%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Issues&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F913615116&rft.isbn=978-0-313-38579-7&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Bert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DswINFRDahjYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel2012" class="citation book cs1">Braudel, Fernand (2012). <i>The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II. Vol. 1 Vol. 1</i>. Berkeley, Calif: Univ. of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20308-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20308-2"><bdi>978-0-520-20308-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/935298954">935298954</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+and+the+Mediterranean+world+in+the+age+of+Philip+II.+Vol.+1+Vol.+1&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif&rft.pub=Univ.+of+California+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F935298954&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20308-2&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/espacepolitique/">"L'Espace Politique"</a>. <i>L'Espace Politique</i>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/958694001">958694001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Espace+Politique&rft.atitle=L%27Espace+Politique&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F958694001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fespacepolitique%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngram2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ingram, Alan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190412055558/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1532789/1/AM.pdf">"Art, Geopolitics and Metapolitics at Tate Galleries London"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geopolitics</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">719–</span>739. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2016.1263186">10.1080/14650045.2016.1263186</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151769284">151769284</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-65736-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-65736-5"><bdi>978-1-351-65736-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Policy+towards+the+South+China+Sea%3A+When+Geopolitics+Meets+the+Law+of+the+Sea&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.isbn=978-1-351-65736-5&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Lingqun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-RhDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsonLin2021" class="citation news cs1">Robertson, James; Lin, Andy (2021-12-26). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/5d660fbb-71da-4712-98c9-1fcd9e6154ac">"China-Taiwan geopolitical rivalry fuels tensions in Pacific Islands"</a></span>. <i>Financial Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5d660fbb-71da-4712-98c9-1fcd9e6154ac">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%27s+one+belt%2C+one+road+initiative+set+to+transform+economy+by+connecting+with+trading+partners+along+ancient+Silk+Road&rft.pub=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.date=2016-06-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fbusiness%2Fchina-business%2Farticle%2F1978450%2Fchinas-one-belt-one-road-initiative-set-transform-economy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-caixin100761304-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-caixin100761304_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.caixin.com/2014-12-10/100761304.html">"One Belt, One Road"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=One+Belt%2C+One+Road&rft.pub=Caixin+Online&rft.date=2014-12-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.caixin.com%2F2014-12-10%2F100761304.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/what-does-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-mean-for-us-grand-strategy/">"What Does China's Belt and Road Initiative Mean for US Grand Strategy?"</a>. <i>thediplomat.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thediplomat.com&rft.atitle=What+Does+China%27s+Belt+and+Road+Initiative+Mean+for+US+Grand+Strategy%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2018%2F06%2Fwhat-does-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-mean-for-us-grand-strategy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIIB_NDB-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AIIB_NDB_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.caixin.com/2016-09-08/100986629.html">"AIIB Vs. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AIIB+Vs.+NDB%3A+Can+New+Players+Change+the+Rules+of+Development+Financing%3F&rft.pub=Caixin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.caixin.com%2F2016-09-08%2F100986629.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Global_Economy-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Global_Economy_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn2016" class="citation book cs1">Cohn, Theodore H. (2016-05-05). <i>Global Political Economy: Theory and Practice</i>. 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Brookings Institution Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-0146-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-0146-0"><bdi>978-0-8157-0146-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Axis+of+Convenience%3A+Moscow%2C+Beijing%2C+and+the+New+Geopolitics&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2009-08-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8157-0146-0&rft.aulast=Lo&rft.aufirst=Bobo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl9T_IH6ZdiEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2021" class="citation book cs1">Wong, Pak Nung (2021-09-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vdo6EAAAQBAJ"><i>Techno-Geopolitics: US-China Tech War and the Practice of Digital Statecraft</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-44879-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-44879-5"><bdi>978-1-000-44879-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Techno-Geopolitics%3A+US-China+Tech+War+and+the+Practice+of+Digital+Statecraft&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2021-09-23&rft.isbn=978-1-000-44879-5&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Pak+Nung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvdo6EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenFazilov2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Xiangming; Fazilov, Fakhmiddin (2018-06-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-018-0125-5">"Re-centering Central Asia: China's "New Great Game" in the old Eurasian Heartland"</a>. <i>Palgrave Communications</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-018-0125-5">10.1057/s41599-018-0125-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2055-1045">2055-1045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49311952">49311952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palgrave+Communications&rft.atitle=Re-centering+Central+Asia%3A+China%27s+%22New+Great+Game%22+in+the+old+Eurasian+Heartland&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=2018-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49311952%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2055-1045&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fs41599-018-0125-5&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Xiangming&rft.au=Fazilov%2C+Fakhmiddin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%252Fs41599-018-0125-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStronskiNg2018" class="citation web cs1">Stronski, Paul; Ng, Nicole (2018-02-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2018/02/cooperation-and-competition-russia-and-china-in-central-asia-the-russian-far-east-and-the-arctic?lang=en">"Cooperation and Competition: Russia and China in Central Asia, the Russian Far East, and the Arctic"</a>. <i>Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Carnegie+Endowment+for+International+Peace&rft.atitle=Cooperation+and+Competition%3A+Russia+and+China+in+Central+Asia%2C+the+Russian+Far+East%2C+and+the+Arctic&rft.date=2018-02-28&rft.aulast=Stronski&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Ng%2C+Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcarnegieendowment.org%2Fresearch%2F2018%2F02%2Fcooperation-and-competition-russia-and-china-in-central-asia-the-russian-far-east-and-the-arctic%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geopolitics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAminehHouweling" class="citation book cs1">Amineh, Parvizi M.; Houweling, Henk. <i>Central Eurasia in Global Politics</i>. London: Brill Academic Publishing. Introduction; Chapter 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Eurasia+in+Global+Politics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=Introduction%3B+Chapter+11&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishing&rft.aulast=Amineh&rft.aufirst=Parvizi+M.&rft.au=Houweling%2C+Henk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1">Ankerl, Guy (2000). <i>Global communication without universal civilization</i>. INU societal research. Vol. 1. Geneva: INU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5" title="Special:BookSources/2-88155-004-5"><bdi>2-88155-004-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+communication+without+universal+civilization&rft.place=Geneva&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=2-88155-004-5&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevetakBurkeGeorge2011" class="citation book cs1">Devetak, Richard; Burke, Anthony; George, Jim, eds. (2011). <i>An Introduction to International Relations</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60000-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60000-3"><bdi>978-1-107-60000-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+International+Relations&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-107-60000-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa00diam_1"><i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i></a></span>. Jonathan Cape. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780224038096" title="Special:BookSources/9780224038096"><bdi>9780224038096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+Germs%2C+and+Steel&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780224038096&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgunsgermssteelfa00diam_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKovacevic2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Filip_Kovacevic" class="mw-redirect" title="Filip Kovacevic">Kovacevic, Filip</a> (2014). <i>Teoretičari klasične geopolitike: ciklus predavanja</i>. Podgorica: Centar za gradjansko obrazovanje. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-85591-43-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-86-85591-43-3"><bdi>978-86-85591-43-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teoreti%C4%8Dari+klasi%C4%8Dne+geopolitike%3A+ciklus+predavanja&rft.place=Podgorica&rft.pub=Centar+za+gradjansko+obrazovanje&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-86-85591-43-3&rft.aulast=Kovacevic&rft.aufirst=Filip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Munoz, J. Mark (2013). <i>Handbook on the Geopolitics of Business</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing : UK. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857939746" title="Special:BookSources/9780857939746">9780857939746</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'LoughlinHeske1991" class="citation book cs1">O'Loughlin, John; Heske, Henning (1991). Kliot, N; Waterman, S (eds.). <i>From War to a Discipline for Peace</i>. The Political Geography of Conflict and Peace. London: Belhaven Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+War+to+a+Discipline+for+Peace&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Political+Geography+of+Conflict+and+Peace&rft.pub=Belhaven+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=O%27Loughlin&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Heske%2C+Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpang2006" class="citation book cs1">Spang, Christian W. (2006). Spang, C. W.; Wippich, R.H. (eds.). <i>Karl Hausofer Re-examined: Geopolitics As a Factor within Japanese-German Rapprochement in the Inter-War Years?</i>. Japanese-German Relations, 1895–1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion. London. pp. <span class="nowrap">139–</span>157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karl+Hausofer+Re-examined%3A+Geopolitics+As+a+Factor+within+Japanese-German+Rapprochement+in+the+Inter-War+Years%3F&rft.place=London&rft.series=Japanese-German+Relations%2C+1895%E2%80%931945%3A+War%2C+Diplomacy+and+Public+Opinion&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Spang&rft.aufirst=Christian+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeopolitics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li>Spang, Christian W. (2013). Karl Haushofer und Japan. Die Rezeption seiner geopolitischen Theorien in der deutschen und japanischen Politik. Munich: Iudicium. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86205-040-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86205-040-6">978-3-86205-040-6</a>.</li> <li>Venier, Pascal (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://espacepolitique.revues.org/1714">"Main Theoretical Currents in Geopolitical Thought in the Twentieth Century"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170208035844/http://espacepolitique.revues.org/1714">Archived</a> 2017-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, L'Espace Politique, vol. 12, no 3, 2010.</li> <li>Cerreti, Claudio; Marconi, Matteo; Sellari, Paolo (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40244189/Spazi_e_Poteri._Geografia_politica_geografia_economica_geopolitica">Spazi e poteri. Geografia politica, geografia economica, geopolitica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220408120436/https://www.academia.edu/40244189/Spazi_e_Poteri._Geografia_politica_geografia_economica_geopolitica">Archived</a> 2022-04-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Roma-Bari: Laterza.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_peace" title="Capitalist peace">Capitalist peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican liberalism">Republican liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></th><td 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realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_realism" title="Neoclassical realism">Neoclassical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">Neorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_realism" title="Offensive realism">Offensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_realism" title="Defensive realism">Defensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_peace_theory" title="Territorial peace theory">Territorial peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_security_studies" title="Critical security studies">Critical security studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_international_relations_theory" title="Critical international relations theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmentalism" title="Intergovernmentalism">Intergovernmentalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_intergovernmentalism" title="Liberal intergovernmentalism">liberal intergovernmentalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_theory" title="Green theory">Green theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_stability_theory" title="Hegemonic stability theory">Hegemonic stability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_School_(international_relations)" title="Copenhagen School (international relations)">Copenhagen School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(international_relations)" title="Functionalism (international relations)">Functionalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neofunctionalism" title="Neofunctionalism">neofunctionalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_school_of_international_relations" title="Chinese school of international relations">Chinese school of international relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism_(international_relations)" title="Postpositivism (international relations)">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(international_relations)" title="Rationalism (international relations)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Great Debates</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-paradigm_debate_in_international_relations_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-paradigm debate in international relations theory">Inter-paradigm debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_ethics" title="International ethics">International ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_theory" title="Regime theory">Regime theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_cartel_theory" title="State cartel theory">State cartel theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._Barnett" title="Michael N. Barnett">Michael Barnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Deudney" title="Daniel Deudney">Daniel Deudney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Doyle" title="Michael W. Doyle">Michael W. Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Enloe" title="Cynthia Enloe">Cynthia Enloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fearon" title="James Fearon">James Fearon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Finnemore" title="Martha Finnemore">Martha Finnemore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gilpin" title="Robert Gilpin">Robert Gilpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ikenberry" title="John Ikenberry">John Ikenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jervis" title="Robert Jervis">Robert Jervis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Katzenstein" title="Peter J. Katzenstein">Peter J. Katzenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Krasner" title="Stephen D. Krasner">Stephen D. Krasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Morgenthau" title="Hans Morgenthau">Hans Morgenthau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nye" title="Joseph Nye">Joseph Nye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Sikkink" title="Kathryn Sikkink">Kathryn Sikkink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Ann_Tickner" title="J. Ann Tickner">J. Ann Tickner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Walt" title="Stephen Walt">Stephen Walt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wendt" title="Alexander Wendt">Alexander Wendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xuetong" title="Yan Xuetong">Yan Xuetong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Yaqing" title="Qin Yaqing">Qin Yaqing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="International_relations" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:International_relations" title="Category:International relations">International relations</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations (UN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">1648–1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">1919–1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">International relations since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entente_(alliance)" title="Entente (alliance)">Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-belligerence" title="Co-belligerence">Co-belligerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">Collective security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis" title="Crisis">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">Expansionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internationality" title="Internationality">Internationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">Isolationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">National interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">Neutral country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-belligerent" title="Non-belligerent">Non-belligerent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">Non-state actor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(international_relations)" title="Power (international relations)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(international_relations)" title="Regionalism (international relations)">Regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_treaty" title="Bilateral treaty">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_friendship" title="Treaty of friendship">Friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">Multilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">Non-aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-of-society" title="Whole-of-society">Whole-of-society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields and subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_analysis" title="Foreign policy analysis">Foreign policy analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_sociology" title="International political sociology">International political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_studies" title="Security studies">Security studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography189" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_geography" title="Template:Human geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_geography" title="Template talk:Human geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-fields of and approaches to <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism_in_geography" title="Universalism in geography">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Human_geography" title="Category:Human geography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_topics778" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics778" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography" title="Category:Geography">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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