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vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evidence from rocks and minerals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evidence_from_rocks_and_minerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_in_weathering_products_(aqueous_minerals)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_in_weathering_products_(aqueous_minerals)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_in_weathering_products_(aqueous_minerals)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrothermal_alteration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrothermal_alteration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Hydrothermal alteration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrothermal_alteration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weathering_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weathering_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Weathering rates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weathering_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martian_meteorites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martian_meteorites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Martian meteorites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martian_meteorites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomorphic_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomorphic_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geomorphic evidence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geomorphic_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geomorphic evidence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geomorphic_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lakes_and_river_valleys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lakes_and_river_valleys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Lakes and river valleys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lakes_and_river_valleys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lake_deltas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lake_deltas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Lake deltas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lake_deltas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Groundwater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_ocean_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Mars ocean hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_ocean_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence_for_recent_flows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_for_recent_flows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Evidence for recent flows </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_for_recent_flows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Present water </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Present_water-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Present water subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Present_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polar_ice_caps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polar_ice_caps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Polar ice caps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polar_ice_caps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subglacial_liquid_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subglacial_liquid_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Subglacial liquid water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subglacial_liquid_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ground_ice_and_subsurface_ice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ground_ice_and_subsurface_ice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ground ice and subsurface ice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ground_ice_and_subsurface_ice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scalloped_topography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scalloped_topography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Scalloped topography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scalloped_topography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_patches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_patches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Ice patches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_patches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glaciers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glaciers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Glaciers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glaciers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Groundwater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_Mars'_water_inventory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_Mars'_water_inventory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Development of Mars' water inventory </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development_of_Mars'_water_inventory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Development of Mars' water inventory subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Development_of_Mars'_water_inventory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Noachian_era_(4.6_Ga_to_4.1_Ga)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Noachian_era_(4.6_Ga_to_4.1_Ga)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Early Noachian era (4.6 Ga to 4.1 Ga) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Noachian_era_(4.6_Ga_to_4.1_Ga)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_to_late_Noachean_era_(4.1_Ga_to_3.8_Ga)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_to_late_Noachean_era_(4.1_Ga_to_3.8_Ga)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Middle to late Noachean era (4.1 Ga to 3.8 Ga) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_to_late_Noachean_era_(4.1_Ga_to_3.8_Ga)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hesperian_to_Amazonian_era_(present)_(~3.8_Ga_to_present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hesperian_to_Amazonian_era_(present)_(~3.8_Ga_to_present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Hesperian to Amazonian era (present) (~3.8 Ga to present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hesperian_to_Amazonian_era_(present)_(~3.8_Ga_to_present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ice_ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Ice ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitability_assessments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitability_assessments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Habitability assessments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitability_assessments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Findings_by_probes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Findings_by_probes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Findings by probes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Findings_by_probes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Findings by probes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Findings_by_probes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mariner_9" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mariner_9"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Mariner 9 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mariner_9-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viking_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viking_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Viking program </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viking_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Global_Surveyor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Global_Surveyor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mars Global Surveyor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Global_Surveyor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Pathfinder" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Pathfinder"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Mars Pathfinder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Pathfinder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Odyssey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Odyssey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Mars Odyssey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Odyssey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phoenix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoenix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Phoenix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoenix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Exploration_Rovers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Exploration_Rovers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Mars Exploration Rovers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Exploration_Rovers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curiosity_rover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curiosity_rover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Curiosity rover </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curiosity_rover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mars_Express" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mars_Express"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.10 Mars Express </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mars_Express-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhurong_Rover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhurong_Rover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.11 Zhurong Rover </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhurong_Rover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactive_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactive_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Interactive map </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactive_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Water on Mars</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" > 28 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="المياه على المريخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المياه على المريخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%88_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="مریخده سو وارلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مریخده سو وارلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2" title="মঙ্গল গ্রহে জল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মঙ্গল গ্রহে জল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Гідрасфера Марса – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гідрасфера Марса" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigua_a_Mart" title="Aigua a Mart – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aigua a Mart" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voda_na_Marsu" title="Voda na Marsu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Voda na Marsu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%86%CF%81%CE%B7" title="Νερό στον Άρη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νερό στον Άρη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presencia_de_agua_en_Marte" title="Presencia de agua en Marte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Presencia de agua en Marte" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ura_Marten" title="Ura Marten – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ura Marten" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A8_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="آب در مریخ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آب در مریخ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_sur_Mars" title="Eau sur Mars – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Eau sur Mars" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BD%D6%86%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1" title="Մարսի հիդրոսֆերա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարսի հիդրոսֆերա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2" title="मंगल पर जल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मंगल पर जल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_di_Mars" title="Air di Mars – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Air di Mars" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_planetae_Martis" title="Aqua planetae Martis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aqua planetae Martis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81" title="Вода на Марс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вода на Марс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%8F%D8%AA%DB%92_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="مریخ اُتے پانی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مریخ اُتے پانی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81gua_em_Marte" title="Água em Marte – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Água em Marte" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Гидросфера Марса – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гидросфера Марса" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Water on Mars" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of past and present water on Mars</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Doctor Who special, see <a href="/wiki/The_Waters_of_Mars" title="The Waters of Mars">The Waters of Mars</a>. For the band, see <a href="/wiki/Water_on_Mars_(band)" title="Water on Mars (band)">Water on Mars (band)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg/220px-Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg/330px-Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg/440px-Plan_view_of_Korolev_crater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3476" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Mars contains water, though mostly as <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>. As top surface layer water appears readily visible at some places, such as the polar <a href="/wiki/Korolev_(Martian_crater)" title="Korolev (Martian crater)">Korolev Crater</a>.</figcaption></figure> Almost all <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> today exists as <a href="/wiki/Martian_ice_caps" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian ice caps">polar</a> <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> ice, though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">the atmosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> What was thought to be low-volume liquid <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brines</a> in shallow <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a>, also called <a href="/wiki/Recurrent_slope_lineae" class="mw-redirect" title="Recurrent slope lineae">recurrent slope lineae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Torres_2015-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ojhaetal2015-3">[3]</a> may be grains of flowing sand and dust slipping downhill to make dark streaks.<a href="#cite_note-:2-4">[4]</a> While most water ice is buried, it is exposed at the surface across several locations on Mars. In the mid-latitudes, it is exposed by impact craters, steep scarps and gullies.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Additionally, water ice is also visible at the surface at the <a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps#North_polar_cap" title="Martian polar ice caps">north polar ice cap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-8">[8]</a> Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">carbon dioxide</a> ice cap at the Martian south pole. More than 5 million km3 of ice have been detected at or near the surface of Mars, enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters (115 ft).<a href="#cite_note-ChristensenIceBudget-9">[9]</a> Even more ice might be locked away in the deep subsurface.<a href="#cite_note-:6-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today, but limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for known life.<a href="#cite_note-Ojhaetal2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20131210-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salt_and_water_2014-13">[13]</a> No evidence of present-day liquid water has been discovered on the planet's surface because under typical Martian conditions (water vapor pressure <1 Pa <a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and ambient atmospheric pressure ~700 Pa <a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>), warming water ice on the Martian surface would <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublime</a> at rates of up to 4 meters per year.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Before about <a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">3.8 billion years ago</a>, Mars may have had a denser <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">atmosphere</a> and higher surface temperatures,<a href="#cite_note-:7-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> potentially allowing greater amounts of liquid water on the surface,<a href="#cite_note-sciencedaily-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baker-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> possibly including <a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">a large ocean</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sea-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> that may have covered one-third of the planet.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-third-31">[31]</a> Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars' history.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-flashback-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeolis_Palus" title="Aeolis Palus">Aeolis Palus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gale_(crater)" title="Gale (crater)">Gale Crater</a>, explored by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a>, is the geological remains of an ancient <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater lake">freshwater lake</a> that could have been a hospitable environment for <a href="/wiki/Microbial_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial life">microbial life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20131209-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20131209-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-lpi.usra.edu-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heisinger2002-38">[38]</a> The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft images, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> techniques (<a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic</a> measurements,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a> etc.), and surface investigations from landers and rovers.<a href="#cite_note-Amos_June_2013-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clay_clues-43">[43]</a> Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous <a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">outflow channels</a> carved by floods,<a href="#cite_note-Floods_2015-44">[44]</a> ancient river <a href="/wiki/Valley_networks_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley networks (Mars)">valley networks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_2005-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Howard,_A._2005-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dry_lake" title="Dry lake">lakebeds</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Irwin_III_2005-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fassett2008-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moore2001-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-http-51">[51]</a> and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphic</a> features suggest the presence of ground ice (<a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>)<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and the movement of ice in <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, both in the recent past<a href="#cite_note-HeadMarchant2006-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Lewis-57">[57]</a> and present.<a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">Gullies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">slope lineae</a> along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars, although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past. Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Wall-59">[59]</a> the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing, probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms. In addition, Mars lacks a thick atmosphere, <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, allowing solar and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">cosmic radiation</a> to strike the surface unimpeded. The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface.<a href="#cite_note-Dartnell-1-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-ionising_radiation-61">[61]</a> Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering <a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">life on Mars</a> may be in subsurface environments.<a href="#cite_note-subsurface_habitability_model-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parnell-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steigerwald-64">[64]</a> Large amounts of underground ice have been found on Mars; the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20161122-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Register-2016-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20161122jpl-67">[67]</a> In 2018, scientists reported the discovery of <a href="#Subglacial_liquid_water">a subglacial lake on Mars</a>, 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">southern polar ice cap</a>, with a horizontal extent of about 20 km (12 mi), the first known stable body of liquid water on the planet,<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> but subsequent work has questioned this detection.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Understanding the extent and situation of water on Mars is vital to assess the planet's potential for harboring life and for providing usable <a href="/wiki/In_situ_resource_utilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="In situ resource utilisation">resources for future human exploration</a>. For this reason, "Follow the Water" was the science theme of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Program" title="Mars Exploration Program">Mars Exploration Program</a> (MEP) in the first decade of the 21st century. NASA and <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a> missions including <a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rovers</a> (MERs), <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> (MRO), and Mars <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Lander" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenix Lander">Phoenix lander</a> have provided information about water's abundance and distribution on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MRO, and <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover</a> are still operating, and discoveries continue to be made. In September 2020, scientists confirmed the existence of several large <a href="/wiki/Salt_lake" title="Salt lake">saltwater lakes</a> under ice in the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">south polar region</a> of the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. According to one of the researchers, "We identified the same body of water [as suggested earlier in a preliminary initial detection], but we also found three other bodies of water around the main one ... It's a complex system."<a href="#cite_note-NAT-20200928-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-NNEWS-20200928-74">[74]</a> In March 2021, researchers reported that a considerable amount of water on ancient Mars has remained but that, for the most part, has likely been sequestered into the rocks and crust of the planet over the years.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20210316-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNET-20210316-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20210316-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20210319-78">[78]</a> In August 2024, further analysis of data from NASA's <a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight Mars Lander</a> enabled researchers to discover a reservoir of liquid water at depths of 10–20 kilometres (6.2–12.4 mi) under the Martian crust.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">History of Mars observation</a></div> The notion of water on Mars preceded the <a href="/wiki/Space_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Space age">space age</a> by hundreds of years. Early <a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">telescopic</a> observers correctly assumed that the white polar caps and clouds were indications of water's presence. These observations, coupled with the fact that Mars has a 24-hour day, led astronomer <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> to declare in 1784 that Mars probably offered its inhabitants "a situation in many respects similar to ours."<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/220px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/330px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/440px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="394" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Historical map of Mars drawn by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli" title="Giovanni Schiaparelli">Giovanni Schiaparelli</a> during the planet's "Great Opposition" of 1877.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/220px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/330px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg/440px-Lowell_Mars_channels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="409" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Mars canals illustrated by astronomer <a href="/wiki/Percival_Lowell" title="Percival Lowell">Percival Lowell</a>, 1898.</div></div></div></div></div> By the start of the 20th century, most astronomers recognized that Mars was far colder and drier than Earth. The presence of oceans was no longer accepted, so the paradigm changed to an image of Mars as a "dying" planet with only a meager amount of water. The dark areas, which could be seen to change seasonally, were then thought to be tracts of vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The person most responsible for popularizing this view of Mars was <a href="/wiki/Percival_Lowell" title="Percival Lowell">Percival Lowell</a> (1855–1916), who imagined a race of Martians constructing a network of <a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">canals</a> to bring water from the poles to the inhabitants at the equator. Although generating tremendous public enthusiasm, Lowell's ideas were rejected by most astronomers. The majority view of the scientific establishment at the time is probably best summarized by English astronomer <a href="/wiki/Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a> (1851–1928) who compared the climate of Mars to conditions atop a twenty-thousand-foot (6,100 m) peak on an arctic island<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> where only <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a> might be expected to survive. In the meantime, many astronomers were refining the tool of planetary <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> in hope of determining the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Martian_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian atmosphere">Martian atmosphere</a>. Between 1925 and 1943, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sydney_Adams" title="Walter Sydney Adams">Walter Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dunham,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Dunham, Jr.">Theodore Dunham</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Mount Wilson Observatory</a> tried to identify oxygen and water vapor in the Martian atmosphere, with generally negative results. The only component of the Martian atmosphere known for certain was carbon dioxide (CO2) identified spectroscopically by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Kuiper" title="Gerard Kuiper">Gerard Kuiper</a> in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Water vapor was not unequivocally detected on Mars until 1963.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mariner_4_craters.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mariner_4_craters.gif/220px-Mariner_4_craters.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mariner_4_craters.gif/330px-Mariner_4_craters.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mariner_4_craters.gif/440px-Mariner_4_craters.gif 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="2119" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mariner_4" title="Mariner 4">Mariner 4</a> acquired this image showing a barren planet (1965).</figcaption></figure> The composition of the <a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">polar caps</a>, assumed to be water ice since the time of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Cassini</a> (1666), was questioned by a few scientists in the late 1800s who favored CO2 ice, because of the planet's overall low temperature and apparent lack of appreciable water. This hypothesis was confirmed theoretically by <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Leighton" title="Robert B. Leighton">Robert Leighton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_C._Murray" title="Bruce C. Murray">Bruce Murray</a> in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Today it is known that the winter caps at both poles are primarily composed of CO2 ice, but that a permanent (or perennial) cap of water ice remains during the summer at the northern pole. At the southern pole, a small cap of CO2 ice remains during summer, but this cap too is underlain by water ice. The final piece of the Martian climate puzzle was provided by <a href="/wiki/Mariner_4" title="Mariner 4">Mariner 4</a> in 1965. Grainy television pictures from the spacecraft showed a surface dominated by <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impact craters</a>, which implied that the surface was very old and had not experienced the level of erosion and tectonic activity seen on Earth. Little erosion meant that liquid water had probably not played a large role in the planet's <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a> for billions of years.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Furthermore, the variations in the radio signal from the spacecraft as it passed behind the planet allowed scientists to calculate the density of the atmosphere. The results showed an atmospheric pressure less than 1% of Earth's at sea level, effectively precluding the existence of liquid water, which would rapidly boil or freeze at such low pressures.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Thus, a vision of Mars was born of a world much like the Moon, but with just a wisp of an atmosphere to blow the dust around. This view of Mars would last nearly another decade until <a href="/wiki/Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a> showed a much more dynamic Mars with hints that the planet's past environment was more clement than the present one. On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory#Current_status" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">current studies</a> on Mars by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)">Opportunity</a> <a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">rovers</a> will be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">chemotrophic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Chemolithotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemolithotrophs">chemo-litho-autotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, as well as ancient water, including <a href="/wiki/Lacustrine_plain" title="Lacustrine plain">fluvio-lacustrine environments</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a> related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">habitable</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124a-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124special-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20140124c-90">[90]</a> For many years it was thought that the observed remains of floods were caused by the release of water from a global water table, but research published in 2015 reveals regional deposits of sediment and ice emplaced 450 million years earlier to be the source.<a href="#cite_note-Rodriguez_2015-91">[91]</a> "Deposition of sediment from rivers and glacial melt filled giant canyons beneath primordial ocean contained within the planet's northern lowlands. It was the water preserved in these canyon sediments that was later released as great floods, the effects of which can be seen today."<a href="#cite_note-Floods_2015-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rodriguez_2015-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence_from_rocks_and_minerals">Evidence from rocks and minerals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evidence from rocks and minerals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Composition_of_Mars" title="Composition of Mars">Composition of Mars</a></div> It is widely accepted that Mars had abundant water very early in its history,<a href="#cite_note-Space-20120702-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> but all large areas of liquid water have since disappeared. A fraction of this water is retained on modern Mars as both ice and locked into the structure of abundant water-rich materials, including <a href="/wiki/Clay_mineral" title="Clay mineral">clay minerals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phyllosilicates" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyllosilicates">phyllosilicates</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_mineral" title="Sulfate mineral">sulfates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-wwwspaceref.com-95">[95]</a> Studies of hydrogen isotopic ratios indicate that asteroids and comets from beyond 2.5 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical units</a> (AU) provide the source of Mars' water,<a href="#cite_note-Lunine_2003-96">[96]</a> that currently totals 6% to 27% of the Earth's present ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Lunine_2003-96">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg/220px-History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg/330px-History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg/440px-History_of_Water_on_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2554" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>History of water on Mars. Numbers represent how many billions of years ago.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_in_weathering_products_(aqueous_minerals)">Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Water in weathering products (aqueous minerals)">edit</a>]</div> The primary rock type on the surface of Mars is <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, a fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> rock made up mostly of the <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> silicate minerals <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase_feldspar" class="mw-redirect" title="Plagioclase feldspar">plagioclase feldspar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> When exposed to water and atmospheric gases, these minerals <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weathering">chemically weather</a> into new (secondary) minerals, some of which may incorporate water into their crystalline structures, either as H2O or as <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> (OH). Examples of <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydrated</a> (or hydroxylated) minerals include the iron hydroxide <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a> (a common component of terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Soils">soils</a>); the <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporite</a> minerals <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kieserite" title="Kieserite">kieserite</a>; <a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">opaline</a> silica; and <a href="/wiki/Phyllosilicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyllosilicate">phyllosilicates</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>. All of these minerals have been detected on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> One direct effect of chemical weathering is to consume water and other reactive chemical species, taking them from mobile reservoirs like the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a> and sequestering them in rocks and minerals.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The amount of water in the Martian crust stored as <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydrated minerals</a> is currently unknown, but may be quite large.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> For example, mineralogical models of the rock outcroppings examined by instruments on the <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)" title="Opportunity (rover)">Opportunity rover</a> at <a href="/wiki/Meridiani_Planum" title="Meridiani Planum">Meridiani Planum</a> suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_mineral" title="Sulfate mineral">sulfate</a> deposits there could contain up to 22% water by weight.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> On Earth, all chemical weathering reactions involve water to some degree.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Thus, many secondary minerals do not actually incorporate water, but still require water to form. Some examples of anhydrous secondary minerals include many <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate minerals">carbonates</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate minerals">sulfates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>), and metallic oxides such as the iron oxide mineral <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>. On Mars, a few of these weathering products may theoretically form without water or with scant amounts present as ice or in thin molecular-scale films (<a href="/wiki/Monolayers" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolayers">monolayers</a>).<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The extent to which such exotic weathering processes operate on Mars is still uncertain. Minerals that incorporate water or form in the presence of water are generally termed "aqueous minerals". Aqueous minerals are sensitive indicators of the type of environment that existed when the minerals formed. The ease with which aqueous reactions occur (see <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a>) depends on the pressure, temperature, and on the concentrations of the gaseous and soluble species involved.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Two important properties are <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">oxidation-reduction potential (Eh)</a>. For example, the sulfate mineral <a href="/wiki/Jarosite" title="Jarosite">jarosite</a> forms only in low pH (highly acidic) water. Phyllosilicates usually form in water of neutral to high pH (alkaline). Eh is a measure of the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> of an aqueous system. Together Eh and pH indicate the types of minerals that are thermodynamically most stable and therefore most likely to form from a given set of aqueous components. Thus, past environmental conditions on Mars, including those conducive to life, can be inferred from the types of minerals present in the rocks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrothermal_alteration">Hydrothermal alteration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal alteration">edit</a>]</div> Aqueous minerals can also form in the subsurface by <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> fluids migrating through pores and fissures. The heat source driving a hydrothermal system may be nearby <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> bodies or residual heat from large <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">impacts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> One important type of hydrothermal alteration in the Earth's oceanic crust is <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinization</a>, which occurs when seawater migrates through <a href="/wiki/Ultramafic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramafic">ultramafic</a> and basaltic rocks. The water-rock reactions result in the oxidation of ferrous iron in olivine and pyroxene to produce ferric iron (as the mineral <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>) yielding molecular <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H2) as a byproduct. The process creates a highly alkaline and reducing (low Eh) environment favoring the formation of certain phyllosilicates (serpentine minerals) and various carbonate minerals, which together form a rock called <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The hydrogen gas produced can be an important energy source for <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthtetic</a> organisms or it can react with CO2 to produce <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> gas, a process that has been considered as a non-biological source for the trace amounts of methane reported in the Martian atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Serpentine minerals can also store a lot of water (as hydroxyl) in their crystal structure. A recent study has argued that hypothetical serpentinites in the ancient highland crust of Mars could hold as much as a 500 metres (1,600 ft)-thick global equivalent layer (GEL) of water.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Although some serpentine minerals have been detected on Mars, no widespread outcroppings are evident from remote sensing data.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> This fact does not preclude the presence of large amounts of serpentinite hidden at depth in the Martian crust. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weathering_rates">Weathering rates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Weathering rates">edit</a>]</div> The rates at which primary minerals convert to secondary aqueous minerals vary. Primary silicate minerals crystallize from magma under pressures and temperatures vastly higher than conditions at the surface of a planet. When exposed to a surface environment these minerals are out of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> and will tend to interact with available chemical components to form more stable mineral phases. In general, the silicate minerals that crystallize at the highest temperatures (solidify first in a cooling magma) weather the most rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> On Earth and Mars, the most common mineral to meet this criterion is <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, which readily weathers to <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a> in the presence of water. Olivine is widespread on Mars,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> suggesting that Mars' surface has not been pervasively altered by water; abundant geological evidence suggests otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Martian_meteorites">Martian meteorites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Martian meteorites">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ALH84001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/ALH84001.jpg/220px-ALH84001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/ALH84001.jpg/330px-ALH84001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/ALH84001.jpg/440px-ALH84001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4683" data-file-height="3056" /></a><figcaption>Mars meteorite <a href="/wiki/ALH84001" class="mw-redirect" title="ALH84001">ALH84001</a>.</figcaption></figure> Over 60 meteorites have been found that came from Mars.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Some of them contain evidence that they were exposed to water when on Mars. Some <a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Martian meteorites</a> called <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> shergottites, appear (from the presence of hydrated <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>) to have been exposed to liquid water prior to ejection into space.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> It has been shown that another class of meteorites, the <a href="/wiki/Nakhlite" title="Nakhlite">nakhlites</a>, were suffused with liquid water around 620 million years ago and that they were ejected from Mars around 10.75 million years ago by an asteroid impact. They fell to Earth within the last 10,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-Nakhlites-120">[120]</a> Martian meteorite <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Africa_7034" title="Northwest Africa 7034">NWA 7034</a> has one order of magnitude more water than most other Martian meteorites. It is similar to the basalts studied by rover missions, and it was formed in the early <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian epoch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In 1996, a group of scientists reported the possible presence of microfossils in the <a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">Allan Hills 84001</a>, a meteorite from Mars.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Many studies disputed the validity of their interpretation mainly based on the shape of these presumed fossils.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> It was found that most of the <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> in the meteorite was of terrestrial origin.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In addition, the scientific consensus is that "morphology alone cannot be used unambiguously as a tool for primitive life detection".<a href="#cite_note-morphology-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Interpretation of morphology is notoriously subjective, and its use alone has led to numerous errors of interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-morphology-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geomorphic_evidence">Geomorphic evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geomorphic evidence">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lakes_and_river_valleys">Lakes and river valleys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lakes and river valleys">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes on Mars</a></div> The 1971 <a href="/wiki/Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a> spacecraft caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. Images showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-Floods_2015-44">[44]</a> Areas of branched streams, in the southern hemisphere, suggested that rain once fell.<a href="#cite_note-Raeburn-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moore-131">[131]</a> The numbers of recognised valleys has increased through time. Research published in June 2010 mapped 40,000 river valleys on Mars, roughly quadrupling the number of river valleys that had previously been identified.<a href="#cite_note-third-31">[31]</a> Martian water-worn features can be classified into two distinct classes: 1) dendritic (branched), terrestrial-scale, widely distributed, <a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a>-age <a href="/wiki/Valley_networks_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley networks (Mars)">valley networks</a> and 2) exceptionally large, long, single-thread, isolated, <a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a>-age <a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">outflow channels</a>. Recent work suggests that there may also be a class of currently enigmatic, smaller, younger (<a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a> to <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a>) channels in the mid-latitudes, perhaps associated with the occasional local melting of ice deposits.<a href="#cite_note-Berman-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fassett-133">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg/220px-Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg/330px-Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg/440px-Kasei_Valles_topo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="772" /></a><figcaption>Kasei Valles—a major outflow channel—seen in <a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Laser_Altimeter" title="Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter">MOLA</a> elevation data. Flow was from bottom left to right. Image is approx. 1600 km across. The channel system extends another 1200 km south of this image to <a href="/wiki/Echus_Chasma" title="Echus Chasma">Echus Chasma</a>.</figcaption></figure> Some parts of Mars show <a href="/wiki/Inverted_relief" title="Inverted relief">inverted relief</a>. This occurs when sediments are deposited on the floor of a stream and then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually, erosion removes the covering layer and the former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of Mars, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Medusae_Fossae_Formation" title="Medusae Fossae Formation">Medusae Fossae Formation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Miyamoto_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyamoto Crater">Miyamoto Crater</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saheki_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Saheki Crater">Saheki Crater</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> and the Juventae Plateau.<a href="#cite_note-Weitz-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Icarus_Vol_210-141">[141]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG/220px-Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG/330px-Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG/440px-Antoniadi_Crater_Stream_Channels.JPG 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Inverted stream channels in <a href="/wiki/Antoniadi_(Martian_crater)" title="Antoniadi (Martian crater)">Antoniadi Crater</a>. Location is <a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_quadrangle" title="Syrtis Major quadrangle">Syrtis Major quadrangle</a>.</figcaption></figure> A variety of lake basins have been discovered on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-Cabrol,_N_2010-142">[142]</a> Some are comparable in size to the largest lakes on Earth, such as the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>. Lakes that were fed by valley networks are found in the southern highlands. There are places that are closed depressions with river valleys leading into them. These areas are thought to have once contained lakes; one is in <a href="/wiki/Terra_Sirenum" title="Terra Sirenum">Terra Sirenum</a> that had its overflow move through <a href="/wiki/Ma%27adim_Vallis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'adim Vallis">Ma'adim Vallis</a> into <a href="/wiki/Gusev_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gusev Crater">Gusev Crater</a>, explored by the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a> <a href="/wiki/Spirit_Rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit Rover">Spirit</a>. Another is near <a href="/wiki/Parana_Valles" class="mw-redirect" title="Parana Valles">Parana Valles</a> and Loire Vallis.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Some lakes are thought to have formed by precipitation, while others were formed from groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-Irwin_III_2005-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fassett2008-49">[49]</a> Lakes are estimated to have existed in the Argyre basin,<a href="#cite_note-lpi.usra.edu-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heisinger2002-38">[38]</a> the Hellas basin,<a href="#cite_note-Moore2001-50">[50]</a> and maybe in <a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Valles Marineris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-http-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> It is likely that at times in the Noachian, many craters hosted lakes. These lakes are consistent with a cold, dry (by Earth standards) hydrological environment somewhat like that of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin" title="Great Basin">Great Basin</a> of the western USA during the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Research from 2010 suggests that Mars also had lakes along parts of the equator. Although earlier research had showed that Mars had a warm and wet early history that has long since dried up, these lakes existed in the <a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a> Epoch, a much later period. Using detailed images from NASA's <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, the researchers speculate that there may have been increased volcanic activity, meteorite impacts or shifts in Mars' orbit during this period to warm Mars' atmosphere enough to melt the abundant ice present in the ground. Volcanoes would have released gases that thickened the atmosphere for a temporary period, trapping more sunlight and making it warm enough for liquid water to exist. In this study, channels were discovered that connected lake basins near <a href="/wiki/Ares_Vallis" title="Ares Vallis">Ares Vallis</a>. When one lake filled up, its waters overflowed the banks and carved the channels to a lower area where another lake would form.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> These dry lakes would be targets to look for evidence (<a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a>) of past life. On September 27, 2012, NASA scientists announced that the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiosity rover">Curiosity rover</a> found direct evidence for an ancient <a href="/wiki/Streambed" class="mw-redirect" title="Streambed">streambed</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gale_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Crater">Gale Crater</a>, suggesting an ancient "vigorous flow" of water on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927a-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20120927-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-ancient_life-152">[152]</a> In particular, analysis of the now dry streambed indicated that the water ran at 3.3 km/h (0.92 m/s),<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927-149">[149]</a> possibly at hip-depth. Proof of running water came in the form of rounded pebbles and gravel fragments that could have only been weathered by strong liquid currents. Their shape and orientation suggests long-distance transport from above the rim of the crater, where a channel named <a href="/wiki/Peace_Vallis" title="Peace Vallis">Peace Vallis</a> feeds into the <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eridania_Lake" title="Eridania Lake">Eridania Lake</a> is a theorized ancient lake with a surface area of roughly 1.1 million square kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Its maximum depth is 2,400 meters and its volume is 562,000 km3. It was larger than the largest landlocked sea on Earth, the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, and contained more water than all the other Martian lakes together. The Eridania sea held more than nine times as much water as all of North America's <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-158">[158]</a> The upper surface of the lake was assumed to be at the elevation of valley networks that surround the lake; they all end at the same elevation, suggesting that they emptied into a lake.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Research on this basin with CRISM found thick deposits, greater than 400 meters thick, that contained the minerals <a href="/wiki/Saponite" title="Saponite">saponite</a>, talc-saponite, Fe-rich <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Glauconite" title="Glauconite">glauconite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Nontronite" title="Nontronite">nontronite</a>), Fe- and Mg-serpentine, Mg-Fe-Ca-<a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> and probable Fe-<a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</a>. The Fe-sulfide probably formed in deep water from water heated by <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>. Such a process, classified as <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> may have been a place where life on Earth began.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-158">[158]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map showing estimated water depth in different parts of Eridania Sea. This map is about 530 miles across."><img alt="Map showing estimated water depth in different parts of Eridania Sea. This map is about 530 miles across." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg/190px-PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg/285px-PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg/380px-PIA22059_fig1eridaniadepths.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="789" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map showing estimated water depth in different parts of Eridania Sea. This map is about 530 miles across.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deep-basin deposits from the floor of Eridania Sea. The mesas on the floor are there because they were protected against intense erosion by deep water/ice cover. CRISM measurements show minerals may be from seafloor hydrothermal deposits."><img alt="Deep-basin deposits from the floor of Eridania Sea. The mesas on the floor are there because they were protected against intense erosion by deep water/ice cover. CRISM measurements show minerals may be from seafloor hydrothermal deposits." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg/190px-PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg/285px-PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg/380px-PIA22058_hireseridanaregion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="900" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Deep-basin deposits from the floor of Eridania Sea. The mesas on the floor are there because they were protected against intense erosion by deep water/ice cover. <a href="/wiki/CRISM" class="mw-redirect" title="CRISM">CRISM</a> measurements show minerals may be from seafloor hydrothermal deposits.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 225px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram showing how volcanic activity may have caused deposition of minerals on floor of Eridania Sea. Chlorides were deposited along the shoreline by evaporation."><img alt="Diagram showing how volcanic activity may have caused deposition of minerals on floor of Eridania Sea. Chlorides were deposited along the shoreline by evaporation." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg/190px-PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg/285px-PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg/380px-PIA22060_hireseridania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Diagram showing how volcanic activity may have caused deposition of minerals on floor of Eridania Sea. Chlorides were deposited along the shoreline by evaporation. </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lake_deltas">Lake deltas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lake deltas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distributary_fan-delta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Distributary_fan-delta.jpg/220px-Distributary_fan-delta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Distributary_fan-delta.jpg/330px-Distributary_fan-delta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Distributary_fan-delta.jpg/440px-Distributary_fan-delta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="699" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>Delta in <a href="/wiki/Eberswalde_(crater)" title="Eberswalde (crater)">Eberswalde crater</a>.</figcaption></figure> Researchers have found a number of examples of <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a> that formed in Martian lakes.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30">[30]</a> Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of liquid water. Deltas usually require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range,<a href="#cite_note-Irwin_III_2005-48">[48]</a> though there is some indication that deltas may be concentrated around the edges of the putative former <a href="#Mars_ocean_hypothesis">northern ocean of Mars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater">Groundwater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Groundwater">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater on Mars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwaterseries8final.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Groundwaterseries8final.jpg/220px-Groundwaterseries8final.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Groundwaterseries8final.jpg/330px-Groundwaterseries8final.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Groundwaterseries8final.jpg/440px-Groundwaterseries8final.jpg 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption>Layers may be formed by <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">groundwater</a> rising up gradually.</figcaption></figure> By 1979 it was thought that <a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">outflow channels</a> formed in single, catastrophic ruptures of subsurface water reservoirs, possibly sealed by ice, discharging colossal quantities of water across an otherwise arid Mars surface.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In addition, evidence in favor of heavy or even catastrophic flooding is found in the <a href="/wiki/Giant_current_ripples" title="Giant current ripples">giant ripples</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_Vallis" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabasca Vallis">Athabasca Vallis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOInature-165">[165]</a> Many outflow channels begin at <a href="/wiki/Martian_chaos_terrain" title="Martian chaos terrain">Chaos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chasma" title="Chasma">Chasma</a> features, providing evidence for the rupture that could have breached a subsurface ice seal.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> The branching <a href="/wiki/Valley_networks_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley networks (Mars)">valley networks</a> of Mars are not consistent with formation by sudden catastrophic release of groundwater, both in terms of their dendritic shapes that do not come from a single outflow point, and in terms of the discharges that apparently flowed along them.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Instead, some authors have argued that they were formed by slow seepage of groundwater from the subsurface essentially as springs.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky1999-167">[167]</a> In support of this interpretation, the upstream ends of many valleys in such networks begin with <a href="/wiki/Box_canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Box canyon">box canyon</a> or "amphitheater" heads, which on Earth are typically associated with groundwater seepage. There is also little evidence of finer scale channels or valleys at the tips of the channels, which some authors have interpreted as showing the flow appeared suddenly from the subsurface with appreciable discharge, rather than accumulating gradually across the surface.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> Others have disputed the link between amphitheater heads of valleys and formation by groundwater for terrestrial examples,<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> and have argued that the lack of fine scale heads to valley networks is due to their removal by <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> or <a href="/wiki/Impact_gardening" title="Impact gardening">impact gardening</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> Most authors accept that most valley networks were at least partly influenced and shaped by groundwater seep processes. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burns_cliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Burns_cliff.jpg/220px-Burns_cliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Burns_cliff.jpg/330px-Burns_cliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Burns_cliff.jpg/440px-Burns_cliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3700" data-file-height="2381" /></a><figcaption>The preservation and cementation of aeolian dune <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> in Burns Cliff in <a href="/wiki/Endurance_(crater)" title="Endurance (crater)">Endurance Crater</a> are thought to have been controlled by flow of shallow groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-BurnsCliff-169">[169]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> also played a vital role in controlling broad scale sedimentation patterns and processes on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-Michalski-170">[170]</a> According to this hypothesis, groundwater with dissolved minerals came to the surface, in and around craters, and helped to form layers by adding minerals—especially sulfate—and <a href="/wiki/Clastic_sediment#Cementation" class="mw-redirect" title="Clastic sediment">cementing sediments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BurnsCliff-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zuber-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> In other words, some layers may have been formed by groundwater rising up depositing minerals and cementing existing, loose, <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">aeolian</a> sediments. The hardened layers are consequently more protected from <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. A study published in 2011 using data from the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, show that the same kinds of sediments exist in a large area that includes <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> It has been argued that areas that are rich in sedimentary rocks are also those areas that most likely experienced groundwater upwelling on a regional scale.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> In February 2019, European scientists published geological evidence of an ancient planet-wide groundwater system that was, arguably, connected to a putative vast ocean.<a href="#cite_note-ESA-20190228-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FTR-20190228-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> In September 2019, researchers reported that the <a href="/wiki/InSight" title="InSight">InSight</a> lander uncovered unexplained <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_anomaly" title="Magnetic anomaly">magnetic pulses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mirnov_oscillations" title="Mirnov oscillations">magnetic oscillations</a> consistent with a planet-wide reservoir of liquid water deep underground.<a href="#cite_note-NG-20190920-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_ocean_hypothesis">Mars ocean hypothesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mars ocean hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">Mars ocean hypothesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg/350px-MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg/525px-MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg/700px-MarsTopoMap-PIA02031_modest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2497" data-file-height="2221" /></a><figcaption>The blue region of low topography in the Martian northern hemisphere is hypothesized to be the site of a primordial ocean of liquid water.<a href="#cite_note-Brandenburg_1987-183">[183]</a></figcaption></figure> The Mars ocean hypothesis proposes that the <a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a> basin was the site of an ocean of liquid water at least once,<a href="#cite_note-Baker-23">[23]</a> and presents evidence that nearly a third of the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Mars">surface</a> of Mars was covered by a liquid ocean early in the planet's <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">geologic history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cabrol,_N_2010-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clifford-184">[184]</a> This ocean, dubbed Oceanus Borealis,<a href="#cite_note-Baker-23">[23]</a> would have filled the Vastitas Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere, a region that lies 4–5 kilometres (2.5–3.1 mi) below the mean planetary elevation. Two major putative shorelines have been suggested: a higher one, dating to a time period of approximately 3.8 billion years ago and concurrent with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Valley_networks_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley networks (Mars)">valley networks</a> in the Highlands, and a lower one, perhaps correlated with the younger <a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">outflow channels</a>. The higher one, the 'Arabia shoreline', can be traced all around Mars except through the Tharsis volcanic region. The lower, the 'Deuteronilus', follows the <a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a> formation.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> A study in June 2010 concluded that the more ancient ocean would have covered 36% of Mars.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-third-31">[31]</a> Data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), which measures the altitude of all terrain on Mars, was used in 1999 to determine that the <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">watershed</a> for such an ocean would have covered about 75% of the planet.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-185">[185]</a> Early Mars would have required a warmer climate and denser atmosphere to allow liquid water to exist at the surface.<a href="#cite_note-ReadandLewis-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> In addition, the large number of valley networks strongly supports the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrological cycle</a> on the planet in the past.<a href="#cite_note-Zuber-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The existence of a primordial Martian ocean remains controversial among scientists, and the interpretations of some features as 'ancient shorelines' has been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-2003JGRE..108.5042C-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> One problem with the conjectured 2-billion-year-old (2 <a href="/wiki/Gigaannum#SI_prefix_multipliers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigaannum">Ga</a>) shoreline is that it is not flat—i.e., does not follow a line of constant gravitational potential. This could be due to a change in distribution in Mars' mass, perhaps due to volcanic eruption or meteor impact;<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> the Elysium volcanic province or the massive Utopia basin that is buried beneath the northern plains have been put forward as the most likely causes.<a href="#cite_note-Zuber-171">[171]</a> In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a> rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in <a href="/wiki/Gale_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Crater">Gale Crater</a>, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that this new study has not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150305-192">[192]</a> Additional evidence for a northern ocean was published in May 2016, describing how some of the surface in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle was altered by two <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. The tsunamis were caused by asteroids striking the ocean. Both were thought to have been strong enough to create 30 km diameter craters. The first tsunami picked up and carried boulders the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two impact craters of the size of 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that a great northern ocean may have existed for millions of years. One argument against an ocean has been the lack of shoreline features. These features may have been washed away by these tsunami events. The parts of Mars studied in this research are <a href="/wiki/Chryse_Planitia" title="Chryse Planitia">Chryse Planitia</a> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a>. These tsunamis affected some surfaces in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle and in the <a href="/wiki/Mare_Acidalium_quadrangle" title="Mare Acidalium quadrangle">Mare Acidalium quadrangle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> In July 2019, support was reported for an <a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">ancient ocean</a> on Mars that may have been formed by a possible <a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">mega-tsunami</a> source resulting from a <a href="/wiki/Meteorite_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorite impact">meteorite impact</a> creating <a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_(Martian_crater)" title="Lomonosov (Martian crater)">Lomonosov crater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20190730-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-JGRP-20190626-197">[197]</a> In January 2022, a study about the climate 3 Gy ago on Mars shows that an ocean is stable with a water cycle that is closed.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> They estimate a return water flow, in form of ice in glacier, from the icy highlands to the ocean is in magnitude less than the Earth at the last glacial maximum. This simulation includes for the first time a circulatin of the ocean. They demonstrate that the ocean's circulation prevent the ocean to freeze. These also shows that simulations are in agreement with observed geomorphological features identified as ancient glacial valleys. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence_for_recent_flows">Evidence for recent flows</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Evidence for recent flows">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">Gully (Mars)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_(animated).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif/220px-Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif/330px-Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif/440px-Warm_Season_Flows_on_Slope_in_Newton_Crater_%28animated%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="1839" data-file-height="1518" /></a><figcaption>Warm-season flows on slope in <a href="/wiki/Newton_(Martian_crater)" title="Newton (Martian crater)">Newton Crater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Branched_gullies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Branched_gullies.jpg/220px-Branched_gullies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Branched_gullies.jpg/330px-Branched_gullies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Branched_gullies.jpg/440px-Branched_gullies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Branched gullies.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Gullies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Deep_Gullies.jpg/220px-Deep_Gullies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Deep_Gullies.jpg/330px-Deep_Gullies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Deep_Gullies.jpg/440px-Deep_Gullies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Group of deep gullies.</figcaption></figure> Pure liquid water cannot exist in a stable form on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure and low temperature because it would boil, except at the lowest elevations for a few hours.<a href="#cite_note-Kostama-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-flows-201">[201]</a> So, a geological mystery commenced in 2006 when observations from NASA's <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> revealed <a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">gully</a> deposits that were not there ten years prior, possibly caused by flowing liquid <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> during the warmest months on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-Impact_Cratering_Rate-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Head_2008_PNAS-203">[203]</a> The images were of two craters in <a href="/wiki/Terra_Sirenum" title="Terra Sirenum">Terra Sirenum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centauri_Montes" title="Centauri Montes">Centauri Montes</a> that appear to show the presence of flows (wet or dry) on Mars at some point between 1999 and 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Impact_Cratering_Rate-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> There is disagreement in the scientific community as to whether or not gullies are formed by liquid water. While some scientists believe that most gullies are formed by liquid water formed from snow or ice melting,<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> other scientists believe that gullies are formed by dry flows possibly lubricated by sublimating carbon dioxide that forms from freezing of the martian atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20170928-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Some studies attest that gullies forming in the southern highlands could not be formed by water due to improper conditions. The low pressure, non-geothermal, colder regions would not give way to liquid water at any point in the year but would be ideal for solid carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide melting in the warmer summer would yield liquid carbon dioxide which would then form the gullies.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Even if gullies are carved by flowing water at the surface, the exact source of the water and the mechanisms behind its motion are not understood.<a href="#cite_note-hirise2-214">[214]</a> In August 2011, NASA announced the discovery of current seasonal changes on steep slopes below rocky outcrops near crater rims in the Southern hemisphere. These dark streaks, now called <a href="/wiki/Recurrent_slope_lineae" class="mw-redirect" title="Recurrent slope lineae">recurrent slope lineae</a> (RSL), were seen to grow downslope during the warmest part of the Martian Summer, then to gradually fade through the rest of the year, recurring cyclically between years.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20131210-12">[12]</a> The researchers suggested these marks were consistent with salty water (<a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brines</a>) flowing downslope and then evaporating, possibly leaving some sort of residue.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-SeasonalFlowsScience-216">[216]</a> The CRISM spectroscopic instrument has since made direct observations of hydrous salts appearing at the same time that these recurrent slope lineae form, confirming in 2015 that these lineae are produced by the flow of liquid brines through shallow soils. The lineae contain hydrated chlorate and <a href="/wiki/Perchlorate" title="Perchlorate">perchlorate</a> salts (ClO 4−), which contain liquid water molecules.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The lineae flow downhill in Martian summer, when the temperature is above −23 °C (−9 °F; 250 K).<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> However, the source of the water remains unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Ojhaetal2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> However, neutron spectrometer data by the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Odyssey">Mars Odyssey</a> orbiter obtained over one decade, was published in December 2017, and shows no evidence of water (hydrogenated regolith) at the active sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquescence, or dry granular flows.<a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20170928-210">[210]</a> They conclude that liquid water on today's Mars may be limited to traces of dissolved moisture from the atmosphere and thin films, which are challenging environments for life as it is currently known.<a href="#cite_note-jpl.nasa.gov-221">[221]</a> An alternative scenario is a Knudsen pump effect, from photophoretic when shadows occurs in a granular material.<a href="#cite_note-Scmhidt_Knudsen_pump_2017-222">[222]</a> The authors demonstrated that the RSLs stopped at an angle of 28° in Garni crater, in agreement with dry granular avalanche. In addition, the authors pointed out several limitations of the wet hypothesis, such as the fact that the detection of water was only indirect (salt detection but not water). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Present_water">Present water</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Present water">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg/200px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg/300px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg/400px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_lower_latitudes_of_Mars_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3187" data-file-height="2125" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg/200px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg/300px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg/400px-Water_equivalent_hydrogen_abundance_in_the_high_latitudes_of_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3187" data-file-height="2125" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Proportion of water ice present in the upper meter of the Martian surface for lower (top) and higher (bottom) latitudes. The percentages are derived through stoichiometric calculations based on epithermal neutron fluxes. These fluxes were detected by the Neutron Spectrometer aboard the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft.</div></div></div></div></div> A significant amount of surface <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> has been observed globally by the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars Odyssey">Mars Odyssey</a> neutron spectrometer and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_Ray_Spectrometer_(2001_Mars_Odyssey)" title="Gamma Ray Spectrometer (2001 Mars Odyssey)">gamma ray spectrometer</a><a href="#cite_note-Boynton2007-223">[223]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC).<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> This hydrogen is thought to be incorporated into the molecular structure of ice, and through <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometric</a> calculations the observed fluxes have been converted into concentrations of water ice in the upper meter of the Martian surface. This process has revealed that ice is both widespread and abundant on the present surface. Below 60 degrees of latitude, ice is concentrated in several regions, particularly around the <a href="/wiki/Elysium_Mons" title="Elysium Mons">Elysium</a> volcanoes, <a href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea">Terra Sabaea</a>, and northwest of <a href="/wiki/Terra_Sirenum" title="Terra Sirenum">Terra Sirenum</a>, and exists in concentrations up to 18% ice in the subsurface. Above 60 degrees latitude, ice is highly abundant. Polewards on 70 degrees of latitude, ice concentrations exceed 25% almost everywhere, and approach 100% at the poles.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SHARAD" title="SHARAD">SHARAD</a> and <a href="/wiki/MARSIS" title="MARSIS">MARSIS</a> radar sounding instruments have also confirmed that individual surface features are ice rich. Due to the known instability of ice at current Martian surface conditions, it is thought that almost all of this ice is covered by a thin layer of rocky or dusty material. The Mars Odyssey neutron spectrometer observations indicate that if all the ice in the top meter of the Martian surface were spread evenly, it would give a Water Equivalent Global layer (WEG) of at least ≈14 centimetres (5.5 in)—in other words, the globally averaged Martian surface is approximately 14% water.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman2004-226">[226]</a> The water ice currently locked in both Martian poles corresponds to a WEG of 30 metres (98 ft), and geomorphic evidence favors significantly larger quantities of <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> over geologic history, with WEG as deep as 500 metres (1,600 ft).<a href="#cite_note-ChristensenIceBudget-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feldman2004-226">[226]</a> It is thought that part of this past water has been lost to the deep subsurface, and part to space, although the detailed mass balance of these processes remains poorly understood.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> The current atmospheric reservoir of water is important as a conduit allowing gradual migration of ice from one part of the surface to another on both seasonal and longer timescales, but it is insignificant in volume, with a WEG of no more than 10 micrometres (0.00039 in).<a href="#cite_note-Feldman2004-226">[226]</a> It is possible that liquid water could also exist on the surface of Mars through the formation of <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brines</a> suggested by the abundance of hydrated salts.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Brines are significant on Mars because they can stabilize liquid water at lower temperatures than pure water on its own.<a href="#cite_note-:0-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Pure liquid water is unstable on the surface of the planet, as it is subjected to freezing, evaporation, and boiling.<a href="#cite_note-:0-229">[229]</a> Similar to how salt is applied to roads on Earth to prevent them from icing over, briny mixtures of water and salt on Mars may have low enough freezing points to lead to stable liquid at the surface. Given the complex nature of the Martian <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>, mixtures of salts are known to change the stability of brines.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Modeling the <a href="/wiki/Deliquescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliquescence">deliquescence</a> of salt mixtures can be used to test for brine stability and can help us determine if liquid brines are present on the surface of Mars. The composition of the Martian regolith, determined by the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a> lander, can be used to constrain these models and give an accurate representation of how brines may actually form on the planet.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Results of these models give <a href="/wiki/Water_activity" title="Water activity">water activity</a> values for various salts at different temperatures, where the lower the water activity, the more stable the brine. At temperatures between 208 K and 253 K, <a href="/wiki/Chlorate" title="Chlorate">chlorate</a> salts exhibit the lowest water activity values, and below 208 K <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chloride</a> salts exhibit the lowest values. Results of modeling show that the aforementioned complex mixtures of salts do not significantly increase the stability of brines, indicating that brines may not be a significant source of liquid water at the surface of Mars.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polar_ice_caps">Polar ice caps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Polar ice caps">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">Martian polar ice caps</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg/220px-Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg/330px-Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg/440px-Martian_north_polar_cap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="1319" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a> acquired this image of the Martian north polar ice cap in early northern summer.</figcaption></figure> The existence of ice in the Martian northern (<a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a>) and southern (<a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a>) polar caps has been known since the time of <a href="/wiki/Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a> orbiter.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> However, the amount and purity of this ice were not known until the early 2000s. In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/MARSIS" title="MARSIS">MARSIS</a> radar sounder on the European <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> satellite confirmed the existence of relatively clean ice in the south polar ice cap that extends to a depth of 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) below the surface.<a href="#cite_note-NASAwater-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut2007-237">[237]</a> Similarly, the SHARAD radar sounder on board the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> observed the base of the north polar cap 1.5 – 2 km beneath the surface. Together, the volume of ice present in the Martian north and south polar ice caps is similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section,_Annotated_Version.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg/220px-PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg/330px-PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg/440px-PIA13164_North_Polar_Cap_Cross_Section%2C_Annotated_Version.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2013" data-file-height="996" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section of a portion of the north polar ice cap of Mars, derived from satellite radar sounding.</figcaption></figure> An even larger ice sheet on south polar region sheet is suspected to have retreated in ancient times (<a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian period</a>), that may have contained 20 million km3 of water ice, which is equivalent to a layer 137 m deep over the entire planet.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Both polar caps reveal abundant internal layers of ice and dust when examined with images of the spiral-shaped troughs that cut through their volume, and the subsurface radar measurements showed that these layers extend continuously across the ice sheets. This layering contains a record of past climates on Mars, just how Earth's ice sheets have a record for Earth's climate. Reading this record is not straightforward however,<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> so, many researchers have studied this layering not only to understand the structure, history, and flow properties of the caps,<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> but also to understand the evolution of climate on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Surrounding the polar caps are many smaller ice sheets inside craters, some of which lie under thick deposits of sand or martian dust.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Particularly, the 81.4 kilometres (50.6 mi) wide <a href="/wiki/Korolev_(Martian_crater)" title="Korolev (Martian crater)">Korolev Crater</a>, is estimated to contain approximately 2,200 cubic kilometres (530 cu mi) of water ice exposed to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-DLR-246">[246]</a> Korolev's floor lies about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) below the rim, and is covered by a 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) deep central mound of permanent water ice, up to 60 kilometres (37 mi) in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-DLR-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-TG1218-247">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subglacial_liquid_water">Subglacial liquid water</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Subglacial liquid water">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subglacial_lakes_on_Mars" title="Subglacial lakes on Mars">Subglacial lakes on Mars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg/220px-Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg/330px-Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg/440px-Mars-SubglacialWater-SouthPoleRegion-20180725.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Site of <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">south polar</a> subglacial water body (reported July 2018).</figcaption></figure> The existence of subglacial lakes on Mars was hypothesised when modelling of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Vostok" title="Lake Vostok">Lake Vostok</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> showed that this lake could have existed before the Antarctic glaciation, and that a similar scenario could potentially have occurred on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In July 2018, scientists from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a> reported the detection of such a <a href="/wiki/Subglacial_lake" title="Subglacial lake">subglacial lake</a> on Mars, 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) below the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">southern polar ice cap</a>, and spanning 20 kilometres (10 mi) horizontally, the first evidence for a stable body of liquid water on the planet.<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180725-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The evidence for this <a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Martian lake</a> was deduced from a bright spot in the radar echo sounding data of the <a href="/wiki/MARSIS" title="MARSIS">MARSIS</a> radar on board the European <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> orbiter,<a href="#cite_note-Suppl_material-252">[252]</a> collected between May 2012 and December 2015. The detected lake is centred at 193°E, 81°S, a flat area that does not exhibit any peculiar topographic characteristics but is surrounded by higher ground, except on its eastern side where there is a depression.<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a> The <a href="/wiki/SHARAD" title="SHARAD">SHARAD</a> radar on board NASA's <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> has seen no sign of the lake. The operating frequencies of SHARAD are designed for higher resolution, but lower penetration depth, so if the overlying ice contains a significant amount of silicates, it is unlikely that SHARAD will be able to detect the putative lake. On 28 September 2020, the MARSIS discovery was confirmed, using new data, and reanalysing all the data with a new technique. These new radar studies report three more subglacial lakes on Mars. All are 1.5 km (0.93 mi) below the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">southern polar ice cap</a>. The size of the first lake found, and the largest, has been corrected to 30 km (19 mi) wide. It is surrounded by 3 smaller lakes, each a few kilometres wide.<a href="#cite_note-NatAstro-253">[253]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frouin_(Martian_crater).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg/220px-Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg/330px-Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg/440px-Frouin_%28Martian_crater%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1708" /></a><figcaption>Patch of water ice sitting on the floor of the Frouin Crater near the North Pole of Mars (70.5° North and 103° East)</figcaption></figure> Because the temperature at the base of the polar cap is estimated to be 205 K (−68 °C; −91 °F), scientists assume that the water may remain liquid through the antifreeze effect of magnesium and calcium <a href="/wiki/Perchlorate" title="Perchlorate">perchlorates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> The 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) ice layer covering the lake is composed of water ice with 10 to 20% admixed dust, and seasonally covered by a 1-metre-thick (3 ft 3 in) layer of CO2 ice.<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a> Since the raw-data coverage of the south polar ice cap is limited, the discoverers stated that "there is no reason to conclude that the presence of subsurface water on Mars is limited to a single location."<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180725-68">[68]</a> In 2019, a study was published that explored the physical conditions necessary for such a lake to exist.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> The study calculated the amount of geothermal heat necessary to reach temperatures under which a liquid water and perchlorate mix would be stable under the ice. The authors concluded that "even if there are local concentrations of large amounts of perchlorate salts at the base of the south polar ice, typical Martian conditions are too cold to melt the ice ... a local heat source within the crust is needed to increase the temperatures, and a magma chamber within 10 km of the ice could provide such a heat source. This result suggests that if the liquid water interpretation of the observations is correct, magmatism on Mars may have been active extremely recently." China's Zhurong rover that studied Utopia Planitia region of Mars found a shift in sand dunes at around the same time as layers in the North polar region changed. Researchers believe that the tilt of Mars changed at that time and produced changes in the winds at Zhurong's landing site and in the layers in the ice cap.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> If a liquid lake does indeed exist, its salty water may also be mixed with soil to form a sludge.<a href="#cite_note-RTE2018-07-25a-257">[257]</a> The lake's high levels of salt would present difficulties for most lifeforms. On Earth, organisms called <a href="/wiki/Halophile" title="Halophile">halophiles</a> exist that thrive in extremely salty conditions, though not in dark, cold, concentrated perchlorate solutions.<a href="#cite_note-RTE2018-07-25a-257">[257]</a> Nevertheless, halotolerant organisms might be able to cope with enhanced perchlorate concentrations by drawing on physiological adaptations similar to those observed in the yeast <a href="/wiki/Debaryomyces_hansenii" title="Debaryomyces hansenii">Debaryomyces hansenii</a> exposed in lab experiments to increasing <a href="/wiki/Sodium_perchlorate" title="Sodium perchlorate">NaClO4</a> concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground_ice_and_subsurface_ice">Ground ice and subsurface ice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ground ice and subsurface ice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater on Mars</a></div> For many years, various scientists have suggested that some Martian surfaces look like <a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">periglacial</a> regions on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Kieffer1992-259">[259]</a> By analogy with these terrestrial features, it has been argued for many years that these may be regions of <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>. This would suggest that frozen water lies right beneath the surface.<a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20170928-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-SP-20171002-260">[260]</a> A common feature in the higher latitudes, <a href="/wiki/Patterned_ground" title="Patterned ground">patterned ground</a>, can occur in a number of shapes, including stripes and polygons. On the Earth, these shapes are caused by the freezing and thawing of soil.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> There are other types of evidence for large amounts of frozen water under the surface of Mars, such as <a href="/wiki/Terrain_softening_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrain softening (Mars)">terrain softening</a>, which rounds sharp topographical features.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> Evidence from Mars Odyssey's <a href="/wiki/Gamma_Ray_Spectrometer_(2001_Mars_Odyssey)" title="Gamma Ray Spectrometer (2001 Mars Odyssey)">gamma ray spectrometer</a> and direct measurements with the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a> lander have corroborated that many of these features are intimately associated with the presence of ground ice.<a href="#cite_note-Scalloped_terrains_in_the_Peneus_an-263">[263]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg/220px-Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg/330px-Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg/440px-Mars_exposed_subsurface_ice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>A cross-section of underground water ice is exposed at the steep slope that appears bright blue in this enhanced-color view from the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">MRO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-exposed_ice_2018-264">[264]</a> The scene is about 500 meters wide. The scarp drops about 128 meters from the level ground. The ice sheets extend from just below the surface to a depth of 100 meters or more.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a></figcaption></figure> In 2018, using the HiRISE camera on board the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> (MRO), researchers found at least eight eroding slopes showing exposed water ice sheets as thick as 100 meters, covered by a layer of about 1 or 2 meters thick of <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">soil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-exposed_ice_2018-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> The sites are at latitudes from about 55 to 58 degrees, suggesting that there is shallow ground ice under roughly a third of the Martian surface.<a href="#cite_note-exposed_ice_2018-264">[264]</a> This image confirms what was previously detected with the spectrometer on <a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a>, the ground-penetrating radars on MRO and on <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix lander</a> in situ excavation.<a href="#cite_note-exposed_ice_2018-264">[264]</a> These ice layers hold easily accessible clues about Mars' climate history and make frozen water accessible to future robotic or human explorers.<a href="#cite_note-exposed_ice_2018-264">[264]</a> Some researchers suggested these deposits could be the remnants of glaciers that existed millions of years ago when the planet's spin axis and orbit were different. (See section <a href="#Ice_ages">Mars' Ice ages</a> below.) A more detailed study published in 2019 discovered that water ice exists at latitudes north of 35°N and south of 45°S, with some ice patches only a few centimeters from the surface covered by dust. Extraction of water ice at these conditions would not require complex equipment.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 415px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px; height: 390px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ESP_025840_2240-3icecrater.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ice disappearing after being exposed by impact."><img alt="Ice disappearing after being exposed by impact." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/ESP_025840_2240-3icecrater.gif/380px-ESP_025840_2240-3icecrater.gif" decoding="async" width="380" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/ESP_025840_2240-3icecrater.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="424" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ice disappearing after being exposed by impact.</div> </li> </ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 415px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px; height: 390px;"><a href="/wiki/File:50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Close view of wall of triangular depression, as seen by HiRISE layers are visible in the wall. These layers contain ice. The lower layers are tilted, while layers near the surface are more or less horizontal. Such an arrangement of layers is called an "angular unconformity".[269]"><img alt="Close view of wall of triangular depression, as seen by HiRISE layers are visible in the wall. These layers contain ice. The lower layers are tilted, while layers near the surface are more or less horizontal. Such an arrangement of layers is called an "angular unconformity".[269]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg/380px-50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg" decoding="async" width="380" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg/570px-50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg/760px-50345_1230icelayersangular.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="930" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Close view of wall of triangular depression, as seen by HiRISE layers are visible in the wall. These layers contain ice. The lower layers are tilted, while layers near the surface are more or less horizontal. Such an arrangement of layers is called an "angular <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">unconformity</a>".<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 415px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px; height: 390px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Location is the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle."><img alt="Impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Location is the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg/326px-ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg" decoding="async" width="326" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg/490px-ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg/653px-ESP_053867_2245hotejecta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2258" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under <a href="/wiki/HiWish_program" title="HiWish program">HiWish program</a> Location is the <a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus quadrangle</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 415px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px; height: 390px;"><a href="/wiki/File:53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Close view of impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Note that the ejecta seems lower than the surroundings. The hot ejecta may have caused some of the ice to go away, thus lowering the level of the ejecta."><img alt="Close view of impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Note that the ejecta seems lower than the surroundings. The hot ejecta may have caused some of the ice to go away, thus lowering the level of the ejecta." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg/380px-53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg" decoding="async" width="380" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg/570px-53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg/760px-53867_2245hotejectamargin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1307" data-file-height="618" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Close view of impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Note that the <a href="/wiki/Ejecta_blanket" title="Ejecta blanket">ejecta</a> seems lower than the surroundings. The hot ejecta may have caused some of the ice to go away, thus lowering the level of the ejecta.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 415px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px; height: 390px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of near surface ice"><img alt="Map of near surface ice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg/380px-Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg" decoding="async" width="380" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg/570px-Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg/760px-Icemaplargelabeled454arrows.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="720" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map of near surface ice</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scalloped_topography">Scalloped topography</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Scalloped topography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scalloped_topography" title="Scalloped topography">Scalloped topography</a></div> Certain regions of Mars display <a href="/wiki/Scalloped_topography" title="Scalloped topography">scalloped</a>-shaped depressions. The depressions are suspected to be the remains of a degrading ice-rich mantle deposit. Scallops are caused by ice <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimating</a> from frozen soil. The landforms of scalloped topography can be formed by the subsurface loss of water ice by sublimation under current Martian climate conditions. A model predicts similar shapes when the ground has large amounts of pure ice, up to many tens of meters in depth.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> This mantle material was probably deposited from the atmosphere as ice formed on dust when the climate was different due to changes in the tilt of the Mars pole (see <a href="#Ice_ages">§ Ice ages</a>, below).<a href="#cite_note-:8-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-Head,_J._2003-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-hirise-273">[273]</a> The scallops are typically tens of meters deep and from a few hundred to a few thousand meters across. They can be almost circular or elongated. Some appear to have coalesced causing a large heavily pitted terrain to form. The process of forming the terrain may begin with sublimation from a crack. There are often polygonal cracks where scallops form, and the presence of scalloped topography seems to be an indication of frozen ground.<a href="#cite_note-Icarus_Vol_210-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scalloped_terrains_in_the_Peneus_an-263">[263]</a> On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Superior" title="Lake Superior">Lake Superior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20161122-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Register-2016-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20161122jpl-67">[67]</a> The volume of water ice in the region were based on measurements from the ground-penetrating radar instrument on <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, called <a href="/wiki/SHARAD" title="SHARAD">SHARAD</a>. From the data obtained from SHARAD, “<a href="/wiki/Dielectric_permittivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dielectric permittivity">dielectric permittivity</a>”, or the dielectric constant was determined. The dielectric constant value was consistent with a large concentration of water ice.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> These scalloped features are superficially similar to <a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_features" title="Swiss cheese features">Swiss cheese features</a>, found around the south polar cap. Swiss cheese features are thought to be due to cavities forming in a surface layer of solid <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, rather than water ice—although the floors of these holes are probably H2O-rich.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ice_patches">Ice patches</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ice patches">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Viking_21i093.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mars_Viking_21i093.png/220px-Mars_Viking_21i093.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mars_Viking_21i093.png/330px-Mars_Viking_21i093.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mars_Viking_21i093.png/440px-Mars_Viking_21i093.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Precipitated water ice covering the Martian plain <a href="/wiki/Utopia_Planitia" title="Utopia Planitia">Utopia Planitia</a>, the water ice precipitated by adhering to <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a> (observed by the <a href="/wiki/Viking_2" title="Viking 2">Viking 2</a> lander)</figcaption></figure> On July 28, 2005, the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> announced the existence of a crater partially filled with frozen water;<a href="#cite_note-lake-279">[279]</a> some then interpreted the discovery as an "ice lake".<a href="#cite_note-BBClake-280">[280]</a> Images of the crater, taken by the <a href="/wiki/High_Resolution_Stereo_Camera" title="High Resolution Stereo Camera">High Resolution Stereo Camera</a> on board the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> orbiter, clearly show a broad sheet of ice in the bottom of an unnamed crater located on <a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a>, a broad plain that covers much of Mars' far northern latitudes, at approximately 70.5° North and 103° East. The crater is 35 kilometres (22 mi) wide and about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) deep. The height difference between the crater floor and the surface of the water ice is about 200 metres (660 ft). ESA scientists have attributed most of this height difference to sand dunes beneath the water ice, which are partially visible. While scientists do not refer to the patch as a "lake", the water ice patch is remarkable for its size and for being present throughout the year. Deposits of water ice and layers of frost have been found in many different locations on the planet. As more and more of the surface of Mars has been imaged by the modern generation of orbiters, it has become gradually more apparent that there are probably many more patches of ice scattered across the Martian surface. Many of these putative patches of ice are concentrated in the Martian mid-latitudes (≈30–60° N/S of the equator). For example, many scientists think that the widespread features in those latitude bands variously described as "latitude dependent mantle" or "pasted-on terrain" consist of dust- or debris-covered ice patches, which are slowly degrading.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> A cover of debris is required both to explain the dull surfaces seen in the images that do not reflect like ice, and also to allow the patches to exist for an extended period of time without subliming away completely. These patches have been suggested as possible water sources for some of the enigmatic channelized flow features like <a href="/wiki/Martian_Gullies" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian Gullies">gullies</a> also seen in those latitudes. Surface features consistent with existing <a href="/wiki/Pack_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Pack ice">pack ice</a> have been discovered in the southern <a href="/wiki/Elysium_Planitia" title="Elysium Planitia">Elysium Planitia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cabrol,_N_2010-142">[142]</a> What appear to be plates, ranging in size from 30 metres (98 ft) to 30 kilometres (19 mi), are found in channels leading to a large flooded area. The plates show signs of break up and rotation that clearly distinguish them from lava plates elsewhere on the surface of Mars. The source for the flood is thought to be the nearby geological fault <a href="/wiki/Cerberus_Fossae" title="Cerberus Fossae">Cerberus Fossae</a> that spewed water as well as lava aged some 2 to 10 million years. It was suggested that the water exited the <a href="/wiki/Cerberus_Fossae" title="Cerberus Fossae">Cerberus Fossae</a> then pooled and froze in the low, level plains and that such frozen lakes may still exist.<a href="#cite_note-Murray2007-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glaciers">Glaciers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Glaciers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers on Mars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg/220px-Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg/330px-Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg/440px-Mars_glacial-like_lobe_deposit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>View of a 5-km-wide, glacial-like lobe deposit sloping up into a box canyon. The surface has <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>, deposits of rocks that show how the glacier advanced.</figcaption></figure> Many large areas of Mars either appear to host glaciers, or carry evidence that they used to be present. Much of the areas in high latitudes, especially the <a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus quadrangle</a>, are suspected to still contain enormous amounts of water ice.<a href="#cite_note-ISBN_0-8165-1257-4-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-Express-285">[285]</a> Recent evidence has led many planetary scientists to conclude that water ice still exists as glaciers across much of the Martian mid- and high latitudes, protected from sublimation by thin coverings of insulating rock and/or dust.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> An example of this are the glacier-like features called <a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_aprons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobate debris aprons">lobate debris aprons</a> in an area called <a href="/wiki/Deuteronilus_Mensae" title="Deuteronilus Mensae">Deuteronilus Mensae</a>, which display widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris.<a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> Glaciers are associated with <a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">fretted terrain</a>, and many volcanoes. Researchers have described glacial deposits on <a href="/wiki/Hecates_Tholus" title="Hecates Tholus">Hecates Tholus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hauber,_E._2005-286">[286]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsia_Mons" title="Arsia Mons">Arsia Mons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-brown-287">[287]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pavonis_Mons" title="Pavonis Mons">Pavonis Mons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shean,_D._2005-288">[288]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Basilevsky,_A._2006-289">[289]</a> Glaciers have also been reported in a number of larger Martian craters in the mid-latitudes and above. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg/220px-Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg/330px-Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg/440px-Reull_Vallis_lineated_deposits.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Reull_Vallis" title="Reull Vallis">Reull Vallis</a> with lineated floor deposits. Location is <a href="/wiki/Hellas_quadrangle" title="Hellas quadrangle">Hellas quadrangle</a> </figcaption></figure> Glacier-like features on Mars are known variously as viscous flow features,<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> Martian flow features, lobate debris aprons,<a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> or lineated valley fill,<a href="#cite_note-HeadMarchant2006-54">[54]</a> depending on the form of the feature, its location, the landforms it is associated with, and the author describing it. Many, but not all, small glaciers seem to be associated with gullies on the walls of craters and mantling material.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> The lineated deposits known as lineated valley fill are probably rock-covered glaciers that are found on the floors of most channels within the <a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">fretted terrain</a> found around <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a> in the northern hemisphere. Their surfaces have ridged and grooved materials that deflect around obstacles. Lineated floor deposits may be related to <a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">lobate debris aprons</a>, which have been proven to contain large amounts of ice by orbiting radar.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> For many years, researchers interpreted that features called 'lobate debris aprons' were glacial flows and it was thought that ice existed under a layer of insulating rocks.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Lewis-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tropical_snow-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-in_flux-293">[293]</a> With new instrument readings, it has been confirmed that lobate debris aprons contain almost pure ice that is covered with a layer of rocks.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG/220px-Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG/330px-Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG/440px-Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>A ridge interpreted as the terminal moraine of an alpine glacier. Location is <a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus quadrangle</a>. </figcaption></figure> Moving ice carries rock material, then drops it as the ice disappears. This typically happens at the snout or edges of the glacier. On Earth, such features would be called <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a>, but on Mars they are typically known as moraine-like ridges, concentric ridges, or arcuate ridges.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Since ice tends to sublime rather than melt on Mars, and because Mars's low temperatures tend to make glaciers "cold based" (frozen down to their beds, and unable to slide), the remains of these glaciers and the ridges they leave do not appear the exactly same as normal glaciers on Earth. In particular, Martian moraines tend to be deposited without being deflected by the underlying topography, which is thought to reflect the fact that the ice in Martian glaciers is normally frozen down and cannot slide.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> Ridges of debris on the surface of the glaciers indicate the direction of ice movement. The surface of some glaciers have rough textures due to <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a> of buried ice. The ice evaporates without melting and leaves behind an empty space. Overlying material then collapses into the void.<a href="#cite_note-fretted-295">[295]</a> Sometimes chunks of ice fall from the glacier and get buried in the land surface. When they melt, a more or less round hole remains. Many of these "<a href="/wiki/Kettle_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kettle hole">kettle holes</a>" have been identified on Mars.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Despite strong evidence for glacial flow on Mars, there is little convincing evidence for <a href="/wiki/Glacial_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial landforms">landforms</a> carved by glacial <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/U-shaped_valley" title="U-shaped valley">U-shaped valleys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crag_and_tail" title="Crag and tail">crag and tail</a> hills, <a href="/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte" title="Arête">arêtes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drumlin" title="Drumlin">drumlins</a>. Such features are abundant in glaciated regions on Earth, so their absence on Mars has proven puzzling. The lack of these landforms is thought to be related to the cold-based nature of the ice in most recent glaciers on Mars. Because the <a href="/wiki/Solar_insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar insolation">solar insolation</a> reaching the planet, the temperature and density of the atmosphere, and the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermal heat flux</a> are all lower on Mars than they are on Earth, modelling suggests the temperature of the interface between a glacier and its bed stays below freezing and the ice is literally frozen down to the ground. This prevents it from sliding across the bed, which is thought to inhibit the ice's ability to erode the surface.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_2">Groundwater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Groundwater">edit</a>]</div> In August 2024, a reservoir of liquid water was discovered on Mars - deep in the rocky outer crust of the planet. The findings came from a new analysis of data from Nasa’s Mars Insight Lander, which recorded four years' of vibrations - Mars quakes - from deep inside the Red Planet. The analysis revealed reservoirs of water at depths of about six to 12 miles (10 to 20km) in the Martian crust.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-298">[298]</a> As per estimates, there may be enough water, trapped in tiny cracks and pores of rock in the middle of the Martian crust, to fill oceans on the planet’s surface. The groundwater would likely cover the entirety of Mars to a depth of 1 mile (1.6 kilometers), the study found.<a href="#cite_note-:4-298">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_Mars'_water_inventory">Development of Mars' water inventory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Development of Mars' water inventory">edit</a>]</div> The variation in Mars's surface water content is strongly coupled to the evolution of its atmosphere and may have been marked by several key stages. Head and others put together a detailed history of water on Mars and presented it in March, 2023.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Channels_near_Warrego_in_Thaumasia.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Channels_near_Warrego_in_Thaumasia.JPG" decoding="async" width="176" height="480" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="176" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Dry channels near <a href="/wiki/Warrego_Valles" title="Warrego Valles">Warrego Valles</a>. </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Noachian_era_(4.6_Ga_to_4.1_Ga)">Early Noachian era (4.6 Ga to 4.1 Ga)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Early Noachian era (4.6 Ga to 4.1 Ga)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a></div> The early Noachian era was characterized by atmospheric loss to space from heavy meteoritic bombardment and hydrodynamic escape.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> Ejection by meteorites may have removed ~60% of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">early atmosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaufray2007-301">[301]</a> Significant quantities of phyllosilicates may have formed during this period requiring a sufficiently dense atmosphere to sustain surface water, as the spectrally dominant phyllosilicate group, smectite, suggests moderate water-to-rock ratios.<a href="#cite_note-Chevrier2007-302">[302]</a> However, the pH-pCO2 between smectite and carbonate show that the precipitation of smectite would constrain pCO2 to a value not more than 1×10−2 atm (1.0 kPa).<a href="#cite_note-Chevrier2007-302">[302]</a> As a result, the dominant component of a dense atmosphere on early Mars becomes uncertain, if the clays formed in contact with the Martian atmosphere,<a href="#cite_note-Catling2007-303">[303]</a> particularly given the lack of evidence for <a href="/wiki/Carbonates_on_Mars" title="Carbonates on Mars">carbonate deposits</a>. An additional complication is that the ~25% lower brightness of the young Sun would have required an ancient atmosphere with a significant <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> to raise surface temperatures to sustain liquid water.<a href="#cite_note-Catling2007-303">[303]</a> Higher CO2 content alone would have been insufficient, as CO2 precipitates at <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressures</a> exceeding 1.5 atm (1,500 hPa), reducing its effectiveness as a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Catling2007-303">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_to_late_Noachean_era_(4.1_Ga_to_3.8_Ga)">Middle to late Noachean era (4.1 Ga to 3.8 Ga)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Middle to late Noachean era (4.1 Ga to 3.8 Ga)">edit</a>]</div> During the middle to late Noachean era, Mars underwent potential formation of a <a href="/wiki/Secondary_atmosphere" title="Secondary atmosphere">secondary atmosphere</a> by outgassing dominated by the Tharsis volcanoes, including significant quantities of H2O, CO2, and SO2.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaufray2007-301">[301]</a> Martian valley networks date to this period, indicating globally widespread and temporally sustained surface water as opposed to catastrophic floods.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> The end of this period coincides with the termination of the internal <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> and a spike in meteoritic bombardment.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaufray2007-301">[301]</a> The cessation of the internal magnetic field and subsequent weakening of any local <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Magnetic field (disambiguation)">magnetic fields</a> allowed unimpeded <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_stripping" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric stripping">atmospheric stripping</a> by the solar wind. For example, when compared with their terrestrial counterparts, 38Ar/36Ar, 15N/14N, and 13C/12C ratios of the Martian atmosphere are consistent with ~60% loss of Ar, N2, and CO2 by solar wind stripping of an upper atmosphere enriched in the lighter isotopes via <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_fractionation" title="Rayleigh fractionation">Rayleigh fractionation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> Supplementing the solar wind activity, impacts would have ejected atmospheric components in bulk without isotopic fractionation. Nevertheless, cometary impacts in particular may have contributed volatiles to the planet.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hesperian_to_Amazonian_era_(present)_(~3.8_Ga_to_present)">Hesperian to Amazonian era (present) (~3.8 Ga to present)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Hesperian to Amazonian era (present) (~3.8 Ga to present)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian (Mars)</a></div> Atmospheric enhancement by sporadic outgassing events were countered by solar wind stripping of the atmosphere, albeit less intensely than by the young Sun.<a href="#cite_note-Chaufray2007-301">[301]</a> Catastrophic floods date to this period, favoring sudden subterranean release of volatiles, as opposed to sustained surface flows.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> While the earlier portion of this era may have been marked by aqueous acidic environments and Tharsis-centric groundwater discharge<a href="#cite_note-AndrewsHanna2007-304">[304]</a> dating to the late Noachian, much of the surface alteration processes during the latter portion is marked by oxidative processes including the formation of Fe3+ oxides that impart a reddish hue to the Martian surface.<a href="#cite_note-Chaufray2007-301">[301]</a> Such oxidation of primary mineral phases can be achieved by low-pH (and possibly high temperature) processes related to the formation of palagonitic tephra,<a href="#cite_note-Morris2001-305">[305]</a> by the action of H2O2 that forms photochemically in the Martian atmosphere,<a href="#cite_note-Chevrier2006-306">[306]</a> and by the action of water,<a href="#cite_note-Chevrier2007-302">[302]</a> none of which require free O2. The action of H2O2 may have dominated temporally given the drastic reduction in aqueous and igneous activity in this recent era, making the observed Fe3+ oxides volumetrically small, though pervasive and spectrally dominant.<a href="#cite_note-Bibring2006-307">[307]</a> Nevertheless, aquifers may have driven sustained, but highly localized surface water in recent geologic history, as evident in the geomorphology of craters such as Mojave.<a href="#cite_note-McEwen2007-308">[308]</a> Furthermore, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lafayette_meteorite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lafayette meteorite (page does not exist)">Lafayette</a> <a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Martian meteorite</a> shows evidence of aqueous alteration as recently as 650 Ma.<a href="#cite_note-Jakosky2001-300">[300]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif/200px-PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif/300px-PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif/400px-PIA22487-Mars-BeforeAfterDust-20180719.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Mars before and after/during the 2018 global dust storm</figcaption></figure> In 2020 scientists reported that Mars' current loss of atomic hydrogen from water is largely driven by seasonal processes and <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars#Dust_storms" title="Climate of Mars">dust storms</a> that transport water directly to the upper atmosphere and that this has influenced the planet's climate likely during the last 1 Ga.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> More recent studies have suggested that upward propagating atmospheric gravity waves can play an important role during global dust storms in modulating water escape.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ice_ages">Ice ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ice ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg/220px-Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg/330px-Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg/440px-Conical_mound_in_trough_on_Mars%27_north_pole.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1734" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>North polar layered deposits of ice and dust.</figcaption></figure> Mars has experienced about 40 large scale changes in the amount and distribution of ice on its surface over the past five million years,<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shean,_D._2005-288">[288]</a> with the most recent happening about 2.1 to 0.4 Myr ago, during the Late <a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a> glaciation at the <a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">dichotomy</a> boundary.<a href="#cite_note-Dickson2008-314">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> These changes are known as ice ages.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2016-316">[316]</a> Ice ages on Mars are very different from the ones that the Earth experiences. Ice ages are driven by changes in Mars's orbit and <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">tilt</a> —also known as obliquity. Orbital calculations show that Mars wobbles on its axis far more than Earth does. The Earth is stabilized by its proportionally large moon, so it only wobbles a few degrees. Mars may change its tilt by many tens of degrees.<a href="#cite_note-hirise-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> When this obliquity is high, its poles get much more direct sunlight and heat; this causes the ice caps to warm and become smaller as ice sublimes. Adding to the variability of the climate, the <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentricity</a> of the orbit of Mars changes twice as much as Earth's eccentricity. As the poles sublime, the ice is redeposited closer to the equator, which receive somewhat less <a href="/wiki/Solar_insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar insolation">solar insolation</a> at these high obliquities.<a href="#cite_note-IceAge-318">[318]</a> Computer simulations have shown that a 45° tilt of the Martian axis would result in ice accumulation in areas that display glacial landforms.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> The moisture from the ice caps travels to lower latitudes in the form of deposits of frost or snow mixed with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles, the water vapor condenses on these particles that then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer returns to the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust that serves to insulate the remaining ice.<a href="#cite_note-IceAge-318">[318]</a> The total volume of water removed is a few percent of the ice caps, or enough to cover the entire surface of the planet under one meter of water. Much of this moisture from the ice caps results in a thick smooth mantle with a mixture of ice and dust.<a href="#cite_note-:8-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-Head,_J._2003-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> This ice-rich mantle, that can be 100 meters thick at mid-latitudes,<a href="#cite_note-exposed_100m-322">[322]</a> smoothes the land at lower latitudes, but in places it displays a bumpy texture or patterns that give away the presence of former water ice underneath. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitability_assessments">Habitability assessments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Habitability assessments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Life on Mars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg/220px-Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg/330px-Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg/440px-Mars_rover_being_tested_near_the_Paranal_Observatory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ExoMars_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="ExoMars rover">ExoMars rover</a> prototype being tested in the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a>, 2013.</figcaption></figure> Since the <a href="/wiki/Viking_lander_biological_experiments" title="Viking lander biological experiments">Viking landers</a> that searched for current microbial life in 1976, NASA has pursued a "follow the water" strategy on Mars. However, liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it because <a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">habitability</a> is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_Astrobio_Strategy_2015-323">[323]</a> Chemical, physical, geological, and geographic attributes shape the environments on Mars. Isolated measurements of these factors may be insufficient to deem an environment habitable, but the sum of measurements can help predict locations with greater or lesser habitability potential.<a href="#cite_note-2013_LPS-324">[324]</a> Habitable environments need not be inhabited, and for purposes of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_protection" title="Planetary protection">planetary protection</a>, scientists are trying to identify potential habitats where stowaway bacteria from Earth on spacecraft could contaminate Mars.<a href="#cite_note-strategy-325">[325]</a> If life exists—or existed—on Mars, evidence or <a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a> could be found in the subsurface, away from present-day harsh surface conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Perchlorate" title="Perchlorate">perchlorates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-SM-20170706-326">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170706-327">[327]</a> ionizing radiation, desiccation and freezing.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_strategy_2015-328">[328]</a> Habitable locations could occur kilometers below the surface in a hypothetical hydrosphere, or it could occur near the sub-surface in contact with permafrost.<a href="#cite_note-Dartnell-1-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-ionising_radiation-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-subsurface_habitability_model-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parnell-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steigerwald-64">[64]</a> The Curiosity rover is assessing Mars' past and present habitability potential. The European-Russian <a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> programme is an astrobiology project dedicated to the search for and identification of biosignatures on Mars. It includes the <a href="/wiki/ExoMars_Trace_Gas_Orbiter" class="mw-redirect" title="ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter">ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter</a> that started mapping the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a> in April 2018, and the 2022 <a href="/wiki/ExoMars_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="ExoMars rover">ExoMars rover</a> that will drill and analyze subsurface samples 2 meters deep. NASA's <a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a> rover will cache dozens of drilled core samples for their potential transport to Earth laboratories in the late 2020s or 2030s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Findings_by_probes">Findings by probes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Findings by probes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_discoveries_of_water_on_Mars" title="Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars">Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mariner_9">Mariner 9</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Mariner 9">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg/220px-Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg/330px-Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg/440px-Scamander_Vallis_from_Mars_Global_Surveyor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="810" /></a><figcaption>Meander in <a href="/wiki/Scamander_Vallis" title="Scamander Vallis">Scamander Vallis</a>, as seen by <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a>. Such images implied that large amounts of water once flowed on the surface of Mars.</figcaption></figure> The images acquired by the <a href="/wiki/Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a> Mars orbiter, launched in 1971, revealed the first direct evidence of past water in the form of dry river beds, <a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">canyons</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Valles Marineris</a>, a system of canyons over about 4,020 kilometres (2,500 mi) long), evidence of water <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and deposition, weather fronts, fogs, and more.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> The findings from the Mariner 9 missions underpinned the later <a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking program</a>. The enormous <a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Valles Marineris</a> canyon system is named after Mariner 9 in honor of its achievements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viking_program">Viking program</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Viking program">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking program</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg/220px-Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg/330px-Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Streamlined_Islands_in_Maja_Valles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>Streamlined islands in <a href="/wiki/Maja_Valles" title="Maja Valles">Maja Valles</a> suggest that large floods occurred on Mars.</figcaption></figure> By discovering many geological forms that are typically formed from large amounts of water, the two <a href="/wiki/Viking_program" title="Viking program">Viking</a> orbiters and the two landers caused a revolution in our knowledge about water on Mars. Huge <a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">outflow channels</a> were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-history.nasa.gov-330">[330]</a> Large areas in the southern hemisphere contained branched <a href="/wiki/Valley_networks_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley networks (Mars)">valley networks</a>, suggesting that rain once fell.<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> Many craters look as if the impactor fell into mud. When they were formed, ice in the soil may have melted, turned the ground into mud, then the mud flowed across the surface.<a href="#cite_note-Raeburn-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moore-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kieffer1992-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> Regions, called "Chaotic Terrain," seemed to have quickly lost great volumes of water that caused large channels to form downstream. Estimates for some channel flows run to ten thousand times the flow of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Morton,_O_2002-333">[333]</a> Underground volcanism may have melted frozen ice; the water then flowed away and the ground collapsed to leave chaotic terrain. Also, general chemical analysis by the two Viking landers suggested the surface has been either exposed to or submerged in water in the past.<a href="#cite_note-Arvidson,_R_1989-334">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Global_Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mars Global Surveyor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg/220px-Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg/330px-Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg/440px-Hematite_region_Sinus_Meridiani_sur_Mars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> in Sinus Meridiani. This data was used to target the landing of the Opportunity rover that found definite evidence of past water.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Spectrometer" title="Thermal Emission Spectrometer">Thermal Emission Spectrometer</a> (TES) is an instrument able to determine the mineral composition on the surface of Mars. Mineral composition gives information on the presence or absence of water in ancient times. TES identified a large (30,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi)) area in the <a href="/wiki/Nili_Fossae" title="Nili Fossae">Nili Fossae</a> formation that contains the mineral <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> It is thought that the ancient asteroid impact that created the <a href="/wiki/Isidis_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidis basin">Isidis basin</a> resulted in faults that exposed the olivine. The discovery of olivine is strong evidence that parts of Mars have been extremely dry for a long time. Olivine was also discovered in many other small outcrops within 60 degrees north and south of the equator.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> The probe has imaged several channels that suggest past sustained liquid flows, two of them are found in <a href="/wiki/Nanedi_Valles" title="Nanedi Valles">Nanedi Valles</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Nirgal_Vallis" title="Nirgal Vallis">Nirgal Vallis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Malin,_M_2001-338">[338]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nanedi_channel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nanedi_channel.JPG/220px-Nanedi_channel.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nanedi_channel.JPG/330px-Nanedi_channel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Nanedi_channel.JPG/440px-Nanedi_channel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Inner channel (near top of the image) on floor of Nanedi Valles that suggests that water flowed for a fairly long period. Image from <a href="/wiki/Lunae_Palus_quadrangle" title="Lunae Palus quadrangle">Lunae Palus quadrangle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mars Pathfinder">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder" title="Mars Pathfinder">Mars Pathfinder</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder" title="Mars Pathfinder">Pathfinder</a> lander recorded the variation of diurnal temperature cycle. It was coldest just before sunrise, about −78 °C (−108 °F; 195 K), and warmest just after Mars noon, about −8 °C (18 °F; 265 K). At this location, the highest temperature never reached the freezing point of water (0 °C (32 °F; 273 K)), too cold for pure liquid water to exist on the surface. The atmospheric pressure measured by the Pathfinder on Mars is very low —about 0.6% of Earth's, and it would not permit pure liquid water to exist on the surface.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Other observations were consistent with water being present in the past. Some of the rocks at the Mars Pathfinder site leaned against each other in a manner geologists term imbricated. It is suspected that strong flood waters in the past pushed the rocks around until they faced away from the flow. Some pebbles were rounded, perhaps from being tumbled in a stream. Parts of the ground are crusty, maybe due to cementing by a fluid containing minerals.<a href="#cite_note-Golombek,_M_1997-340">[340]</a> There was evidence of clouds and maybe fog.<a href="#cite_note-Golombek,_M_1997-340">[340]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Odyssey">Mars Odyssey</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mars Odyssey">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_water_on_Mars_from_Mars_Odyssey" title="Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey">Evidence of water on Mars from Mars Odyssey</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG/220px-Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG/330px-Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG/440px-Semeykin_Crater_Drainage.JPG 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Complex drainage system in <a href="/wiki/Semeykin_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Semeykin Crater">Semeykin Crater</a>. Location is <a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus quadrangle</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey" title="2001 Mars Odyssey">2001 Mars Odyssey</a> found much evidence for water on Mars in the form of images, and with its <a href="/wiki/Neutron_spectroscopy" title="Neutron spectroscopy">neutron spectrometer</a>, it proved that much of the ground is loaded with water ice. Mars has enough ice just beneath the surface to fill <a href="/wiki/Lake_Michigan" title="Lake Michigan">Lake Michigan</a> twice.<a href="#cite_note-mars.jpl.nasa.gov-341">[341]</a> In both hemispheres, from 55° latitude to the poles, Mars has a high density of ice just under the surface; one kilogram of soil contains about 500 grams (18 oz) of water ice. But close to the equator, there is only 2% to 10% of water in the soil.<a href="#cite_note-Feildman,_T._2004-342">[342]</a> Scientists think that much of this water is also locked up in the chemical structure of minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> Although the upper surface contains a few percent of chemically-bound water, ice lies just a few meters deeper, as it has been shown in <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amazonis_quadrangle" title="Amazonis quadrangle">Amazonis quadrangle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elysium_quadrangle" title="Elysium quadrangle">Elysium quadrangle</a> that contain large amounts of water ice.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> The orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions.<a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20170928-210">[210]</a> Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is seen at both the <a href="/wiki/Medusae_Fossae" class="mw-redirect" title="Medusae Fossae">Medusae Fossae</a> formation and the <a href="/wiki/Tharsis_Montes" title="Tharsis Montes">Tharsis Montes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20170928-210">[210]</a> Analysis of the data suggests that the southern hemisphere may have a layered structure, suggestive of stratified deposits beneath a now extinct large water mass.<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blocks_in_Aram.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blocks_in_Aram.JPG/220px-Blocks_in_Aram.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blocks_in_Aram.JPG/330px-Blocks_in_Aram.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Blocks_in_Aram.JPG/440px-Blocks_in_Aram.JPG 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>Blocks in Aram showing a possible ancient source of water. Location is <a href="/wiki/Oxia_Palus_quadrangle" title="Oxia Palus quadrangle">Oxia Palus quadrangle</a>.</figcaption></figure> The instruments aboard the Mars Odyssey are able to study the top meter of soil. In 2002, available data were used to calculate that if all soil surfaces were covered by an even layer of water, this would correspond to a global layer of water (GLW) 0.5–1.5 kilometres (0.31–0.93 mi).<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> Thousands of images returned from Odyssey orbiter also support the idea that Mars once had great amounts of water flowing across its surface. Some images show patterns of branching valleys; others show layers that may have been formed under lakes; even river and lake <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">deltas</a> have been identified.<a href="#cite_note-Irwin_III_2005-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-themis.asu.edu-348">[348]</a> For many years researchers suspected that glaciers exist under a layer of insulating rocks.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Lewis-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lineated_valley_fill" title="Lineated valley fill">Lineated valley fill</a> is one example of these rock-covered glaciers. They are found on the floors of some channels. Their surfaces have ridged and grooved materials that deflect around obstacles. Lineated floor deposits may be related to <a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">lobate debris aprons</a>, which have been shown by orbiting radar to contain large amounts of ice.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plaut,_J._2008-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phoenix">Phoenix</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Phoenix">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix (spacecraft)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg/220px-Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg/330px-Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg/440px-Phoenix_Sol_0_horizon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a> polygons imaged by the Phoenix lander.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a> lander also confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern region of Mars.<a href="#cite_note-Arvidson,_R._2008-349">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> This finding was predicted by previous orbital data and theory,<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments.<a href="#cite_note-Feildman,_T._2004-342">[342]</a> On June 19, 2008, NASA announced that dice-sized clumps of bright material in the "Dodo-Goldilocks" trench, dug by the robotic arm, had vaporized over the course of four days, strongly indicating that the bright clumps were composed of water ice that <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimes</a> following exposure. Recent radiative transfer modeling has shown that this water ice was snow with a grain size of ~350 μm with 0.015% dust.<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> Even though CO2 (<a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a>) also sublimes under the conditions present, it would do so at a rate much faster than observed.<a href="#cite_note-Confirmation_of_Water_on_Mars-353">[353]</a> On July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix further confirmed the presence of water ice at its landing site. During the initial heating cycle of a sample, the mass spectrometer detected water vapor when the sample temperature reached 0 °C (32 °F; 273 K).<a href="#cite_note-LATimes-354">[354]</a> Stable liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature (it would boil), except at the lowest elevations for short periods.<a href="#cite_note-Kostama-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-flows-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arvidson,_R._2008-349">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dirt_find-355">[355]</a> The presence of the <a href="/wiki/Perchlorate" title="Perchlorate">perchlorate</a> (ClO4–) anion, a strong <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidizer</a>, in the martian soil was confirmed. This salt can considerably lower the water <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">freezing point</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg/220px-PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg/330px-PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg/440px-PIA10741_Possible_Ice_Below_Phoenix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>View underneath Phoenix lander showing water ice exposed by the landing retrorockets.</figcaption></figure> When Phoenix landed, the <a href="/wiki/Retrorocket" title="Retrorocket">retrorockets</a> splashed soil and melted ice onto the vehicle.<a href="#cite_note-martinez2013-356">[356]</a> Photographs showed the landing had left blobs of material stuck to the landing struts.<a href="#cite_note-martinez2013-356">[356]</a> The blobs expanded at a rate consistent with <a href="/wiki/Deliquescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliquescence">deliquescence</a>, darkened before disappearing (consistent with <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> followed by dripping), and appeared to merge. These observations, combined with <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic">thermodynamic</a> evidence, indicated that the blobs were likely liquid <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> droplets.<a href="#cite_note-martinez2013-356">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-Renno2009-357">[357]</a> Other researchers suggested the blobs could be "clumps of frost."<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes20090316-358">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sciencedaily.com-359">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> In 2015 it was confirmed that perchlorate plays a role in forming <a href="/wiki/Recurring_slope_lineae" class="mw-redirect" title="Recurring slope lineae">recurring slope lineae</a> on steep <a href="/wiki/Gully_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gully (Mars)">gullies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ojhaetal2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> For about as far as the camera can see, the landing site is flat, but shaped into polygons between 2–3 metres (6 ft 7 in – 9 ft 10 in) in diameter which are bounded by troughs that are 20–50 centimetres (7.9–19.7 in) deep. These shapes are due to ice in the soil expanding and contracting due to major temperature changes. The microscope showed that the soil on top of the polygons is composed of rounded particles and flat particles, probably a type of clay.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> Ice is present a few inches below the surface in the middle of the polygons, and along its edges, the ice is at least 8 inches (200 mm) deep.<a href="#cite_note-Dirt_find-355">[355]</a> Snow was observed to fall from cirrus clouds. The clouds formed at a level in the atmosphere that was around −65 °C (−85 °F; 208 K), so the clouds would have to be composed of water-ice, rather than carbon dioxide-ice (CO2 or dry ice), because the temperature for forming carbon dioxide ice is much lower than −120 °C (−184 °F; 153 K). As a result of mission observations, it is now suspected that water ice (snow) would have accumulated later in the year at this location.<a href="#cite_note-Witeway2009-363">[363]</a> The highest temperature measured during the mission, which took place during the Martian summer, was −19.6 °C (−3.3 °F; 253.6 K), while the coldest was −97.7 °C (−143.9 °F; 175.5 K). So, in this region the temperature remained far below the freezing point (0 °C (32 °F; 273 K)) of water.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Exploration_Rovers">Mars Exploration Rovers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mars Exploration Rovers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rover</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg/220px-Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg/330px-Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg/440px-Opportunity_photo_of_Mars_outcrop_rock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of a rock outcrop.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg/220px-Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg/330px-Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg/440px-Opp_layered_sol17-B017R1_br.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Thin rock layers, not all parallel to each other.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg/220px-07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg/330px-07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg/440px-07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1982" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Hematite <a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">spherules</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg/220px-Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg/330px-Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Partly embedded <a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">spherules</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rovers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirit_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit rover">Spirit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunity rover">Opportunity</a> found a great deal of evidence for past water on Mars. The <a href="/wiki/Spirit_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit rover">Spirit rover</a> landed in what was thought to be a large lake bed. The lake bed had been covered over with lava flows, so evidence of past water was initially hard to detect. On March 5, 2004, NASA announced that Spirit had found hints of water history on Mars in a rock dubbed "Humphrey".<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> As Spirit traveled in reverse in December 2007, pulling a seized wheel behind, the wheel scraped off the upper layer of soil, uncovering a patch of white ground rich in <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>. Scientists think that it must have been produced in one of two ways.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> One: <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot spring</a> deposits produced when water dissolved silica at one location and then carried it to another (i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geyser</a>). Two: acidic steam rising through cracks in rocks stripped them of their mineral components, leaving silica behind.<a href="#cite_note-20071210a-367">[367]</a> The Spirit rover also found evidence for water in the Columbia Hills of Gusev crater. In the Clovis group of rocks the <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mössbauer spectrometer">Mössbauer spectrometer</a> (MB) detected <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a>,<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> that forms only in the presence of water,<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> iron in the oxidized form Fe3+,<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a>-rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet once harbored water.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_rover" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunity rover">Opportunity rover</a> was directed to a site that had displayed large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a> from orbit. Hematite often forms from water. The rover indeed found layered rocks and marble- or blueberry-like hematite <a href="/wiki/Concretion" title="Concretion">concretions</a>. Elsewhere on its traverse, Opportunity investigated aeolian dune <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> in Burns Cliff in <a href="/wiki/Endurance_(crater)" title="Endurance (crater)">Endurance Crater</a>. Its operators concluded that the preservation and cementation of these outcrops had been controlled by flow of shallow groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-BurnsCliff-169">[169]</a> In its years of continuous operation, Opportunity sent back evidence that this area on Mars was soaked in liquid water in the past.<a href="#cite_note-marsrovers-375">[375]</a><a href="#cite_note-SFN-20130125-376">[376]</a> The MER rovers found evidence for ancient wet environments that were very acidic. In fact, what Opportunity found evidence of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, a harsh chemical for life.<a href="#cite_note-Amos_June_2013-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clay_clues-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> But on May 17, 2013, NASA announced that Opportunity found <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> deposits that typically form in wet environments that are near neutral <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">acidity</a>. This find provides additional evidence about a wet ancient environment possibly favorable for <a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Amos_June_2013-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clay_clues-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_water_on_Mars_found_by_Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Evidence of water on Mars found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg/220px-Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg/330px-Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg/440px-Springs_in_Vernal_Crater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Springs in <a href="/wiki/Vernal_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernal Crater">Vernal Crater</a>, as seen by <a href="/wiki/HIRISE" class="mw-redirect" title="HIRISE">HIRISE</a>. These springs may be good places to look for evidence of past life, because hot springs can preserve evidence of life forms for a long time. Location is <a href="/wiki/Oxia_Palus_quadrangle" title="Oxia Palus quadrangle">Oxia Palus quadrangle</a>. </figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/HiRISE" title="HiRISE">HiRISE</a> instrument has taken many images that strongly suggest that Mars has had a rich history of water-related processes. A major discovery was finding evidence of ancient <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>. If they have hosted microbial life, they may contain <a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">biosignatures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Osterloo2008-379">[379]</a> Research published in January 2010, described strong evidence for sustained precipitation in the area around <a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Valles Marineris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Weitz-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Icarus_Vol_210-141">[141]</a> The types of minerals there are associated with water. Also, the high density of small branching channels indicates a great deal of precipitation. Rocks on Mars have been found to frequently occur as layers, called strata, in many different places.<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a> Layers form by various ways, including volcanoes, wind, or water.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> Light-toned rocks on Mars have been associated with <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydrated minerals</a> like sulfates and clay.<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG/220px-Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG/330px-Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG/440px-Asimov_Layers_Close-up.JPG 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption>Layers on the west slope of Asimov Crater. Location is <a href="/wiki/Noachis_quadrangle" title="Noachis quadrangle">Noachis quadrangle</a>.</figcaption></figure> The orbiter helped scientists determine that much of the surface of Mars is covered by a thick smooth mantle that is thought to be a mixture of ice and dust.<a href="#cite_note-Head,_J._2003-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a> The ice mantle under the shallow subsurface is thought to result from frequent, major climate changes. Changes in Mars' orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water returns to the ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles.<a href="#cite_note-Head_2008_PNAS-203">[203]</a> Water vapor condenses on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.<a href="#cite_note-IceAge-318">[318]</a> In 2008, research with the Shallow Radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter provided strong evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_aprons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobate debris aprons">lobate debris aprons</a> (LDA) in <a href="/wiki/Hellas_Planitia" title="Hellas Planitia">Hellas Planitia</a> and in mid northern latitudes are <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Its radar also detected a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs, meaning that pure water ice made up the bulk of the formation.<a href="#cite_note-Holt,_J._2008-41">[41]</a> The discovery of water ice in LDAs demonstrates that water is found at even lower latitudes.<a href="#cite_note-Kieffer1992-259">[259]</a> Research published in September 2009, demonstrated that some new craters on Mars show exposed, pure water ice.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> After a time, the ice disappears, evaporating into the atmosphere. The ice is only a few feet deep. The ice was confirmed with the Compact Imaging Spectrometer (CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> Similar exposures of ice have been detected within the mid-latitude mantle (originally proposed to contain buried dusty snow covered with dust and regolith;<a href="#cite_note-:8-271">[271]</a>) that drapes most pole-facing slopes in the mid-latitudes using spectral analysis of HiRISE images.<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> Additional collaborating reports published in 2019 evaluated the amount of water ice located at the northern pole. One report used data from the MRO's <a href="/wiki/SHARAD" title="SHARAD">SHARAD</a> (SHAllow RADar sounder) probes. SHARAD has the capability scanning up to about 2 kilometres (1.2 miles) below the surface at 15 metres (49 ft) intervals. The analysis of past SHARAD runs showed evidence of strata of water ice and sand below the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a>, with as much as 60% to 88% of the volume being water ice. This supports the theory of the long-term global weather of Mars consisting of cycles of global warming and cooling; during cooling periods, water gathered at the poles to form the ice layers, and then as global warming occurred, the unthawed water ice was covered by dust and dirt from Mars' frequent dust storms. The total ice volume determine by this study indicated that there was approximately 2.2×105 cubic kilometres (5.3×104 cu mi), or enough water, if melted, to fully cover the Mars surface with a 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) layer of water.<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> The work was corroborated by a separate study that used recorded gravity data to estimate the density of the Planum Boreum, indicating that on average, it contained up to 55% by volume of water ice.<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a> Many features that look like the <a href="/wiki/Pingo" title="Pingo">pingos</a> on the Earth were found in Utopia Planitia (~35-50° N; ~80-115° E) by examining photos from HiRISE. Pingos contain a core of ice.<a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curiosity_rover">Curiosity rover</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Curiosity rover">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory">Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg/220px-PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg/330px-PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg/440px-PIA16156-Mars_Curiosity_Rover-Water-AncientStreambed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Hottah_(Mars)" title="Hottah (Mars)">Hottah</a>" <a href="/wiki/Rock_outcrop" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock outcrop">rock outcrop</a> – an ancient <a href="/wiki/Streambed" class="mw-redirect" title="Streambed">streambed</a> discovered by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a> team (September 14, 2012) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/figures/PIA16156_fig1.jpg">close-up</a>) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521042719/http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/images/pia16223-stereoHattah-Mastcam-br2.jpg">3-D version</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg/220px-PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg/330px-PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg/440px-PIA16189_fig1-Curiosity_Rover-Rock_Outcrops-Mars_and_Earth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rock_outcrop" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock outcrop">Rock outcrop</a> on Mars – compared with a terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)#Fluvial" title="Conglomerate (geology)">fluvial conglomerate</a> – suggesting water "vigorously" flowing in a stream.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927a-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20120927-151">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> Very early in its ongoing mission, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a> rover discovered unambiguous <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a> sediments on Mars. The properties of the pebbles in these outcrops suggested former vigorous flow on a streambed, with flow between ankle- and waist-deep. These rocks were found at the foot of an <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fan</a> system descending from the crater wall, which had previously been identified from orbit.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20120927a-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP-20120927-151">[151]</a> In October 2012, the first <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography#Mineralogy_and_metallurgy" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray diffraction analysis</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a> was performed by Curiosity. The results revealed the presence of several minerals, including <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, and suggested that the Martian soil in the sample was similar to the weathered basaltic soils of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Volcanoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaii Volcanoes">Hawaiian volcanoes</a>. The sample used is composed of dust distributed from <a href="/wiki/Martian_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian dust">global dust storms</a> and local fine sand. So far, the materials Curiosity has analyzed are consistent with the initial ideas of deposits in <a href="/wiki/Gale_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Crater">Gale Crater</a> recording a transition through time from a wet to dry environment.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20121030-391">[391]</a> In December 2012, NASA reported that Curiosity performed its first extensive <a href="/wiki/Soil_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil analysis">soil analysis</a>, revealing the presence of water molecules, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20121203-392">[392]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20121203-393">[393]</a> And in March 2013, NASA reported evidence of <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">mineral hydration</a>, likely hydrated <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a>, in several <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock samples</a> including the broken fragments of <a href="/wiki/Tintina_(rock)" title="Tintina (rock)">"Tintina" rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars#Curiosity" title="List of rocks on Mars">"Sutton Inlier" rock</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Vein_(geology)" title="Vein (geology)">veins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nodule_(geology)" title="Nodule (geology)">nodules</a> in other rocks like <a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars#Curiosity" title="List of rocks on Mars">"Knorr" rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars#Curiosity" title="List of rocks on Mars">"Wernicke" rock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130318-394">[394]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20130319-395">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-MSN-20130120-396">[396]</a> Analysis using the rover's <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)#Dynamic_Albedo_of_Neutrons_(DAN)" title="Curiosity (rover)">DAN instrument</a> provided evidence of subsurface water, amounting to as much as 4% water content, down to a depth of 60 cm (2.0 ft), in the rover's traverse from the <a href="/wiki/Bradbury_Landing" title="Bradbury Landing">Bradbury Landing</a> site to the Yellowknife Bay area in the <a href="/wiki/Glenelg,_Mars" title="Glenelg, Mars">Glenelg</a> terrain.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130318-394">[394]</a> On September 26, 2013, NASA scientists reported the <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> Curiosity rover detected abundant chemically-bound water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">soil samples</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Rocknest_(Mars)" title="Rocknest (Mars)">Rocknest region</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aeolis_Palus" title="Aeolis Palus">Aeolis Palus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gale_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Crater">Gale Crater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ST-20130926-397">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science-20130926a-398">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science-20130926-399">[399]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130926a-400">[400]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130926b-401">[401]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20131001-402">[402]</a> In addition, NASA reported the rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic type</a> and a locally derived, coarse-grained <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic type</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Science-20130926-399">[399]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20130926b-401">[401]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science-20130913b-403">[403]</a> The mafic type, similar to other <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">martian soils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martian_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian dust">martian dust</a>, was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil.<a href="#cite_note-Science-20130913b-403">[403]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Perchlorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Perchlorates">perchlorates</a>, the presence of which may make detection of life-related <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic molecules</a> difficult, were found at the Curiosity rover landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix lander</a>) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts".<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20131001-402">[402]</a> NASA also reported that <a href="/wiki/Jake_M_(rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jake M (rock)">Jake M rock</a>, a rock encountered by Curiosity on the way to <a href="/wiki/Glenelg,_Mars" title="Glenelg, Mars">Glenelg</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Mugearite" title="Mugearite">mugearite</a> and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.<a href="#cite_note-Science-20130926c-404">[404]</a> On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater lake">freshwater lake</a> inside <a href="/wiki/Gale_(crater)" title="Gale (crater)">Gale Crater</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20131209-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20131209-36">[36]</a> that could have been a hospitable environment for <a href="/wiki/Microbial_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial life">microbial life</a>. On December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">atmosphere</a> of the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>; in addition, <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic chemical">organic chemicals</a> were detected in powder drilled from a <a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">rock</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a>. Also, based on <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> ratio studies, much of the water at <a href="/wiki/Gale_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale Crater">Gale Crater</a> on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lake bed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20141216-GW-405">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141216-KC-406">[406]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20141216-PRM-407">[407]</a> On April 13, 2015, <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> published an analysis of humidity and ground temperature data collected by Curiosity, showing evidence that films of liquid brine water form in the upper 5 cm of Mars's subsurface at night. The water activity and temperature remain below the requirements for reproduction and <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of known terrestrial microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-Torres_2015-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a> On October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed in <a href="/wiki/Gale_(crater)" title="Gale (crater)">Gale crater</a> 3.3 – 3.8 billion years ago delivering sediments to build up the lower layers of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sharp" title="Mount Sharp">Mount Sharp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NASA-20151008-409">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20151009-410">[410]</a> On November 4, 2018, geologists presented evidence, based on studies in <a href="/wiki/Gale_(crater)" title="Gale (crater)">Gale Crater</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a>, that there was plenty of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> on early <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EA-20181103-gsa-411">[411]</a><a href="#cite_note-GSA-20181104-412">[412]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mars_Express">Mars Express</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Mars Express">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Mars_Express" title="Mars Express">Mars Express</a> Orbiter, launched by the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>, has been mapping the surface of Mars and using radar equipment to look for evidence of sub-surface water. Between 2012 and 2015, the Orbiter scanned the area beneath the ice caps on the <a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a>. Scientists determined by 2018 that the readings indicated a sub-surface lake bearing water about 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide. The top of the lake is located 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) under the planet's surface; how much deeper the liquid water extends remains unknown.<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a><a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhurong_Rover">Zhurong Rover</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Zhurong Rover">edit</a>]</div> China's Zhurong touched down on Mars in the area called Utopia Planitia on May 14, 2021. Its six scientific instruments including two panoramic cameras, a ground-penetrating radar and a magnetic field detector. Zhurong used a laser to zap rocks to study their compositions.<a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a> Zhurong found evidence of water when it examined the crust at the surface, called "duricrust." The crust contained hydrated sulfate/silica materials in the Amazonian-age terrain of the landing site. The duricrust was produced either by subsurface ice melting or groundwater rising.<a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a><a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> Looking at the dunes at Zhurong's landing site, researchers found a large shift in wind direction (as evidenced in the dune directions) that occurred about the same time that layers in the Martian northern ice caps changed. It was suggested that these events happened when the rotational tilt of the planet changed.<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactive_map">Interactive map</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Interactive map">edit</a>]</div> <div style="position: relative; width: 620px; margin: 0 auto;"> <figure class="mw-halign-center noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><img alt="Map of Mars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mars_Map.JPG/620px-Mars_Map.JPG" decoding="async" width="620" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mars_Map.JPG/930px-Mars_Map.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mars_Map.JPG/1240px-Mars_Map.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2180" data-file-height="1244" usemap="#ImageMap_5aed0e082a2cc8c9" resource="/wiki/File:Mars_Map.JPG" /><map name="ImageMap_5aed0e082a2cc8c9"><area 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title="Arcadia Planitia" /><area href="/wiki/Argentea_Planum" shape="poly" coords="249,315,248,321,272,322,272,296,258,298,257,308" alt="Argentea Planum" title="Argentea Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Argyre_Planitia" shape="poly" coords="248,248,266,252,263,268,251,275,238,261" alt="Argyre Planitia" title="Argyre Planitia" /><area href="/wiki/Chryse_Planitia" shape="poly" coords="250,101,274,125,253,144,234,117" alt="Chryse Planitia" title="Chryse Planitia" /><area href="/wiki/Claritas_Fossae" shape="poly" coords="146,221,164,214,191,225,195,238,165,243" alt="Claritas Fossae" title="Claritas Fossae" /><area href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" shape="poly" coords="279,130,282,140,306,117,297,110" alt="Cydonia Mensae" title="Cydonia Mensae" /><area href="/wiki/Daedalia_Planum" shape="poly" coords="98,195,146,211,150,238,103,227" alt="Daedalia Planum" title="Daedalia Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Elysium_Mons" shape="poly" coords="529,115,560,117,556,146,529,144" alt="Elysium Mons" title="Elysium 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coords="210,139,234,140,225,170,200,163" alt="Lunae Planum" title="Lunae Planum" /><area href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars#Plana" shape="poly" coords="389,274,441,281,436,313,387,307" alt="Malea Planum" title="Malea Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Maraldi_(Martian_crater)" shape="poly" coords="237,298,262,298,261,320,239,320" alt="Maraldi crater" title="Maraldi crater" /><area href="/wiki/Mareotis_Fossae" shape="poly" coords="163,93,174,101,192,86,187,79" alt="Mareotis Fossae" title="Mareotis Fossae" /><area href="/wiki/Arcadia_quadrangle#Physiography_and_Geology" shape="poly" coords="189,86,214,105,199,129,179,114" alt="Mareotis Tempe" title="Mareotis Tempe" /><area href="/wiki/Margaritifer_Terra" shape="poly" coords="248,140,278,136,300,173,271,181" alt="Margaritifer Terra" title="Margaritifer Terra" /><area href="/wiki/Mie_(crater)" shape="poly" coords="527,81,528,95,541,94,540,80" alt="Mie crater" title="Mie crater" /><area href="/wiki/Milankovi%C4%8D_(Martian_crater)" shape="poly" coords="88,66,98,67,98,75,86,76" alt="Milankovič crater" title="Milankovič crater" /><area href="/wiki/Nepenthes_Mensae" shape="poly" coords="482,145,474,160,503,181,511,164" alt="Nepenthes Mensae" title="Nepenthes Mensae" /><area href="/wiki/Nereidum_Montes" shape="poly" coords="228,243,265,233,268,245,248,244,241,251" alt="Nereidum Montes" title="Nereidum Montes" /><area href="/wiki/Nilosyrtis_Mensae" shape="poly" coords="435,125,411,117,416,106,434,115" alt="Nilosyrtis Mensae" title="Nilosyrtis Mensae" /><area href="/wiki/Noachis_Terra" shape="poly" coords="341,191,283,237,278,305,363,309,388,223" alt="Noachis Terra" title="Noachis Terra" /><area href="/wiki/Olympica_Fossae" shape="poly" coords="134,117,156,119,151,139,136,134" alt="Olympica Fossae" title="Olympica Fossae" /><area href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" shape="poly" coords="111,119,137,144,106,156,100,137" alt="Olympus Mons" title="Olympus Mons" /><area href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" shape="poly" coords="39,302,40,325,598,325,598,302" alt="Planum Australe" title="Planum Australe" /><area href="/wiki/Promethei_Terra" shape="poly" coords="513,320,525,185,473,185,453,321" alt="Promethei Terra" title="Promethei Terra" /><area href="/wiki/Protonilus_Mensae" shape="poly" coords="363,62,359,72,391,94,393,86" alt="Protonilus Mensae" title="Protonilus Mensae" /><area href="/wiki/Sirenum" shape="poly" coords="43,207,89,210,92,242,44,252" alt="Sirenum" title="Sirenum" /><area href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars#Plana" shape="poly" coords="390,256,407,271,391,276,381,265" alt="Sisyphi Planum" title="Sisyphi Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Solis_Planum" shape="poly" coords="166,179,223,197,198,234,163,230" alt="Solis Planum" title="Solis Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Syria_Planum" shape="poly" coords="162,181,173,191,163,201,151,191" alt="Syria Planum" title="Syria Planum" /><area href="/wiki/Tantalus_Fossae" shape="poly" coords="171,66,183,69,169,89,160,87" alt="Tantalus Fossae" title="Tantalus Fossae" /><area href="/wiki/Tempe_Terra" shape="poly" coords="207,87,225,74,239,112,208,141,197,161" alt="Tempe Terra" title="Tempe Terra" /><area href="/wiki/Terra_Cimmeria" shape="poly" coords="526,185,592,192,593,321,512,320" alt="Terra Cimmeria" title="Terra Cimmeria" /><area href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" shape="poly" coords="399,137,440,170,420,196,384,213,353,198,345,183" alt="Terra Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea" /><area href="/wiki/Terra_Sirenum" shape="poly" coords="45,232,168,256,186,320,49,319" alt="Terra Sirenum" title="Terra Sirenum" /><area href="/wiki/Tharsis_Montes" shape="poly" coords="156,138,174,151,139,203,117,187" alt="Tharsis Montes" title="Tharsis Montes" /><area href="/wiki/Tractus_Catena" shape="poly" coords="164,110,172,114,166,127,160,122" alt="Tractus Catena" title="Tractus Catena" /><area href="/wiki/Tyrrhena_Terra" shape="poly" coords="450,173,507,193,501,228,456,219,436,210" alt="Tyrrhena Terra" title="Tyrrhena Terra" /><area href="/wiki/Ulysses_Patera" shape="poly" coords="129,150,144,162,135,166,127,162" alt="Ulysses Patera" title="Ulysses Patera" /><area href="/wiki/Uranius_Patera" shape="poly" coords="173,123,182,125,180,133,172,130" alt="Uranius Patera" title="Uranius Patera" /><area href="/wiki/Utopia_Planitia" shape="poly" coords="402,22,404,84,463,127,518,134,527,104,521,79,539,72,546,88,520,135,591,61,591,23" alt="Utopia Planitia" title="Utopia Planitia" /><area href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" shape="poly" coords="168,166,258,185,246,204,163,186" alt="Valles Marineris" title="Valles Marineris" /><area href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" shape="poly" coords="40,15,40,38,598,38,599,15" alt="Vastitas Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis" /><area href="/wiki/Xanthe_Terra" shape="poly" coords="234,135,260,169,253,180,224,172" alt="Xanthe Terra" title="Xanthe Terra" /></map><figcaption><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/12px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/24px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /><a href="/wiki/Image_map" title="Image map">Interactive image map</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Mars">global topography of Mars</a>. Hover your mouse over the image to see the names of over 60 prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevations</a>, based on data from the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Laser_Altimeter" title="Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter">Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter</a> on NASA's <a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor</a>. Whites and browns indicate the highest elevations (+12 to +8 km); followed by pinks and reds (+8 to +3 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevations (down to −8 km). <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Axes</a> are <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geographical_pole" title="Geographical pole">Polar regions</a> are noted. <div style="float: right;">(See also: <a href="/wiki/Template:Features_and_artificial_objects_on_Mars" title="Template:Features and artificial objects on Mars">Mars Rovers map</a> and <a href="/wiki/Template:Features_and_memorials_on_Mars" title="Template:Features and memorials on Mars">Mars Memorial map</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Mars_map" title="Template:Mars map">view</a> • <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mars_map" title="Template talk:Mars map">discuss</a>)</div></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#Water" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Atmospheric water on Mars</a> – Layer of gases surrounding the planet Mars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars" title="Climate of Mars">Climate of Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">Colonization of Mars</a> – Proposed concepts for human settlements on Mars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_water_on_Mars_and_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of water on Mars and Earth">Evolution of water on Mars and Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a> – Liquid water naturally occurring outside Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes on Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Life on Mars</a> – Scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of Mars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Express#Scientific_discoveries_and_important_events" title="Mars Express">Mars Express § Scientific discoveries and important events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor#Discovery_of_water_ice_on_Mars" title="Mars Global Surveyor">Mars Global Surveyor § Discovery of water ice on Mars</a>[<a href="/wiki/MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS:BROKENSECTIONLINKS">broken anchor</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">Martian canals</a> – Erroneous idea of canals on Mars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_cracks_on_Mars" title="Mud cracks on Mars">Mud cracks on Mars</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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Retrieved July 23, 2019. <q>The damaging effect of ionising radiation on cellular structure is one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life in potential astrobiological habitats.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Modelling+the+surface+and+subsurface+Martian+radiation+environment%3A+Implications+for+astrobiology&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=L02207&rft.date=2007-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59046908%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2006GL027494&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007GeoRL..34.2207D&rft.aulast=Dartnell&rft.aufirst=L.+R.&rft.au=Desorgher&rft.au=Ward&rft.au=Coates&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F134609%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ionising_radiation-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ionising_radiation_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ionising_radiation_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDartnellDesorgherWardCoates2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dartnell, L. 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Retrieved September 1, 2019. <q>This ionising radiation field is deleterious to the survival of dormant cells or spores and the persistence of molecular biomarkers in the subsurface, and so its characterisation. ... Even at a depth of 2 meters beneath the surface, any microbes would likely be dormant, cryopreserved by the current freezing conditions, and so metabolically inactive and unable to repair cellular degradation as it occurs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biogeosciences&rft.atitle=Martian+sub-surface+ionising+radiation%3A+biosignatures+and+geology&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=545-558&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fbg-4-545-2007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007BGeo....4..545D&rft.aulast=Dartnell&rft.aufirst=L.+R.&rft.au=Desorgher%2C+L.&rft.au=Ward%2C+J.+M.&rft.au=Coates%2C+A.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fdocs%2F00%2F29%2F76%2F31%2FPDF%2Fbg-4-545-2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-subsurface_habitability_model-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-subsurface_habitability_model_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-subsurface_habitability_model_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Morais2012" class="citation journal cs1">de Morais, A. 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July 27, 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006122736/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMGKA808BE_0.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2012. Retrieved October 8, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Water+ice+in+crater+at+Martian+north+pole&rft.pub=ESA&rft.date=2005-07-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FSPECIALS%2FMars_Express%2FSEMGKA808BE_0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBClake-280"><a href="#cite_ref-BBClake_280-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4727847.stm">"Ice lake found on the Red Planet"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. July 29, 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100113160825/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4727847.stm">Archived</a> from the original on January 13, 2010. Retrieved October 8, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ice+lake+found+on+the+Red+Planet&rft.date=2005-07-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F4727847.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray2007-281"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray2007_281-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2005" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, John B.; et al. (2005). "Evidence from the Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera for a frozen sea close to Mars' equator". Nature. 434 (7031): 352–356. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.434..352M">2005Natur.434..352M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03379">10.1038/nature03379</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15772653">15772653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4373323">4373323</a>. <q>Here we present High Resolution Stereo Camera images from the European Space Agency Mars Express spacecraft that indicate that such lakes may still exist.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evidence+from+the+Mars+Express+High+Resolution+Stereo+Camera+for+a+frozen+sea+close+to+Mars%27+equator&rft.volume=434&rft.issue=7031&rft.pages=352-356&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature03379&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4373323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15772653&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.434..352M&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOroseiCartacciCicchettiFederico2008" class="citation book cs1">Orosei, R.; Cartacci, M.; Cicchetti, A.; Federico, C.; Flamini, E.; Frigeri, A.; Holt, J. W.; Marinangeli, L.; Noschese, R.; Pettinelli, E.; Phillips, R. J.; Picardi, G.; Plaut, J. J.; Safaeinili, A.; Seu, R. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1866.pdf">"Radar subsurface sounding over the putative frozen sea in Cerberus Palus, Mars"</a> (PDF). Proceedings of the XIII Internarional Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar. Vol. XXXIX. pp. P14B–05. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AGUFM.P14B..05O">2007AGUFM.P14B..05O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICGPR.2010.5550143">10.1109/ICGPR.2010.5550143</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-4604-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-4604-9"><bdi>978-1-4244-4604-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23296246">23296246</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327135334/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1866.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on March 27, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Radar+subsurface+sounding+over+the+putative+frozen+sea+in+Cerberus+Palus%2C+Mars&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+XIII+Internarional+Conference+on+Ground+Penetrating+Radar&rft.pages=P14B-05&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICGPR.2010.5550143&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23296246%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007AGUFM.P14B..05O&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-4604-9&rft.aulast=Orosei&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Cartacci%2C+M.&rft.au=Cicchetti%2C+A.&rft.au=Federico%2C+C.&rft.au=Flamini%2C+E.&rft.au=Frigeri%2C+A.&rft.au=Holt%2C+J.+W.&rft.au=Marinangeli%2C+L.&rft.au=Noschese%2C+R.&rft.au=Pettinelli%2C+E.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Picardi%2C+G.&rft.au=Plaut%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Safaeinili%2C+A.&rft.au=Seu%2C+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lpi.usra.edu%2Fmeetings%2Flpsc2008%2Fpdf%2F1866.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow2008" class="citation book cs1">Barlow, Nadine G. 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University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1257-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1257-7"><bdi>978-0-8165-1257-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Martian+Impact+Cratering+Record%2C+Mars&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7&rft.aulast=Strom&rft.aufirst=R.G.&rft.au=Croft%2C+Steven+K.&rft.au=Barlow%2C+Nadine+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmars0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Express-285"><a href="#cite_ref-Express_285-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMBS5V681F_0.html">"ESA – Mars Express – Breathtaking views of Deuteronilus Mensae on Mars"</a>. Esa.int. March 14, 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018200501/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMBS5V681F_0.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved October 9, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ESA+%E2%80%93+Mars+Express+%E2%80%93+Breathtaking+views+of+Deuteronilus+Mensae+on+Mars&rft.pub=Esa.int&rft.date=2005-03-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FSPECIALS%2FMars_Express%2FSEMBS5V681F_0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hauber,_E._2005-286"><a href="#cite_ref-Hauber,_E._2005_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauber2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hauber, E.; et al. (2005). "Discovery of a flank caldera and very young glacial activity at Hecates Tholus, Mars". Nature. 434 (7031): 356–61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.434..356H">2005Natur.434..356H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature03423">10.1038/nature03423</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15772654">15772654</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4427179">4427179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+a+flank+caldera+and+very+young+glacial+activity+at+Hecates+Tholus%2C+Mars&rft.volume=434&rft.issue=7031&rft.pages=356-61&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature03423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4427179%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15772654&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.434..356H&rft.aulast=Hauber&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-brown-287"><a href="#cite_ref-brown_287-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheanHeadFastookMarchant2007" class="citation journal cs1">Shean, David E.; Head, James W.; Fastook, James L.; Marchant, David R. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2006JE002761">"Recent glaciation at high elevations on Arsia Mons, Mars: Implications for the formation and evolution of large tropical mountain glaciers"</a>. Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (E3): E03004. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JGRE..112.3004S">2007JGRE..112.3004S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2006JE002761">10.1029/2006JE002761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Recent+glaciation+at+high+elevations+on+Arsia+Mons%2C+Mars%3A+Implications+for+the+formation+and+evolution+of+large+tropical+mountain+glaciers&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=E3&rft.pages=E03004&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2006JE002761&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007JGRE..112.3004S&rft.aulast=Shean&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=Head%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Fastook%2C+James+L.&rft.au=Marchant%2C+David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2006JE002761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shean,_D._2005-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shean,_D._2005_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shean,_D._2005_288-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShean2005" class="citation journal cs1">Shean, D.; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2004JE002360">"Origin and evolution of a cold-based mountain glacier on Mars: The Pavonis Mons fan-shaped deposit"</a>. Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E5): E05001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JGRE..110.5001S">2005JGRE..110.5001S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2004JE002360">10.1029/2004JE002360</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14749707">14749707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Origin+and+evolution+of+a+cold-based+mountain+glacier+on+Mars%3A+The+Pavonis+Mons+fan-shaped+deposit&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=E5&rft.pages=E05001&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14749707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2004JE002360&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JGRE..110.5001S&rft.aulast=Shean&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2004JE002360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+on+Mars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Basilevsky,_A._2006-289"><a href="#cite_ref-Basilevsky,_A._2006_289-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasilevsky2006" class="citation journal cs1">Basilevsky, A.; et al. 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Zhurong reveals recent aqueous activities in Utopia Planitia, Mars. Science Advances. VOL. 8, NO. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-418"><a href="#cite_ref-418">^</a> Liu, J., et al. 2023. Martian dunes indicative of wind regime shift in line with end of ice age. Nature </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Boyce, Joseph, M. (2008). The Smithsonian Book of Mars; Konecky & Konecky: Old Saybrook, CT, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58834-074-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58834-074-0">978-1-58834-074-0</a></li> <li>Carr, Michael, H. (1996). Water on Mars; Oxford University Press: New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509938-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509938-9">0-19-509938-9</a>.</li> <li>Carr, Michael, H. (2006). The Surface of Mars; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87201-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87201-0">978-0-521-87201-0</a>.</li> <li>Hartmann, William, K. (2003). A Traveler's Guide to Mars: The Mysterious Landscapes of the Red Planet; Workman: New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7611-2606-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7611-2606-6">0-7611-2606-6</a>.</li> <li>Hanlon, Michael (2004). The Real Mars: Spirit, Opportunity, Mars Express and the Quest to Explore the Red Planet; Constable: London, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84119-637-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-84119-637-1">1-84119-637-1</a>.</li> <li>Kargel, Jeffrey, S. (2004). Mars: A Warmer Wetter Planet; Springer-Praxis: London, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85233-568-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-85233-568-8">1-85233-568-8</a>.</li> <li>Morton, Oliver (2003). Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World; Picador: New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-42261-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-42261-X">0-312-42261-X</a>.</li> <li>Sheehan, William (1996). 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Spitzer, Ed.; NASA SP-441: Washington DC.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_on_Mars&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Water_on_Mars" class="extiw" title="commons:Water on Mars">Water on Mars</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Head, J., et al. 2023. GEOLOGICAL AND CLIMATE HISTORY OF MARS: IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL WARM AND WET CLIMATE 'FALSE POSITIVES'. 54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2023 (LPI Contrib. No. 2806). 1731.pdf</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-SCOHj8u-A">Water on Mars - James Secosky - 2021 Mars Society Virtual Convention -- Tells where water was and where ice is today on Mars (34 minutes)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/27sep_streambed/">NASA – Curiosity Rover Finds Evidence For An Ancient Streambed – September, 2012</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211009115723/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/27sep_streambed/">Archived</a> October 9, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/HiRISE/hirise_images/">Images – Signs Of Water On Mars</a> (<a href="/wiki/HiRISE" title="HiRISE">HiRISE</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQKnDdB36zY">Video (02:01) – Liquid Flowing Water Discovered on Mars – August, 2011</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jr1Xu2i-Uc0">Video (04:32) – Evidence: Water "Vigorously" Flowed On Mars – September, 2012</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WH8kHncLZwM">Video (03:56) – Measuring Mars' Ancient Ocean – March, 2015</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2ERsEXAq_s">- Jeffrey Plaut - Subsurface Ice - 21st Annual International Mars Society Convention-2018</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1plIgTG9x-A">Chris McKay: Results of the Phoenix Mission to Mars and Analog Sites on Earth</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteigerwald2018" class="citation news cs1">Steigerwald, Bill (July 25, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2018/mars-terraforming">"Mars Terraforming Not Possible Using Present-Day Technology"</a>. NASA. 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars" title="Template:Mars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mars" title="Template talk:Mars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Mars" title="Outline of Mars">Outline of Mars</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Areography" title="Areography">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_general_circulation_model" title="Mars general circulation model">Circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mars" title="Climate of Mars">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dust_devils" title="Martian dust devils">Dust devil tracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_methane_on_Mars" title="Natural methane on Mars">Methane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_terrae_on_Mars" title="List of terrae on Mars">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerberus_(Mars)" title="Cerberus (Mars)">Cerberus (Mars)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" title="Cydonia (Mars)">Cydonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_Lake" title="Eridania Lake">Eridania Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iani_Chaos" title="Iani Chaos">Iani Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia_Undae" title="Olympia Undae">Olympia Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quadrangles_on_Mars" title="List of quadrangles on Mars">Quadrangles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinus_Meridiani" title="Sinus Meridiani">Sinus Meridiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempe_Terra" title="Tempe Terra">Tempe Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Cimmeria" title="Terra Cimmeria">Terra Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea">Terra Sabaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis" title="Tharsis">Tharsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Polar_Lander#Landing_zone" title="Mars Polar Lander">Ultimi Scopuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Common_surface_features_of_Mars" title="Common surface features of Mars">Physical features</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">"Canals"</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_canals" title="List of Martian canals">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasma#Mars" title="Chasma">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crater_chain" title="Crater chain">Catenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_terrain" title="Chaos terrain">Chaos terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars" title="List of craters on Mars">Craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossa_(planetary_nomenclature)" title="Fossa (planetary nomenclature)">Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullies_on_Mars" title="Gullies on Mars">Gullies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensa_(geology)" title="Mensa (geology)">Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nomenclature#Descriptor_terms_(feature_types)" title="Planetary nomenclature">Labyrinthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars" title="List of mountains on Mars">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars_by_height" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains on Mars by height">by height</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">Observed rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">Outflow channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars" title="List of plains on Mars">Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_network_(Mars)" title="Valley network (Mars)">Valley network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallis_(planetary_geology)" title="Vallis (planetary geology)">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Mars" title="Gravity of Mars">Gravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_terrain" title="Brain terrain">Brain terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonates_on_Mars" title="Carbonates on Mars">Carbonates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_of_chaos_terrain_on_Mars" title="List of areas of chaos terrain on Mars">Chaos terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_surface_color" title="Mars surface color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_Mars" title="Composition of Mars">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_crater_fill" title="Concentric crater fill">Concentric crater fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_slope_streak" title="Dark slope streak">Dark slope streak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">Dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">Fretted terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geysers_on_Mars" title="Geysers on Mars">Geysers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullies_on_Mars" title="Gullies on Mars">Gullies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_lava_tube" title="Martian lava tube">Lava tubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">Lobate debris apron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsquake" title="Marsquake">Marsquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Meteorites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_meteorites" title="List of Martian meteorites">on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">on Mars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_cracks_on_Mars" title="Mud cracks on Mars">Mud cracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)" title="North Polar Basin (Mars)">North Polar Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">Ocean hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore_resources_on_Mars" title="Ore resources on Mars">Ore resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">Polar caps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/True_polar_wander_on_Mars" title="True polar wander on Mars">polar wander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Recurring slope lineae (RSL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_mold_crater" title="Ring mold crater">Ring mold craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Seasonal flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">Spherules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_surface" title="Martian surface">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_features" title="Swiss cheese features">"Swiss cheese" feature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain_softening" title="Terrain softening">Terrain softening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis#Location_and_Size" title="Tharsis">Tharsis bulge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">Volcanism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yardangs_on_Mars" title="Yardangs on Mars">Yardangs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Mars" title="Geological history of Mars">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">Observation history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars" title="Classical albedo features on Mars">Classical albedo features</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_on_Mars" title="Astronomy on Mars">Astronomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Mars" title="Moons of Mars">Moons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_(moon)" title="Phobos (moon)">Phobos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stickney_(crater)" title="Stickney (crater)">Stickney crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limtoc" title="Limtoc">Limtoc crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phobos_monolith" title="Phobos monolith">Monolith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimos_(moon)" title="Deimos (moon)">Deimos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swift_(Deimian_crater)" title="Swift (Deimian crater)">Swift crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire_(crater)" title="Voltaire (crater)">Voltaire crater</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_transit" title="Astronomical transit">Transits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipses_on_Mars" title="Solar eclipses on Mars">Solar eclipses on Mars</a></li> <li>Satellite transits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Phobos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Phobos from Mars">Phobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Deimos_from_Mars" title="Transit of Deimos from Mars">Deimos</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planetary transits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Earth_from_Mars" title="Transit of Earth from Mars">Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury_from_Mars" title="Transit of Mercury from Mars">Mercury</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Mars" title="Impact events on Mars">Impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars-crossing_minor_planets" title="List of Mars-crossing minor planets">Mars-crossers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_WD5" title="2007 WD5">2007 WD5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_trojan" title="Mars trojan">Trojans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5261_Eureka" title="5261 Eureka">5261 Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(101429)_1998_VF31" title="(101429) 1998 VF31">1998 VF31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(121514)_1999_UJ7" title="(121514) 1999 UJ7">1999 UJ7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/(311999)_2007_NS2" title="(311999) 2007 NS2">2007 NS2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C/2013_A1_(Siding_Spring)" title="C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)">C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbit_of_Mars" title="Orbit of Mars">Orbit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_flyby" title="Mars flyby">Flyby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mars_orbiters" title="List of Mars orbiters">Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_landing" title="Mars landing">Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample-return_mission" title="Mars sample-return mission">Sample return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">Human mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_to_Stay" title="Mars to Stay">Permanent settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars" title="Colonization of Mars">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars" title="Terraforming of Mars">Terraforming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mars_spacecraft" title="Template:Mars spacecraft">Missions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missions_to_Mars" title="List of missions to Mars">List of missions to Mars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Mars_Project" title="The Mars Project">The Mars Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Mars" title="The Case for Mars">The Case for Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_Mars_Foundation" title="Inspiration Mars Foundation">Inspiration Mars Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Institute" title="Mars Institute">Mars Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_race" title="Mars race">Mars race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_on_Mars" title="List of artificial objects on Mars">Artificial objects on Mars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_memorials#Mars" title="List of extraterrestrial memorials">Memorials on Mars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_in_fiction" title="Mars in fiction">Fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_on_Mars" title="List of films set on Mars">List of films set on Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_scientist" title="Martian scientist">Martian scientist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mythology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Mars" title="Flag of Mars">Flag of Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_on_Mars" title="Life on Mars">Life on Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Earth" title="Sub-Earth">Sub-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timekeeping_on_Mars" title="Timekeeping on Mars">Timekeeping on Mars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sol" title="Mars sol">Sol (day on Mars)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darian_calendar" title="Darian calendar">Darian calendar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mars" title="Category:Mars">Category</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/22px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/34px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/45px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_and_geology_of_Mars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_of_Mars" title="Template:Geography of Mars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_of_Mars" title="Template talk:Geography of Mars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_of_Mars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography of Mars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_and_geology_of_Mars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Areography_(geography_of_Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areography (geography of Mars)">Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">geology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cartography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cartography</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abalos_Undae" title="Abalos Undae">Abalos Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspledon_Undae" title="Aspledon Undae">Aspledon Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Terra" title="Arabia Terra">Arabia Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerberus_(Mars)" title="Cerberus (Mars)">Cerberus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" title="Cydonia (Mars)">Cydonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_Lake" title="Eridania Lake">Eridania Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperboreae_Undae" title="Hyperboreae Undae">Hyperboreae Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogygis_Undae" title="Ogygis Undae">Ogygis Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia_Undae" title="Olympia Undae">Olympia Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quadrangles_on_Mars" title="List of quadrangles on Mars">Quadrangles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinus_Meridiani" title="Sinus Meridiani">Sinus Meridiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siton_Undae" title="Siton Undae">Siton Undae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempe_Terra" title="Tempe Terra">Tempe Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Cimmeria" title="Terra Cimmeria">Terra Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sabaea" title="Terra Sabaea">Terra Sabaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis" title="Tharsis">Tharsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastitas_Borealis" title="Vastitas Borealis">Vastitas Borealis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_quadrangles_on_Mars" title="List of quadrangles on Mars">Quadrangles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis_quadrangle" title="Aeolis quadrangle">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazonis_quadrangle" title="Amazonis quadrangle">Amazonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenthes_quadrangle" title="Amenthes quadrangle">Amenthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_quadrangle" title="Arabia quadrangle">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadia_quadrangle" title="Arcadia quadrangle">Arcadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyre_quadrangle" title="Argyre quadrangle">Argyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casius_quadrangle" title="Casius quadrangle">Casius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebrenia_quadrangle" title="Cebrenia quadrangle">Cebrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprates_quadrangle" title="Coprates quadrangle">Coprates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diacria_quadrangle" title="Diacria quadrangle">Diacria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elysium_quadrangle" title="Elysium quadrangle">Elysium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_quadrangle" title="Eridania quadrangle">Eridania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellas_quadrangle" title="Hellas quadrangle">Hellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygia_quadrangle" title="Iapygia quadrangle">Iapygia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismenius_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Ismenius Lacus quadrangle">Ismenius Lacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunae_Palus_quadrangle" title="Lunae Palus quadrangle">Lunae Palus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_Acidalium_quadrangle" title="Mare Acidalium quadrangle">Mare Acidalium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_Australe_quadrangle" title="Mare Australe quadrangle">Mare Australe (South Pole)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_Boreum_quadrangle" title="Mare Boreum quadrangle">Mare Boreum (North Pole)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_Tyrrhenum_quadrangle" title="Mare Tyrrhenum quadrangle">Mare Tyrrhenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaritifer_Sinus_quadrangle" title="Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle">Margaritifer Sinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memnonia_quadrangle" title="Memnonia quadrangle">Memnonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noachis_quadrangle" title="Noachis quadrangle">Noachis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxia_Palus_quadrangle" title="Oxia Palus quadrangle">Oxia Palus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaethontis_quadrangle" title="Phaethontis quadrangle">Phaethontis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicis_Lacus_quadrangle" title="Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle">Phoenicis Lacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinus_Sabaeus_quadrangle" title="Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle">Sinus Sabaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_quadrangle" title="Syrtis Major quadrangle">Syrtis Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis_quadrangle" title="Tharsis quadrangle">Tharsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumasia_quadrangle" title="Thaumasia quadrangle">Thaumasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Common_surface_features_of_Mars" title="Common surface features of Mars">Surface features</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_terrain" title="Brain terrain">Brain terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonates_on_Mars" title="Carbonates on Mars">Carbonates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_chaos_terrain" title="Martian chaos terrain">Chaos terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_surface_color" title="Mars surface color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_Mars" title="Composition of Mars">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_crater_fill" title="Concentric crater fill">Concentric crater fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_slope_streak" title="Dark slope streak">Dark slope streak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_dichotomy" title="Martian dichotomy">Dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extraterrestrial_dune_fields#Mars" title="List of extraterrestrial dune fields">Dune fields</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hagal_dune_field" title="Hagal dune field">Hagal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nili_Patera_dune_field" title="Nili Patera dune field">Nili Patera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fretted_terrain" title="Fretted terrain">Fretted terrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geysers_on_Mars" title="Geysers on Mars">Geysers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciers_on_Mars" title="Glaciers on Mars">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars" title="Groundwater on Mars">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullies_on_Mars" title="Gullies on Mars">Gullies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_relief" title="Inverted relief">Inverted relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_on_Mars" title="Lakes on Mars">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_lava_tube" title="Martian lava tube">Lava tubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineated_valley_fill" title="Lineated valley fill">Lineated valley fill</a> (LVF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobate_debris_apron" title="Lobate debris apron">Lobate debris apron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)" title="North Polar Basin (Mars)">North Polar Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_ocean_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars ocean hypothesis">Ocean hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore_resources_on_Mars" title="Ore resources on Mars">Ore resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outflow_channels" title="Outflow channels">Outflow channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_polar_ice_caps" title="Martian polar ice caps">Polar caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_mold_crater" title="Ring mold crater">Ring mold craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalloped_topography" title="Scalloped topography">Scalloped topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_flows_on_warm_Martian_slopes" title="Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes">Seasonal flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_spherules" title="Martian spherules">Spherules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_surface" title="Martian surface">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_cheese_features" title="Swiss cheese features">Swiss cheese features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrain_softening" title="Terrain softening">Terrain softening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholus" title="Tholus">Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_plains_unit" title="Upper plains unit">Upper plains unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_network_(Mars)" title="Valley network (Mars)">Valley networks</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_discoveries_of_water_on_Mars" title="Chronology of discoveries of water on Mars">discovery chronology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yardangs_on_Mars" title="Yardangs on Mars">Yardangs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Mars" title="Geological history of Mars">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_(Mars)" title="Amazonian (Mars)">Amazonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperian" title="Hesperian">Hesperian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noachian" title="Noachian">Noachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">Volcanology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">Observation history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martian_canals" title="Martian canals">Canals</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_canals" title="List of Martian canals">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_albedo_features_on_Mars" title="Classical albedo features on Mars">Classical albedo features</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">Rocks observed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathurst_Inlet_(rock)" title="Bathurst Inlet (rock)">Bathurst Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N165" title="N165">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulburn_(Mars)" title="Goulburn (Mars)">Goulburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hottah_(Mars)" title="Hottah (Mars)">Hottah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jake_Matijevic_(rock)" title="Jake Matijevic (rock)">Jake Matijevic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Link_(Mars)" title="Link (Mars)">Link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocknest_(Mars)" title="Rocknest (Mars)">Rocknest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocknest_3" title="Rocknest 3">Rocknest 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintina_(rock)" title="Tintina (rock)">Tintina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surface_features_of_Mars_visited_by_Spirit_and_Opportunity" title="List of surface features of Mars visited by Spirit and Opportunity">Opportunity rover</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bounce_Rock" title="Bounce Rock">Bounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Capitan_(Mars)" title="El Capitan (Mars)">El Capitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Chance_(Mars)" title="Last Chance (Mars)">Last Chance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_(rover)" title="Sojourner (rover)">Sojourner rover</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_Bill_(Martian_rock)" title="Barnacle Bill (Martian rock)">Barnacle Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogi_Rock" title="Yogi Rock">Yogi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surface_features_of_Mars_visited_by_Spirit_and_Opportunity" title="List of surface features of Mars visited by Spirit and Opportunity">Spirit rover</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adirondack_(Mars)" title="Adirondack (Mars)">Adirondack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Plate_(Mars)" title="Home Plate (Mars)">Home Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(rover)#Mimi_rock_.28Sol_40.29" title="Spirit (rover)">Mimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pot_of_Gold_(Mars)" title="Pot of Gold (Mars)">Pot of Gold</a></li></ul></li> <li>Viking <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunae_Palus_quadrangle#Results_From_Viking_I_Mission" title="Lunae Palus quadrangle">Big Joe</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)#.22Face_on_Mars.22" title="Cydonia (Mars)">Face</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_monolith" title="Mars monolith">Monolith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocks_on_Mars" title="List of rocks on Mars">Meteorites found on Mars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Block_Island_meteorite" title="Block Island meteorite">Block Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_Shield_Rock" title="Heat Shield Rock">Heat Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mackinac_Island_meteorite" title="Mackinac Island meteorite">Mackinac Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_Shield_Rock" title="Heat Shield Rock">Meridiani Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oile%C3%A1n_Ruaidh_(Mars_rock)" title="Oileán Ruaidh (Mars rock)">Oileán Ruaidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelter_Island_meteorite" title="Shelter Island meteorite">Shelter Island</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite" title="Martian meteorite">Martian meteorites found on Earth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Balsaltic Breccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite#Chassignites" title="Martian meteorite">Chassignites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakhlite" title="Nakhlite">Nakhlites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite#Shergottites" title="Martian meteorite">Shergottites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martian_meteorite#Ungrouped_meteorites" title="Martian meteorite">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Martian_meteorites" title="List of Martian meteorites">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topography</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars" title="List of mountains on Mars">Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanism_on_Mars" title="Volcanism on Mars">volcanoes</a> <div style="font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_on_Mars_by_height" class="mw-redirect" title="List of mountains on Mars by height">list by height</a>)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidalia_Colles" title="Acidalia Colles">Acidalia Colles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alba_Mons" title="Alba Mons">Alba Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anseris_Mons" title="Anseris Mons">Anseris Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollinaris_Mons" title="Apollinaris Mons">Apollinaris Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariadnes_Colles" title="Ariadnes Colles">Ariadnes Colles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astapus_Colles" title="Astapus Colles">Astapus Colles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonia_Montes" title="Ausonia Montes">Ausonia Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avernus_Colles" title="Avernus Colles">Avernus Colles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblis_Tholus" title="Biblis Tholus">Biblis Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centauri_Montes" title="Centauri Montes">Centauri Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charitum_Montes" title="Charitum Montes">Charitum Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echus_Montes" title="Echus Montes">Echus Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elysium_(volcanic_province)" title="Elysium (volcanic province)">Elysium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elysium_Mons" title="Elysium Mons">Elysium Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albor_Tholus" title="Albor Tholus">Albor Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hecates_Tholus" title="Hecates Tholus">Hecates Tholus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erebus_Montes" title="Erebus Montes">Erebus Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxius_Mons" title="Galaxius Mons">Galaxius Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadriacus_Mons" title="Hadriacus Mons">Hadriacus Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellas_Montes" title="Hellas Montes">Hellas Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovis_Tholus" title="Jovis Tholus">Jovis Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_Montes" title="Libya Montes">Libya Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sharp" title="Mount Sharp">Mount Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nereidum_Montes" title="Nereidum Montes">Nereidum Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympus_Mons" title="Olympus Mons">Olympus Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegra_Montes" title="Phlegra Montes">Phlegra Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_Planum" title="Syrtis Major Planum">Syrtis Major Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartarus_Colles" title="Tartarus Colles">Tartarus Colles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartarus_Montes" title="Tartarus Montes">Tartarus Montes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis_Montes" title="Tharsis Montes">Tharsis Montes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascraeus_Mons" title="Ascraeus Mons">Ascraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavonis_Mons" title="Pavonis Mons">Pavonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsia_Mons" title="Arsia Mons">Arsia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharsis_Tholus" title="Tharsis Tholus">Tharsis Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenus_Mons" title="Tyrrhenus Mons">Tyrrhenus Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_Tholus" title="Ulysses Tholus">Ulysses Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranius_group_of_volcanoes" title="Uranius group of volcanoes">Uranius group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranius_Mons" title="Uranius Mons">Uranius Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceraunius_Tholus" title="Ceraunius Tholus">Ceraunius Tholus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranius_Tholus" title="Uranius Tholus">Uranius Tholus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_plains_on_Mars" title="List of plains on Mars">Plains, plateaus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidalia_Planitia" title="Acidalia Planitia">Acidalia Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis_Palus" title="Aeolis Palus">Aeolis Palus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazonis_Planitia" title="Amazonis Planitia">Amazonis Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Planitia" title="Arcadia Planitia">Arcadia Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentea_Planum" title="Argentea Planum">Argentea Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyre_Planitia" title="Argyre Planitia">Argyre Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chryse_Planitia" title="Chryse Planitia">Chryse Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalia_Planum" title="Daedalia Planum">Daedalia Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elysium_Planitia" title="Elysium Planitia">Elysium Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridania_Planitia" title="Eridania Planitia">Eridania Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellas_Planitia" title="Hellas Planitia">Hellas Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperia_Planum" title="Hesperia Planum">Hesperia Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icaria_Planum" title="Icaria Planum">Icaria Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidis_Planitia" title="Isidis Planitia">Isidis Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunae_Palus_quadrangle" title="Lunae Palus quadrangle">Lunae Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridiani_Planum" title="Meridiani Planum">Meridiani Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxia_Planum" title="Oxia Planum">Oxia Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Australe" title="Planum Australe">Planum Australe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planum_Boreum" title="Planum Boreum">Planum Boreum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_Planum" title="Syria Planum">Syria Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrtis_Major_Planum" title="Syrtis Major Planum">Syrtis Major Planum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia_Planitia" title="Utopia Planitia">Utopia Planitia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_Patera" title="Eden Patera">Eden Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus_Patera" title="Orcus Patera">Orcus Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peneus_Patera" title="Peneus Patera">Peneus Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pityusa_Patera" title="Pityusa Patera">Pityusa Patera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siloe_Patera" title="Siloe Patera">Siloe Patera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chasma#Mars" title="Chasma">Canyons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vallis_(planetary_geology)" title="Vallis (planetary geology)">valleys</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram_Chaos" title="Aram Chaos">Aram Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsia_Chasmata" title="Arsia Chasmata">Arsia Chasmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatum_Chaos" title="Aromatum Chaos">Aromatum Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_Chaos" title="Atlantis Chaos">Atlantis Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aureum_Chaos" title="Aureum Chaos">Aureum Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candor_Chasma" title="Candor Chasma">Candor Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chasma_Boreale" title="Chasma Boreale">Chasma Boreale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprates_Chasma" title="Coprates Chasma">Coprates Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echus_Chasma" title="Echus Chasma">Echus Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eos_Chaos" title="Eos Chaos">Eos Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eos_Chasma" title="Eos Chasma">Eos Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxias_Chaos" title="Galaxias Chaos">Galaxias Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganges_Chasma" title="Ganges Chasma">Ganges Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgonum_Chaos" title="Gorgonum Chaos">Gorgonum Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebes_Chasma" title="Hebes Chasma">Hebes Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydaspis_Chaos" title="Hydaspis Chaos">Hydaspis Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraotes_Chaos" title="Hydraotes Chaos">Hydraotes Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iani_Chaos" title="Iani Chaos">Iani Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ister_Chaos" title="Ister Chaos">Ister Chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ius_Chasma" title="Ius Chasma">Ius Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juventae_Chasma" title="Juventae Chasma">Juventae Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melas_Chasma" title="Melas Chasma">Melas Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophir_Chasma" title="Ophir Chasma">Ophir Chasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithonium_Chasma" title="Tithonium Chasma">Tithonium Chasma</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valles_on_Mars" title="List of valles on Mars">List of valles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apsus_Vallis" title="Apsus Vallis">Apsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ares_Vallis" title="Ares Vallis">Ares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnus_Vallis" title="Arnus Vallis">Arnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asopus_Vallis" title="Asopus Vallis">Asopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athabasca_Valles" title="Athabasca Valles">Athabasca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auqakuh_Vallis" title="Auqakuh Vallis">Auqakuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Vallis" title="Bahram Vallis">Bahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buvinda_Vallis" title="Buvinda Vallis">Buvinda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_Vallis" title="Dao Vallis">Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enipeus_Vallis" title="Enipeus Vallis">Enipeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frento_Vallis" title="Frento Vallis">Frento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granicus_Valles" title="Granicus Valles">Granicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Valley_(Mars)" title="Green Valley (Mars)">Green Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmakhis_Vallis" title="Harmakhis Vallis">Harmakhis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrus_Valles" title="Hebrus Valles">Hebrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Her_Desher_Vallis" title="Her Desher Vallis">Her Desher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrad_Vallis" title="Hrad Vallis">Hrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huo_Hsing_Vallis" title="Huo Hsing Vallis">Huo Hsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanis_Valles" title="Hypanis Valles">Hypanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberus_Vallis" title="Iberus Vallis">Iberus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Vallis" title="Indus Vallis">Indus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ituxi_Vallis" title="Ituxi Vallis">Ituxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasei_Valles" title="Kasei Valles">Kasei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labou_Vallis" title="Labou Vallis">Labou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladon_Valles" title="Ladon Valles">Ladon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethe_Vallis" title="Lethe Vallis">Lethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licus_Vallis" title="Licus Vallis">Licus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louros_Valles" title="Louros Valles">Louros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%CA%BCadim_Vallis" title="Maʼadim Vallis">Maʼadim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_Vallis" title="Mad Vallis">Mad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maja_Valles" title="Maja Valles">Maja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamers_Valles" title="Mamers Valles">Mamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangala_Valles" title="Mangala Valles">Mangala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valles_Marineris" title="Valles Marineris">Marineris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Labes_on_Mars" title="List of Labes on Mars">Labes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marte_Vallis" title="Marte Vallis">Marte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maumee_Valles" title="Maumee Valles">Maumee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawrth_Vallis" title="Mawrth Vallis">Mawrth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minio_Vallis" title="Minio Vallis">Minio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naktong_Vallis" title="Naktong Vallis">Naktong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanedi_Valles" title="Nanedi Valles">Nanedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Vallis" title="Niger Vallis">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirgal_Vallis" title="Nirgal Vallis">Nirgal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padus_Vallis" title="Padus Vallis">Padus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paran%C3%A1_Valles" title="Paraná Valles">Paraná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patapsco_Vallis" title="Patapsco Vallis">Patapsco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Vallis" title="Peace Vallis">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahway_Valles" title="Rahway Valles">Rahway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Vallis" title="Ravi Vallis">Ravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reull_Vallis" title="Reull Vallis">Reull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabis_Vallis" title="Sabis Vallis">Sabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabrina_Vallis" title="Sabrina Vallis">Sabrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_Valles" title="Samara Valles">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scamander_Vallis" title="Scamander Vallis">Scamander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalbatana_Vallis" title="Shalbatana Vallis">Shalbatana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simud_Valles" title="Simud Valles">Simud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stura_Vallis" title="Stura Vallis">Stura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tader_Valles" title="Tader Valles">Tader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinia_Valles" title="Tinia Valles">Tinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinjar_Valles" title="Tinjar Valles">Tinjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiu_Valles" title="Tiu Valles">Tiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras_Vallis" title="Tyras Vallis">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzboi_Vallis" title="Uzboi Vallis">Uzboi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uzboi-Landon-Morava" title="Uzboi-Landon-Morava">ULM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedra_Valles" title="Vedra Valles">Vedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verde_Vallis" title="Verde Vallis">Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrego_Valles" title="Warrego Valles">Warrego</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fossa_(planetary_nomenclature)" title="Fossa (planetary nomenclature)">Fossae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mensa_(geology)" title="Mensa (geology)">mensae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rupes" title="Rupes">rupes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthi_(planetary_geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthi (planetary geology)">labyrinthi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amenthes_Fossae" title="Amenthes Fossae">Amenthes Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceraunius_Fossae" title="Ceraunius Fossae">Ceraunius Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerberus_Fossae" title="Cerberus Fossae">Cerberus Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloe_Fossae" title="Coloe Fossae">Coloe Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyane_Fossae" title="Cyane Fossae">Cyane Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elysium_Fossae" title="Elysium Fossae">Elysium Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephaestus_Fossae" title="Hephaestus Fossae">Hephaestus Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icaria_Fossae" title="Icaria Fossae">Icaria Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeatis_Fossae" title="Labeatis Fossae">Labeatis Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangala_Fossa" title="Mangala Fossa">Mangala Fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mareotis_Fossae" title="Mareotis Fossae">Mareotis Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medusae_Fossae_Formation" title="Medusae Fossae Formation">Medusae Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memnonia_quadrangle#Fossa_on_Mars" title="Memnonia quadrangle">Memnonia Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nili_Fossae" title="Nili Fossae">Nili Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympica_Fossae" title="Olympica Fossae">Olympica Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oti_Fossae" title="Oti Fossae">Oti Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirenum_Fossae" title="Sirenum Fossae">Sirenum Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantalus_Fossae" title="Tantalus Fossae">Tantalus Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempe_Fossae" title="Tempe Fossae">Tempe Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithonium_Chasma" title="Tithonium Chasma">Tithonium Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractus_Fossae" title="Tractus Fossae">Tractus Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_Fossae" title="Ulysses Fossae">Ulysses Fossae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis_Mensae" title="Aeolis Mensae">Aeolis Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonia_Mensa" title="Ausonia Mensa">Ausonia Mensa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capri_Mensa" title="Capri Mensa">Capri Mensa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydonia_(Mars)" title="Cydonia (Mars)">Cydonia Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuteronilus_Mensae" title="Deuteronilus Mensae">Deuteronilus Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganges_Mensa" title="Ganges Mensa">Ganges Mensa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilosyrtis_Mensae" title="Nilosyrtis Mensae">Nilosyrtis Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonilus_Mensae" title="Protonilus Mensae">Protonilus Mensae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacra_Mensa" title="Sacra Mensa">Sacra Mensa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claritas_Rupes" title="Claritas Rupes">Claritas Rupes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilokeras_Scopulus" title="Nilokeras Scopulus">Nilokeras Scopulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympus_Rupes" title="Olympus Rupes">Olympus Rupes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupes_Tenuis" title="Rupes Tenuis">Rupes Tenuis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angustus_Labyrinthus" title="Angustus Labyrinthus">Angustus Labyrinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noctis_Labyrinthus" title="Noctis Labyrinthus">Noctis Labyrinthus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crater_chain" title="Crater chain">Catenae</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars" title="List of craters on Mars">craters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artynia_Catena" class="mw-redirect" title="Artynia Catena">Artynia Catena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithonium_Chasma" title="Tithonium Chasma">Tithoniae Catenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractus_Catena" title="Tractus Catena">Tractus Catena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adams (Martian crater)">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agassiz_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agassiz (crater)">Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airy_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy (Martian crater)">Airy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airy-0" title="Airy-0">Airy-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniak_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aniak (crater)">Aniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoniadi_(Martian_crater)" title="Antoniadi (Martian crater)">Antoniadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arandas_(crater)" title="Arandas (crater)">Arandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Argo (crater)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkhangelsky_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arkhangelsky (crater)">Arkhangelsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrhenius (Martian crater)">Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asimov_(crater)" title="Asimov (crater)">Asimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacolor_(crater)" title="Bacolor (crater)">Bacolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakhuysen_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakhuysen (crater)">Bakhuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldet_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldet (Martian crater)">Baldet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltisk_(crater)" title="Baltisk (crater)">Baltisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamberg_(crater)" title="Bamberg (crater)">Bamberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barabashov_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barabashov (crater)">Barabashov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnard_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barnard (Martian crater)">Barnard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beagle_(crater)" title="Beagle (crater)">Beagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel_(Martian_crater)" title="Becquerel (Martian crater)">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_(Martian_crater)" title="Beer (Martian crater)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belz_(crater)" title="Belz (crater)">Belz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_(crater)" title="Bernard (crater)">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bianchini_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bianchini (Martian crater)">Bianchini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeddicker_(crater)" title="Boeddicker (crater)">Boeddicker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bok_(Martian_crater)" title="Bok (Martian crater)">Bok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bond_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond (crater)">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonestell_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonestell (crater)">Bonestell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonneville_(crater)" title="Bonneville (crater)">Bonneville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brashear_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brashear (Martian crater)">Brashear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Briault_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Briault (crater)">Briault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burroughs_(crater)" title="Burroughs (crater)">Burroughs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_(crater)" title="Burton (crater)">Burton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campbell_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Campbell (Martian crater)">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canso_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canso (Martian crater)">Canso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassini_(Martian_crater)" title="Cassini (Martian crater)">Cassini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caxias_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caxias (crater)">Caxias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerulli_(crater)" title="Cerulli (crater)">Cerulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chafe_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chafe (crater)">Chafe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapais_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapais (crater)">Chapais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chincoteague_(crater)" title="Chincoteague (crater)">Chincoteague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chryse_Alien" title="Chryse Alien">Chryse Alien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clark (Martian crater)">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coblentz_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coblentz (Martian crater)">Coblentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbus_(crater)" title="Columbus (crater)">Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicus_(Martian_crater)" title="Copernicus (Martian crater)">Copernicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corby_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corby (crater)">Corby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crewe_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crewe (crater)">Crewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crivitz_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crivitz (crater)">Crivitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crommelin_(Martian_crater)" title="Crommelin (Martian crater)">Crommelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruls_(crater)" title="Cruls (crater)">Cruls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curie_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Curie (Martian crater)">Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da_Vinci_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Da Vinci (Martian crater)">Da Vinci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danielson_(crater)" title="Danielson (crater)">Danielson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwin (Martian crater)">Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davies_(crater)" title="Davies (crater)">Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_(Martian_crater)" title="Dawes (Martian crater)">Dawes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dejnev_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dejnev (Martian crater)">Dejnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denning_(Martian_crater)" title="Denning (Martian crater)">Denning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilly_(crater)" title="Dilly (crater)">Dilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinorwic_(crater)" title="Dinorwic (crater)">Dinorwic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglass_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglass (Martian crater)">Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromore_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dromore (crater)">Dromore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du_Martheray_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Du Martheray (crater)">Du Martheray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_(Acidalia_Planitia_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle (Acidalia Planitia crater)">Eagle (Acidalia Planitia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_(Meridiani_Planum_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle (Meridiani Planum crater)">Eagle (Meridiani Planum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eberswalde_(crater)" title="Eberswalde (crater)">Eberswalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_(crater)" title="Eddie (crater)">Eddie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejriksson_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejriksson (Martian crater)">Ejriksson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Dean_(crater)" title="Emma Dean (crater)">Emma Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endeavour_(crater)" title="Endeavour (crater)">Endeavour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matijevic_Hill" title="Matijevic Hill">Matijevic Hill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_(crater)" title="Endurance (crater)">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erebus_(crater)" title="Erebus (crater)">Erebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalante_(Martian_crater)" title="Escalante (Martian crater)">Escalante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudoxus (Martian crater)">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenagh_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fenagh (crater)">Fenagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fesenkov_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fesenkov (Martian crater)">Fesenkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firsoff_(Martian_crater)" title="Firsoff (Martian crater)">Firsoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flammarion_(Martian_crater)" title="Flammarion (Martian crater)">Flammarion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaugergues_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flaugergues (crater)">Flaugergues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focas_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Focas (Martian crater)">Focas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fontana (Martian crater)">Fontana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fournier_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fournier (crater)">Fournier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fram_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fram (crater)">Fram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (crater)">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galdakao_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galdakao (crater)">Galdakao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale_(crater)" title="Gale (crater)">Gale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galle_(Martian_crater)" title="Galle (Martian crater)">Galle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garni_(crater)" title="Garni (crater)">Garni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasa_(crater)" title="Gasa (crater)">Gasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert (Martian crater)">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gill_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gill (Martian crater)">Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gledhill_(crater)" title="Gledhill (crater)">Gledhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_(crater)" title="Gold (crater)">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graff_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Graff (Martian crater)">Graff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_(Martian_crater)" title="Green (Martian crater)">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grindavik_(crater)" title="Grindavik (crater)">Grindavik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gusev_(Martian_crater)" title="Gusev (Martian crater)">Gusev</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_1_Hills" title="Apollo 1 Hills">Apollo 1 Hills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaffee_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaffee Hill">Chaffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grissom_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Grissom Hill">Grissom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Hill,_Mars" class="mw-redirect" title="White Hill, Mars">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Hills_(Mars)" title="Columbia Hills (Mars)">Columbia Hills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband_Hill" title="Husband Hill">Husband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCool_Hill" title="McCool Hill">McCool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleepy_Hollow_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleepy Hollow (Mars)">Sleepy Hollow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadley_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley (crater)">Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haldane (Martian crater)">Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hale_(Martian_crater)" title="Hale (Martian crater)">Hale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halley_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Halley (Martian crater)">Halley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hargraves_(crater)" title="Hargraves (crater)">Hargraves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartwig_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartwig (Martian crater)">Hartwig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaviside_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaviside (Martian crater)">Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heimdal_(crater)" title="Heimdal (crater)">Heimdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinlein_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinlein (crater)">Heinlein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmholtz (Martian crater)">Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_(Martian_crater)" title="Henry (Martian crater)">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herschel_(Martian_crater)" title="Herschel (Martian crater)">Herschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(Martian_crater)" title="Hipparchus (Martian crater)">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_(Martian_crater)" title="Holden (Martian crater)">Holden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmes_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes (crater)">Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hooke_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooke (Martian crater)">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huggins_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huggins (Martian crater)">Huggins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussey_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussey (crater)">Hussey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutton_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutton (Martian crater)">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huxley_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huxley (Martian crater)">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huygens_(crater)" title="Huygens (crater)">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iazu_(crater)" title="Iazu (crater)">Iazu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibragimov_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibragimov (crater)">Ibragimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuvik_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuvik (crater)">Inuvik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janssen_(Martian_crater)" title="Janssen (Martian crater)">Janssen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarry-Desloges_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarry-Desloges (crater)">Jarry-Desloges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeans_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeans (Martian crater)">Jeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jezero_(crater)" title="Jezero (crater)">Jezero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jez%C5%BEa_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jezža (crater)">Jezža</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joly_(crater)" title="Joly (crater)">Joly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones (Martian crater)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiser_(Martian_crater)" title="Kaiser (Martian crater)">Kaiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeler_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Keeler (Martian crater)">Keeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler (Martian crater)">Kepler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinkora_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinkora (crater)">Kinkora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipini_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipini (crater)">Kipini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knobel_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Knobel (crater)">Knobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koga_(crater)" title="Koga (crater)">Koga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korolev_(Martian_crater)" title="Korolev (Martian crater)">Korolev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufra_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kufra (crater)">Kufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuiper (Martian crater)">Kuiper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunowsky_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kunowsky (Martian crater)">Kunowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambert_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambert (Martian crater)">Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamont (Martian crater)">Lamont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampland_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampland (Martian crater)">Lampland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lassell_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassell (Martian crater)">Lassell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lau (crater)">Lau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Verrier_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Verrier (Martian crater)">Le Verrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Fan_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li Fan (crater)">Li Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liais_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liais (crater)">Liais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipik_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipik (crater)">Lipik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Hsin_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Hsin (crater)">Liu Hsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanesco" class="mw-redirect" title="Llanesco">Llanesco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockyer_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockyer (Martian crater)">Lockyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lod_(crater)" title="Lod (crater)">Lod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lohse_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lohse (Martian crater)">Lohse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_(Martian_crater)" title="Lomonosov (Martian crater)">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louth_(crater)" title="Louth (crater)">Louth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowell_(Martian_crater)" title="Lowell (Martian crater)">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyell_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyell (Martian crater)">Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyot_(Martian_crater)" title="Lyot (Martian crater)">Lyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A4dler_(Martian_crater)" title="Mädler (Martian crater)">Mädler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magelhaens_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magelhaens (Martian crater)">Magelhaens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggini_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maggini (crater)">Maggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_(Martian_crater)" title="Main (Martian crater)">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandora_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandora (crater)">Mandora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraldi_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maraldi (Martian crater)">Maraldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariner (crater)">Mariner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marth_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marth (Martian crater)">Marth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martz_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martz (crater)">Martz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masursky_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Masursky (Martian crater)">Masursky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maunder_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maunder (Martian crater)">Maunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLaughlin_(Martian_crater)" title="McLaughlin (Martian crater)">McLaughlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McMurdo_(crater)" title="McMurdo (crater)">McMurdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellish_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mellish (crater)">Mellish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendel_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendel (Martian crater)">Mendel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mie_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mie (crater)">Mie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovi%C4%8D_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milankovič (Martian crater)">Milankovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millochau_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Millochau (crater)">Millochau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitchel_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitchel (crater)">Mitchel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyamoto_(crater)" title="Miyamoto (crater)">Miyamoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohawk (crater)">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojave_(crater)" title="Mojave (crater)">Mojave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molesworth_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Molesworth (crater)">Molesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montevallo_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Montevallo (crater)">Montevallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moreux_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moreux (crater)">Moreux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Müller (Martian crater)">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nansen_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nansen (Martian crater)">Nansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nereus_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nereus (crater)">Nereus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Martian_crater)" title="Newton (Martian crater)">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhill_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nhill (crater)">Nhill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholson_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholson (Martian crater)">Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niesten_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niesten (crater)">Niesten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipigon_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nipigon (crater)">Nipigon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onon_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onon (crater)">Onon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orson Welles (crater)">Orson Welles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oudemans_(crater)" title="Oudemans (crater)">Oudemans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palana_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palana (crater)">Palana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangboche_(crater)" title="Pangboche (crater)">Pangboche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasteur_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasteur (Martian crater)">Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penticton_(crater)" title="Penticton (crater)">Penticton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perepelkin_(Martian_crater)" title="Perepelkin (Martian crater)">Perepelkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peridier_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peridier (crater)">Peridier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persbo_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persbo (crater)">Persbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pettit_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pettit (Martian crater)">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillips (Martian crater)">Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickering_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pickering (Martian crater)">Pickering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playfair_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Playfair (Martian crater)">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollack_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollack (Martian crater)">Pollack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poona_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poona (crater)">Poona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter_(Martian_crater)" title="Porter (Martian crater)">Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porth_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porth (crater)">Porth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priestley_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Priestley (Martian crater)">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_(Martian_crater)" title="Proctor (Martian crater)">Proctor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaeus_(Martian_crater)" title="Ptolemaeus (Martian crater)">Ptolemaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%C5%84sk_(crater)" title="Puńsk (crater)">Puńsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenisset_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenisset (crater)">Quenisset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabe_(crater)" title="Rabe (crater)">Rabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radau_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radau (crater)">Radau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahe_(crater)" title="Rahe (crater)">Rahe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayleigh (Martian crater)">Rayleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redi_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Redi (crater)">Redi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaudot_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaudot (crater)">Renaudot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuyl_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reuyl (crater)">Reuyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_(crater)" title="Reynolds (crater)">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richardson_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Richardson (Martian crater)">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritchey_(Martian_crater)" title="Ritchey (Martian crater)">Ritchey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sharp_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Sharp (crater)">Robert Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roddenberry_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roddenberry (crater)">Roddenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ross (Martian crater)">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rossby (crater)">Rossby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudaux_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudaux (crater)">Rudaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell (Martian crater)">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutherford (Martian crater)">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagan_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sagan (crater)">Sagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saheki_(crater)" title="Saheki (crater)">Saheki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_(crater)" title="Santa Maria (crater)">Santa Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schaeberle_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schaeberle (Martian crater)">Schaeberle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiaparelli_(Martian_crater)" title="Schiaparelli (Martian crater)">Schiaparelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmidt_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schmidt (Martian crater)">Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secchi_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secchi (Martian crater)">Secchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semeykin_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semeykin (crater)">Semeykin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharonov_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharonov (Martian crater)">Sharonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibu_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibu (crater)">Sibu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinton_(crater)" title="Sinton (crater)">Sinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitka_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitka (crater)">Sitka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sklodowska_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sklodowska (Martian crater)">Sklodowska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slipher_(Martian_crater)" title="Slipher (Martian crater)">Slipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smith (Martian crater)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_(Martian_crater)" title="South (Martian crater)">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spallanzani_(Martian_crater)" title="Spallanzani (Martian crater)">Spallanzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sr%C4%ABpur_(crater)" title="Srīpur (crater)">Srīpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steno_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steno (Martian crater)">Steno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_(Martian_crater)" title="Stokes (Martian crater)">Stokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoney_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoney (Martian crater)">Stoney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suess_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suess (Martian crater)">Suess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhi_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhi (crater)">Suzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsus (crater)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taytay_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taytay (crater)">Taytay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teisserenc_de_Bort_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Teisserenc de Bort (crater)">Teisserenc de Bort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terby_(crater)" title="Terby (crater)">Terby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thila_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thila (crater)">Thila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thira_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thira (crater)">Thira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhonravov_(crater)" title="Tikhonravov (crater)">Tikhonravov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikhov_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikhov (Martian crater)">Tikhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timbuktu_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timbuktu (crater)">Timbuktu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombaugh_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tombaugh (crater)">Tombaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tooting_(crater)" title="Tooting (crater)">Tooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trouvelot_(Martian_crater)" title="Trouvelot (Martian crater)">Trouvelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troy_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Troy (crater)">Troy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trud_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trud (crater)">Trud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpler_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trumpler (Martian crater)">Trumpler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugaske_(crater)" title="Tugaske (crater)">Tugaske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tycho Brahe (Martian crater)">Tycho Brahe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndall_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyndall (Martian crater)">Tyndall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udzha" class="mw-redirect" title="Udzha">Udzha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernal_(Martian_crater)" title="Vernal (Martian crater)">Vernal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_(Martian_crater)" title="Very (Martian crater)">Very</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(crater)" title="Victoria (crater)">Victoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_(Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Verde (Mars)">Cape Verde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinogradov_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinogradov (crater)">Vinogradov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinogradsky_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinogradsky (crater)">Vinogradsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virrat_(crater)" title="Virrat (crater)">Virrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishniac_(crater)" title="Vishniac (crater)">Vishniac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogel_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogel (Martian crater)">Vogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_(Martian_crater)" title="Von Kármán (Martian crater)">Von Kármán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok (crater)">Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace (Martian crater)">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wegener_(Martian_crater)" title="Wegener (Martian crater)">Wegener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weinbaum_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Weinbaum (crater)">Weinbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wells_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wells (crater)">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Williams (Martian crater)">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winslow_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Winslow (crater)">Winslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wirtz_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wirtz (crater)">Wirtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wislicenus_(crater)" title="Wislicenus (crater)">Wislicenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_(Martian_crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wright (Martian crater)">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuty_(crater)" title="Yuty (crater)">Yuty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zumba_(crater)" title="Zumba (crater)">Zumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zunil_(crater)" title="Zunil (crater)">Zunil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Water" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Water" title="Template:Water"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Water" title="Template talk:Water"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Water" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Water"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Water" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_water" title="Outline of water">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_(data_page)" title="Water (data page)">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_model" title="Water model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">Properties</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water droplet"><img alt="Water droplet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/70px-Water_drop_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/105px-Water_drop_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/140px-Water_drop_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3714" data-file-height="2475" /></a><figcaption>Water droplet</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_steam" title="Superheated steam">superheated</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium-depleted_water" title="Deuterium-depleted water">Deuterium-depleted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiheavy_water" title="Semiheavy water">Semiheavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">Tritiated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_labeled_water" title="Doubly labeled water">Doubly labeled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">Hydronium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_on_Earth" title="Water distribution on Earth">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraterrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroidal_water" title="Asteroidal water">Asteroidal water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_oceanography" title="Planetary oceanography">Planetary oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hycean_planet" title="Hycean planet">Hycean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extrasolar_candidates_for_liquid_water" title="List of extrasolar candidates for liquid water">List of Candidates</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)#Subsurface_ocean" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_water" title="Lunar water">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus#Subsurface_water_ocean" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical parameters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratification_(water)" title="Stratification (water)">Stratification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Ocean stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li> <a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Water" title="Portal:Water">Portal</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Water" title="Category:Water">Category</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a 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