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class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Caesar's civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar's_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_of_Caesar_and_rise_of_Augustus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_of_Caesar_and_rise_of_Augustus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Death of Caesar and rise of Augustus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_of_Caesar_and_rise_of_Augustus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Start_and_end_dates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Start_and_end_dates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Start and end dates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Start_and_end_dates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earlier_views" class="vector-toc-list-item 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Early modern views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperial_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Imperial expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis_without_alternative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_without_alternative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Crisis without alternative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crisis_without_alternative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unintentional_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unintentional_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Unintentional collapse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unintentional_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiple_republics_in_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_republics_in_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Multiple republics in crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_republics_in_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Chronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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style="display:none">Political instability from 134 to 44 BC causing the fall of the Roman republic</div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Soft redirect to:"><img alt="Soft redirect to:" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Softredirarrow.svg/64px-Softredirarrow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="64" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Softredirarrow.svg/96px-Softredirarrow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Softredirarrow.svg/128px-Softredirarrow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="160" /></span></span><span class="redirectText" id="softredirect"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">Crisis of the Roman Republic</a></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%; padding-left:48px;">This page is a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Soft_redirect" title="Wikipedia:Soft redirect">soft redirect</a>.</span> </p><p 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/230px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/345px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/460px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">fall</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <p>People </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Antony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutus" class="mw-redirect" title="Brutus">Brutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clodius_Pulcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Clodius Pulcher">Clodius Pulcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Lepidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompey" title="Sextus Pompey">Sextus Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Marcus Agrippa</a></li></ul> <p>Events </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> <p>Places </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesareum_of_Alexandria" title="Caesareum of Alexandria">Caesareum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Hostilia" title="Curia Hostilia">Curia Hostilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey" title="Theatre of Pompey">Theatre of Pompey</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Template:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>crisis of the Roman republic</b> (also called the <b>Roman revolution</b> in older scholarship<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJehne20068-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a term used to describe a prolonged period of political instability with resulted in the eventual collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> into a system of permanent one-man rule in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>Various theories have been put forth as to the crisis's aetiology. The most influential modern theory is that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">senate</a>'s short-sighted and self-serving policies alienated important stakeholders – especially the <i>equites</i>, poor plebeians, and the army – causing it to lose legitimacy and support, which allowed it to be overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">his civil war</a>. Another influential theory that the republic suffered from a "crisis without alternative" where those who destroyed the republic did so unintentionally, not having conceived of and having no desire for an alternative political system. </p><p>Others, such as Erich Gruen, do not believe that the republic was suffering from any terminal disease at all, and was, up until the eve of Caesar's civil war in 49 BC, functioning (if under some difficulties) in a traditional fashion before it was destroyed by that civil war, the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Caesar">assassination of Caesar</a>, and the ensuing chaos. Yet others view the crisis of the republic as having already come and gone by the Caesarian period: that the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a> and the politicisation of the army had already doomed the republic, which in it's <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan form</a> was living merely on borrowed time. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_synopsis">Historical synopsis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical synopsis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main themes of the crisis were the emergence of political violence as a normal part of politics, the breakdown of consensual political activity, and the domination of supremely wealthy general-aristocrats (such as <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The republic <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150 BC</span> and its ritualised consensus politics,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201028_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201028-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suffered from a breakdown of political processes<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which eventually resulted in the republic's permanent destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015219_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015219-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following synopsis is highly condensed. Further information can be found at the appropriate articles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_and_violence">Reform and violence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reform and violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Gracchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gracchi_brothers" title="Gracchi brothers">Gracchi brothers</a></div> <p>The start of political breakdown is traditionally attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian tribune">tribunate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</a> in 133 BC. He attempted to pass an agrarian law which would establish a commission to redistribute public land to the poor. In this, he was successful, though he also broke a number of political norms in deposing a fellow tribune, electing himself and relatives to that commission, and seizing provincial funds for the commission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994b67–69_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994b67–69-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His political tactics, however, and attempt to stand for a consecutive term as tribune, led a group of senators to murder Tiberius and his supporters at that year's elections and have their bodies thrown into the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a>, proposed an even more radical reform programme which included corn subsidies for the public. He was killed following his tribunates (123–22 BC) when protesting against repeal of his laws;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994b84_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994b84-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to justify his killing, the senate passed the first <a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">senatus consultum ultimum</a> instructing the magistrates to do whatever it took to protect the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay200979_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay200979-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of Gaius Gracchus' laws, however, also survived his death, as they were meant to fix problems rather than undermine senatorial government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay200982_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay200982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar incident recurred in 100 BC. A group of reformers, who were led by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Appuleius_Saturninus" title="Lucius Appuleius Saturninus">Lucius Appuleius Saturninus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Servilius_Glaucia" title="Gaius Servilius Glaucia">Gaius Servilius Glaucia</a>, passed agrarian legislation that year with the support of the consul <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009112_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009112-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporting Glaucia's illegal bid for the consulship, Saturninus murdered one of Glaucia's fellow candidates; amid uproar, he seized the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitoline hill">Capitoline hill</a> and attempted to bring tribunician legislation legitimising Glaucia's illegal candidature but was besieged by Marius following another senatus consultum ultimum and stoned to death by a mob after his capture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009114–16_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009114–16-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_war_and_the_Sullan_republic">Civil war and the Sullan republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Civil war and the Sullan republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War (91–87 BC)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a></div> <p>After the death of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Livius_Drusus_(reformer)" title="Marcus Livius Drusus (reformer)">Marcus Livius Drusus</a> in 91 BC, Rome's Italian allies rose up in revolt;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015238_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015238-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Romans were victorious, in what was effectively a civil war against their allies,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015237_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015237-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in part because Rome gave citizenship to the Italians en masse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of the Social War and riots in Rome,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> became the first general in centuries to march on Rome with his army; in doing so, he used force to suppress tribunician legislation and resolve in his favour a political question of provincial assignments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217Mackay2009138–40_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217Mackay2009138–40-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A breakdown in the legitimacy of popular legislation – because they were commonly passed by violent exclusion of non-supporters – allowed Sulla, along with his personal influence over the troops, to take this unprecedented step;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009141_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009141-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the root cause of this conflict was a political and personal rivalry between Sulla and Marius.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009142_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009142-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After leaving for <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">a war in the east</a>, Sulla's political opponents waged a <a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">short civil war</a> and took control of the city and purged some of Marius' enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009143–46_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009143–46-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sulla returned with his army, <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_proscription" title="Sulla's proscription">purged</a> his political opponents, had himself appointed <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a>, and instituted a series of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">constitutional reforms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217–18_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217–18-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(consul_78_BC)" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)">one of the consuls of 78 BC</a> led a revolt against his regime in <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009196–98_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009196–98-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Sullan republic's opponents were not fully defeated in the field until the death of <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Sertorius" title="Quintus Sertorius">Sertorius</a> in 73 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009198–201_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009198–201-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caesar's_civil_war"><span id="Caesar.27s_civil_war"></span>Caesar's civil war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Caesar's civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a></div> <p>The resulting Sullan republic was unstable, and by the 60s BC, under the pressure of roving bands of politically-charged armed mobs who disrupted elections, criminal trials, murdered politicians in the streets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeking to push their shared objectives into law over any opposition, an <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">alliance of three leading politicians</a> – <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> – attempted to take control of politics with varying degrees of success through the 50s BC.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 50 BC Crassus was dead, Caesar had won fame and glory in the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>, and relations between Pompey and Caesar had fallen apart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009272,_276,_281–83_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009272,_276,_281–83-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Threatened with political extinction, Caesar marched on Rome in defence of his personal position in the state, triggering a Mediterranean-wide <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">civil war</a> in January 49 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218–19_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218–19-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_of_Caesar_and_rise_of_Augustus">Death of Caesar and rise of Augustus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Death of Caesar and rise of Augustus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination of Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Constitutional reforms of Augustus</a></div> <p>In the aftermath of the civil war, Caesar assumed a <a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">permanent dictatorship</a> and was shortly thereafter <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">assassinated</a> on 15 March 44 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015294–96_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015294–96-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a chaotic rebalancing, the Caesarians fought each other before consolidating under the leadership of Caesar's lieutenants <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Antony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepidus" title="Lepidus">Lepidus</a> with Caesar's heir <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> into a formal legal structure known as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>. The triumvirate turned to war against the assassins,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015341_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015341-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> defeating them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a> in 42 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015342_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015342-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Caesarian coalition consolidated to two leaders, Octavian and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, by 36 BC;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015346_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015346-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the two fought in 31 BC for control of the Roman world, with Octavian emerging triumphant at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015347_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015347-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Octavian's victory led him to experiment with a more permanent political settlement which established the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> and completed the transformation of the republic into the autocratic <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015353–56_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015353–56-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Start_and_end_dates">Start and end dates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Start and end dates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many years have been and can be plausibly ascribed to the starting and ending of the crisis of the republic. The starting year is traditionally 133 BC, coinciding with Tiberius Gracchus' tribunate,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010174von_Ungern-Sternberg201478Rafferty201559Mouritsen2017165_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010174von_Ungern-Sternberg201478Rafferty201559Mouritsen2017165-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but other years are also proposed, such as: </p> <ul><li>146 BC with the fall of Carthage<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or</li> <li>139 BC with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Gabinia_tabellaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Gabinia tabellaria"><i>lex Gabinia tabellaria</i></a>, instituting secret ballots in Roman elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201072–73_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201072–73-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The end of the crisis corresponds also with the question of when the republic ended. Many years also can be plausibly argued. The following list comes from <a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 625: </p> <ul><li>59 BC with the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a>;</li> <li>49 BC with <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a>;</li> <li>44 BC with Caesar's death;</li> <li>43 BC with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a>;</li> <li>42 BC with the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Brutus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Philippi</a>;</li> <li>31 BC with Antony's defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a>;</li> <li>23 BC when <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> took the title <i>princeps</i>; or</li> <li>AD 14 when <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> became the second <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earlier_views">Earlier views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Earlier views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg/275px-Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg/413px-Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg/550px-Augustus_Bevilacqua_Glyptothek_Munich_317.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1529" data-file-height="2209" /></a><figcaption>The emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, pictured, went to great lengths to assert that the traditional republican political system had not been abolished.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Montesquieu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Charles_Montesquieu.jpg/275px-Charles_Montesquieu.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Charles_Montesquieu.jpg/413px-Charles_Montesquieu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Charles_Montesquieu.jpg/550px-Charles_Montesquieu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="909" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> (painted <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1728</span>).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_views">Ancient views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ancient views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ancient views varied across time. In the immediate aftermath of Augustus' victory and assumption of one-man rule, the official line was that the republic had not ended at all, and that the Augustan regime was the republic both restored and revitalised.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200518–19_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200518–19-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006625_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006625-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first "unambiguous" distinction between republic and Principate is attested in <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, writing in the early second century AD, with earlier identification of the Principate as monarchical emerging in <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a>'s writings in the mid-first century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200569_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200569-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006626_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006626-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially by the time of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, this perspective had changed: the Principate by this point had developed its own history and did not need to so firmly rest its legitimacy in representing itself as a continuation of the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200568_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200568-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this point, Romans were more than willing to view the fall of the republic as inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their theories, however, focused mostly in terms of moral decay and the inevitability of imperial rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201494_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201494-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polybius' theory of cyclic constitutions, where the Roman empire's riches would feed the oligarchic component into domination, leading to mob rule, followed by the creation of a tyranny.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a6_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a6-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Roman historians, however, did not conceive of constitutional change as something that had happened. Rather, they pinned the republic's collapse on moral corruption from greed and unrestrained power after the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a>'s monographs,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, cast the period after 146 as dominated by luxury, greed, and ambitions even though similar harangues against luxury and wealth had appeared in earlier works on earlier times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern scholars do broadly do not accept the ancient's depiction of moral failure as the cause of the republic's downfall, describing it as "quaintly moralising":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006634_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006634-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Andrew Lintott, for example, says "greed for wealth and power were not vices suddenly discovered by the Romans in 146";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erich Gruen, similarly, writes "political strife, restlessness in the army, discontent among the <i>plebs</i> and in the provinces, misconduct by Roman officials, and the effects of luxury and greed are all attested well before the Ciceronean age".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The more structural causes identified by the ancient sources were related to agrarian deprivation: that the rise of Rome's empire created poverty in the lower classes and stoked their resentment more generally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient sources posited that poverty inculcated greed and violence along the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mass of resentment was then, in their view, cynically mobilised by aristocratic politicians in service of their own personal power, both in the forum as demagogues – especially as <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian tribune">plebeian tribunes</a> – and on the field as generals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those aristocratic politicians, with greater ambitions fuelled by the profits of empire, sought to dominate their fellow citizens and armed with compliant armies, destroyed the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201558_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERafferty201558-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other ancient sources simply accepted as a given that only monarchies could sustainably govern empires; the republic collapsed therefore due to its contradiction with this principle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_views">Early modern views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early modern views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most enduring and influential theses was that of <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, who argued that the republic fell because it acquired its empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006629_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006629-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Machiavelli's view was that the republic's collapse was inevitable unless it restricted military service and citizenship to the elite, which would have been precluded acquisition of the empire; for Machiavelli, the republic declined because of Roman militarism and diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also advanced the long-enduring thesis that the republic's regular posting of large armies for long terms under ambitious aristocrats allowed them to supplant the soldiery's loyalties to the state, giving those aristocrats the power to challenge the state as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Montesquieu's <i>Considérations sur la grandeur et décadence des romains</i> focused on the latter client armies thesis and similarly attributed political strife in Rome its expansion of citizenship, with unrest emerging from a diversity of backgrounds causing a decline in popular cohesion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a11_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a11-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_theories">Modern theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg/275px-Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="424" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg/413px-Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg/550px-Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1518" data-file-height="2343" /></a><figcaption>A bust, traditionally identified as <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume,_i_gracchi,_1853.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG/275px-Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG" decoding="async" width="275" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG/413px-Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG/550px-Eug%C3%A9ne_guillaume%2C_i_gracchi%2C_1853.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>A French sculpture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1850</span>) depicting <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Gracchus</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_expansion">Imperial expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Imperial expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theory of imperial expansion being incompatible with the republic's constitution was advanced in its most developed form by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brunt" title="Peter Brunt">Peter Brunt</a>, starting with his 1962 paper "The army and the land in the Roman revolution".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunt1962_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunt1962-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He conceived of the republic's collapse in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senate</a>'s inability to give timely concessions to various interest groups, including the Italians, <i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i>, urban plebs, rural plebs, and soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alienating these groups due to its short-termism, the senate weakened its legitimacy to the point that most of Roman society was unwilling to defend it in Caesar's civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the core features of this collapse was the senatorial oligarchy's use of conscription for foreign wars, which bankrupted Italian small farmers while enriching the senatorial oligarchy who then bought those farms and ran them with slave labour, creating a large class of dispossessed rural plebs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening of the legions to them under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> made these poor men open to appeals from ambitious generals like <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> who used them to defeat political opponents in exchange for promises of wealth and land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this thesis is the dominant theory in the English-speaking world, it has become increasingly questioned in recent research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627,_630–31_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627,_630–31-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The factual accuracy of the claim that military service caused the bankruptcy of the Italian farmer is incompatible with archaeological evidence which shows no widespread decline in small rural landholdings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630–31_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630–31-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological evidence suggests instead that Roman demands for military manpower did not deplete the population and were sustainable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor was there any population decline – a common justification for the Gracchan land reform programmes – in Italy over the last two centuries of the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justifications for those reform programmes may be rooted instead either in rural poverty caused by recent shocks and disruptions (eg the Social War and financial turmoil in the 80s and 60s BC) or mere political posturing that did not reflect objective rural conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, the connection made the army's demand for land and their conversion to client armies is suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That manpower demands were not depopulating the countryside implies there was little need to reduce property qualifications for army service. And the idea that Marius' reforms permanently opened the doors to landless volunteers may be a hasty generalisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crisis_without_alternative">Crisis without alternative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Crisis without alternative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christian_Meier_(historian)" title="Christian Meier (historian)">Christian Meier</a>, in the 1966 book <i>Res publica amissa</i>, coined the term "crisis without alternative" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Krise ohne Alternative</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a theory incorporating the lack of evidence for any actors consciously keeping the republic's destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201559_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERafferty201559-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meier identified instead that the late republic was unable to balance the need to empower individuals to solve its enormous military and administrative problems with the political fear that such centralisation induced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1995491_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1995491-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The downfall of the republic is cast in terms of the Romans treating their ancestral institutions as so core of their identity that changing it was impossible;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1995493_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1995493-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus, they were unable to fix their own broken political system by virtue of the fact that it was broken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201559_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERafferty201559-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of resolving the problems of integrating the wealthy <i>equites</i> and professional armies under long-serving commanders, these problems festered until they broken into open civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a13–14_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a13–14-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More problematic for the republic was that while many actors within the republic realised that the republic was not working as it ought to, the ancestral institutions were still minimally functional such that there was no need to abandon them. Nor were there any serious plans for wide-ranging reform.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJehne20068-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, while people knew the republic was not working, there were no plans to replace the republican system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJehne20068-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the main contributions of this theory is that one can discard the premise that certain parties blamed for the republic's collapse wanted to overthrow the ancestral institutions which all parts of Roman society supported.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unintentional_collapse">Unintentional collapse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Unintentional collapse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also arguing against Brunt's thesis was <a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen" title="Erich S. Gruen">Erich S. Gruen</a> in the 1974 book <i>Last Generation of the Roman republic</i>, where, while he agreed with Meier's thesis that none sought the destruction of the republic consciously, he also argued the republic was not suffering from any terminal disease at all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gruen argues that republican politics were functioning until the eve of Caesar's invasion of Italy in 49 BC and that "civil war caused the fall of the republic, not vice versa".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gruen notes that up to the eve of the civil wars, "voluminous legislative activity in the Ciceroian age shows the aristocracy alert and industrious".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor was the aristocracy prostrate before the pooled prestige and influence of the so-called <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a>, who more regularly lost elections than won them in the context of traditional republican institutions of the senate, elections, trials, and comitia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Against Brunt's thesis that the senate alienated Italians and the <i>equites</i>, Gruen points to the relatively lasting political peace achieved by compromise in the <i>lex Aurelia</i> (70 BC) and the on-going incorporation of the Italian aristocracy into an open Roman political elite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500–1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500–1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As to the Sallustian division of <i><a href="/wiki/Nobiles" title="Nobiles">nobilitas</a></i> and <i>plebs</i>, Gruen also argues "that broad and simplistic analysis dissolves upon confrontation with the evidence[;] Rome's proletariat had neither the will nor the means to overturn the social structure"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995501_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995501-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while also finding little evidence of permanent loyalties among the common soldiery who, during the civil wars, marched to save or free the republic from the domination of a faction rather than destroy it:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995502_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995502-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "in the confusion of armed struggles, identification of the republic's true champions was a matter of opinion and of expediency... [both] Caesar and Pompey... presented themselves as defenders of Roman traditions [as did] leaders of in the later rounds of the contest".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995504_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995504-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_republics_in_crisis">Multiple republics in crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Multiple republics in crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:24.697em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 1em 1em"><div style="padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">Flower's periodisation<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201033_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201033-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:36em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−140 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.36em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.73em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−130 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.09em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−120 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−110 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−100 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−90 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:18.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.36em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−80 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.73em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.09em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−70 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−60 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−50 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−40 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−30 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:250px;height:36em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:IndianRed;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.982em;height:16.691em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.345em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Republic of the nobiles 3</div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:IndianRed;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.818em;height:6.873em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.436em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Republic of Sulla</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:GoldenRod;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.527em;height:2.291em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.145em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Triumvirate (<a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>)</div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:light grey;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.218em;height:1.309em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.655em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Transitional period</div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:mediumorchid;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.582em;height:1.636em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.818em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Dictatorship of Caesar</div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:GoldenRod;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.982em;height:3.600em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.800em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Triumvirate (<a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Lepidus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Antony</a>)</div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:light grey;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.691em;height:2.291em;left:0.000px;width:250.000px"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.145em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5">Transitional period</div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:23.547em">All years before AD 1.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An alternative to viewing the crisis of the republic as a prolonged issue is to view it instead as a series of several shorter "republics".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201019_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201019-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doing so places a prolonged "crisis" into a number of segments, which Flower dates from the 139 BC and the passage of the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Gabinia_tabellaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Gabinia tabellaria">lex Gabinia tabellaria</a></i> that introduced the secret ballot into Roman elections and, in her view, catalysed the political transformation of the assemblies into relatively independent entities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201025,_72–73_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201025,_72–73-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Flower's characterisation of a single Roman republic in terms of multiple republics in succession also changes the focus of analysis on the question of the eventual permanent demise of republican government. The focus of Flower's study rests instead on the collapse of the last "republic of the nobiles" in 88 BC and places the seeds of republican collapse at the start of the first century BC rather than its middle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010158_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010158-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This new temporal focus also more closely synchronises the opening of the army to the landless poor and the collapse of this last "republic of the nobiles". Flower posits a self-regulating connection between the landholders levied for army service and the stability of Rome's political culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flower's focus on the Cinnan and Sullan periods also stresses the impact of the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a> developing armies willing to march on Rome, mutiny against previously respected authorities, and turn their arms against their own countrymen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This view places the whole republic after Sulla's reforms into something of an aftermath to the death of the last traditional republic of the <i>nobiles</i> in the 80s BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201029_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201029-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flower stresses, therefore, that the novelty of Sulla's reforms and their general lack of legitimacy created the conditions for a weak political structure. The conditions of its birth also furthered political polarisation that prevented any meaningful integrative reform.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201030_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201030-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The illegitimate nature of this Sullan republic created the conditions for politicians to act outside the normal bounds of acceptable behaviour, reducing political competition to military coalitions backed only by hard power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010148–49,_150,_153_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010148–49,_150,_153-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Before Tiberius assumed his predecessor's position in AD 14 it would have been possible... to see the entire 'reign' of Augustus as an interruption, rather than the termination, of Rome's deeply embedded republican tradition". <a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 626. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The two main monographs are his <i>Jugurthine War</i> and <i>Catiliarian Conspiracy</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJehne20068-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJehne20068_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJehne2006">Jehne 2006</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015216_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201028-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201028_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015219-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015219_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994b67–69-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994b67–69_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994b">Lintott 1994b</a>, pp. 67–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994b84-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994b84_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994b">Lintott 1994b</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay200979-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay200979_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay200982-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay200982_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009112-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009112_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009114–16-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009114–16_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, pp. 114–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015238-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015238_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015237-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015237_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 137. Sulla's son-in-law and consular colleagues' son was murdered in the riots.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217Mackay2009138–40-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217Mackay2009138–40_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 138–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009141-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009141_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009142-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009142_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009143–46-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009143–46_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, pp. 143–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217–18-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015217–18_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, pp. 217–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009196–98-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009196–98_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, pp. 196–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009198–201-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009198–201_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, pp. 198–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, pp. 83–121; <a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, p. 267, noting a "crisis in the coalition".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackay2009272,_276,_281–83-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackay2009272,_276,_281–83_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackay2009">Mackay 2009</a>, pp. 272, 276, 281–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218–19-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015218–19_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, pp. 218–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015294–96-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015294–96_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, pp. 294–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015341-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015341_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 341.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015342-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015342_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015346-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015346_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015347-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015347_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, p. 347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeard2015353–56-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeard2015353–56_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeard2015">Beard 2015</a>, pp. 353–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010174von_Ungern-Sternberg201478Rafferty201559Mouritsen2017165-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010174von_Ungern-Sternberg201478Rafferty201559Mouritsen2017165_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 174; <a href="#CITEREFvon_Ungern-Sternberg2014">von Ungern-Sternberg 2014</a>, p. 78; <a href="#CITEREFRafferty2015">Rafferty 2015</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFMouritsen2017">Mouritsen 2017</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 499, attributing the date to Sallust.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201072–73-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201072–73_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, pp. 72–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200518–19-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200518–19_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGowing2005">Gowing 2005</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006625-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006625_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 625.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200569-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200569_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGowing2005">Gowing 2005</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006626-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006626_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 626.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing200568-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing200568_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGowing2005">Gowing 2005</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a7_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201494-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Ungern-Sternberg201494_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Ungern-Sternberg2014">von Ungern-Sternberg 2014</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a6-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a6_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006634-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006634_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 634.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a8_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995499_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a9_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERafferty201558-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201558_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRafferty2015">Rafferty 2015</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006629-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006629_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a10_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a11-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a11_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 627.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunt1962-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunt1962_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrunt1962">Brunt 1962</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627,_630–31-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006627,_630–31_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, pp. 627, 630–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630–31-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006630–31_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, pp. 630–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006631_58-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 631.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERafferty201559-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201559_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERafferty201559_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRafferty2015">Rafferty 2015</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1995491-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1995491_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeier1995">Meier 1995</a>, p. 491.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeier1995493-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeier1995493_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeier1995">Meier 1995</a>, p. 493.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1994a13–14-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1994a13–14_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1994a">Lintott 1994a</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006628_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 628.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006">Morstein-Marx & Rosenstein 2006</a>, p. 628, citing <a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 500.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500–1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995500–1_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 500–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995501-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995501_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 501.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995502-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995502_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 502.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGruen1995504-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGruen1995504_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGruen1995">Gruen 1995</a>, p. 504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201033-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201033_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201019-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201019_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201025,_72–73-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201025,_72–73_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, pp. 25, 72–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010158-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010158_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010159_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 91 n. 24, citing <a href="#CITEREFLintott1994b">Lintott 1994b</a>, p. 92: "Roman armies were only to be used for civil war after their scruples had been drowned in a blood-bath of fighting with their own Italian allies... it may as well be argued that the civil war created the self-seeking unprincipled soldier as the converse".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201029-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201029_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower201030-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower201030_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010148–49,_150,_153-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010148–49,_150,_153_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, pp. 148–49, 150, 153.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBeard2015" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary (2015). <i>SPQR: a history of ancient Rome</i> (1st ed.). New York: Liveright Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-423-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-423-7"><bdi>978-0-87140-423-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/902661394">902661394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SPQR%3A+a+history+of+ancient+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Liveright+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F902661394&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-423-7&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunt1962" class="citation journal cs1">Brunt, Peter (1962). "The army and the land in the Roman revolution". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>52</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F297878">10.2307/297878</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1753-528X">1753-528X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/297878">297878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+army+and+the+land+in+the+Roman+revolution&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.date=1962&rft.issn=1753-528X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F297878%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F297878&rft.aulast=Brunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunt1988" class="citation book cs1">Brunt, Peter (1988). <i>The fall of the Roman republic and related essays</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814849-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814849-6"><bdi>0-19-814849-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/16466585">16466585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+fall+of+the+Roman+republic+and+related+essays&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16466585&rft.isbn=0-19-814849-6&rft.aulast=Brunt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCAH2_91994" class="citation book cs1">Crook, John; et al., eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=3yUkzNLiY4oC"><i>The last age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC</i></a>. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85073-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85073-8"><bdi>0-521-85073-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/121060">121060</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+age+of+the+Roman+Republic%2C+146%E2%80%9343+BC&rft.series=Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F121060&rft.isbn=0-521-85073-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D3yUkzNLiY4oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFLintott1994a" class="citation">Lintott, Andrew (1994a). "The crisis of the republic: sources and source-problems". In <a href="#CITEREFCAH2_91994">CAH<sup>2</sup> 9 (1994)</a>, pp. 1 et seq.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFLintott1994b" class="citation">Lintott, Andrew (1994b). "Political history, 146–95 BC". In <a href="#CITEREFCAH2_91994">CAH<sup>2</sup> 9 (1994)</a>, pp. 40–103.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFGabba1994" class="citation">Gabba, E. "Rome and Italy: the Social War". In <a href="#CITEREFCAH2_91994">CAH<sup>2</sup> 9 (1994)</a>, pp. 104 et seq.</span></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlower2010" class="citation book cs1">Flower, Harriet (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2eYDwAAQBAJ"><i>Roman republics</i></a>. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-02238-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-02238-6"><bdi>0-520-02238-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+generation+of+the+Roman+republic&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-520-02238-6&rft.aulast=Gruen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8a4wDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay2009" class="citation book cs1">Mackay, Christopher S (2009). <i>The breakdown of the Roman republic</i>. 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Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00895-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00895-X"><bdi>0-465-00895-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-465-00895-X&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMouritsen2017" class="citation book cs1">Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stYcDgAAQBAJ"><i>Politics in the Roman republic</i></a>. 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Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7203-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7203-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-7203-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/86070041">86070041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F86070041&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7203-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFJehne2006" class="citation">Jehne, Martin. "Methods, models, and historiography". In <a href="#CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006">Rosenstein & Morstein-Marx (2006)</a>, pp. 3 et seq.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFMorstein-MarxRosenstein2006" class="citation">Morstein-Marx, R; Rosenstein, N S. "Transformation of the Roman republic". In <a href="#CITEREFRosensteinMorstein-Marx2006">Rosenstein & Morstein-Marx (2006)</a>, pp. 625 et seq.</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Meier, Christian (1997) [First published 1966]. <i>Res publica amissa</i> (in German) (3rd ed.). Frankfurt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-518-57506-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-518-57506-2"><bdi>978-3-518-57506-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/610762802">610762802</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Res+publica+amissa&rft.place=Frankfurt&rft.edition=3rd&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F610762802&rft.isbn=978-3-518-57506-2&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme2002" class="citation book cs1">Syme, Ronald (2002) [First published 1939]. <i>The Roman revolution</i> (Revised ed.). Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4237-5745-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4237-5745-9"><bdi>1-4237-5745-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/64668393">64668393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+revolution&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=Revised&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F64668393&rft.isbn=1-4237-5745-9&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUser%3AIfly6%2FCrisis+of+the+Roman+republic" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&oldid=1254055846">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ifly6/Crisis_of_the_Roman_republic&oldid=1254055846</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:User_soft_redirects" title="Category:User soft redirects">User soft redirects</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 October 2024, at 06:28<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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