China - Sino-Tibetan, Ethnic Groups, Geography

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<div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">China</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/China">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref70957"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China#ref70957">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relief">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70959" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region">The eastern region</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70960">The Northeast Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70961">The Changbai Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70962">The North China Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70963"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70963">The Loess Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70964">The Shandong Hills</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70965">The Qin Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin">The Sichuan Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70967">The southeastern mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70968">Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70969">The Nan Mountains</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70970" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70970">The southwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70971">The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70972">The Plateau of Tibet</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70973" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70973">The northwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70974">The Tarim Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin">The Junggar Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70976">The Tien Shan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70977"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70977">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70979">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70980">The air masses</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Temperature">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70983">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70984">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life">Animal life</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70989"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70989">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70990">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref258957">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic">Altaic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258960">Other languages</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258961">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70986"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70986">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70987">Rural areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas">Urban areas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref258962">Demographic trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref70991">Population growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution">Population distribution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70993">Internal migration</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70994"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70994">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref71004">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-role-of-the-government">The role of the government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policies">Economic policies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70999">Farming and livestock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref71000">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70995">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref70997">Hydroelectric potential</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref258949">Energy production</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing#ref71002">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258950">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258951">Labor and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref71008">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71010"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways#ref71010">Road networks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways">Waterways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71012">Port facilities and shipping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71013">Aviation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications">Posts and telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71015"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref71015">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref258952">Parallel structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref71016">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref258954">Role of the CCP</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration">Administration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71019">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71018">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71022"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education#ref71022">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258942">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258943">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts#ref258945">Performing arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258947">Daily life, sports, and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258948">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214398"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71610"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71610">Prehistory in China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71611">Archaeology in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71612">Early humans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71613" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71613">Neolithic Period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71614">Climate and environment</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71615">Food production</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites">Major cultures and sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71617">Incipient Neolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71618">6th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71619">5th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce">4th and 3rd millennia <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce#ref71621">Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization">Religious beliefs and social organization</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71623">The first historical dynasty: the Shang</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71624">The advent of bronze casting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty">The Shang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71626">Royal burials</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71627">The chariot</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71628">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion">Late Shang divination and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71630">State and society</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71631">The Zhou and Qin dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71632" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71632">The history of the Zhou (1046–256 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Zhou-and-Shang">Zhou and Shang</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Zhou-feudal-system">The Zhou feudal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71635" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes">Social, political, and cultural changes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71636"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71636">The decline of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71637">Urbanization and assimilation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy">The rise of monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71639">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71640">Cultural change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71641" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce">The Qin empire (221–207 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71642">The Qin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71643">Struggle for power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71644">The empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty">The Han dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71646" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71646">Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71647">Xi (Western) Han</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han">Prelude to the Han</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han#ref71649">The imperial succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi">From Wudi to Yuandi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi#ref71651">From Chengdi to Wang Mang</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han">Dong (Eastern) Han</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71653" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71653">The administration of the Han empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71654">The structure of government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71655">The civil service</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government">Provincial government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government#ref71657">The armed forces</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-practice-of-government">The practice of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-other-peoples">Relations with other peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-developments">Cultural developments</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties">The Six Dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71662" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71662">Political developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71663">The division of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71664">Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71665">The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71666">The era of foreign invasions and rule</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71667"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71667">The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439">The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71669" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71669">Intellectual and religious trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71670">Confucianism and philosophical Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71671"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism#ref71672">Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty">The Sui dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71674">Wendi’s institutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71675">Integration of the south</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71676"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi">Foreign affairs under Yangdi</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71677">The Tang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71678" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71678">Early Tang (618–626)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state">Administration of the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71680">Fiscal and legal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71681" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71681">The period of Tang power (626–755)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-era-of-good-government">The “era of good government”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Rise-of-the-empress-Wuhou">Rise of the empress Wuhou</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress">Prosperity and progress</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71685">Military reorganization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71686" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71686">Late Tang (755–907)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-separatism">Provincial separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority">The struggle for central authority</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71689" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71689">Cultural developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71690"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71690">The influence of Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts">Trends in the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71692" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71692">Social change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71693"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71693">Decline of the aristocracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements">Population movements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements#ref71695">Growth of the economy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms">The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71697">The Wudai (Five Dynasties)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71698">The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen">The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71700">The Tangut</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71701">The Khitan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71702">The Juchen</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty">The Song dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71704" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71704">Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71705"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71705">Unification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71706"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71707"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation#ref71707">Reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71708"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall">Decline and fall</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71709" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall#ref71709">Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71710"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Survival-and-consolidation">Survival and consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71711"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen">Relations with the Juchen</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71712"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen#ref71712">The court’s relations with the bureaucracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71713"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-chief-councillors">The chief councillors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71714"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style">The bureaucratic style</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style#ref71715">The clerical staff</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism">The rise of neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism#ref71717">Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Song-culture">Song culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty">The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71720" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71720">The Mongol conquest of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71721">Invasion of the Jin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state">Invasion of the Song state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71723" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71723">China under the Mongols</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71724">Mongol government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71725">Early Mongol rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Changes-under-Kublai-Khan-and-his-successors">Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy">Economy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71728">Religious and intellectual life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71729">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71731">Foreign religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71732">Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature#ref71734">The arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Yuan-China-and-the-West">Yuan China and the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule">The end of Mongol rule</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71737">The Ming dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71738" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71738">Political history</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71739">The dynasty’s founder</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-dynastic-succession">The dynastic succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71741" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration">Government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71742">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71743">Central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Later-innovations">Later innovations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71746" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments">Economic policy and developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71747">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71748">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71749">Taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71751" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71751">Culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71752">Philosophy and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71753">Fine arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship">Literature and scholarship</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71755">The early Qing dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71757">The rise of the Manchu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71758" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire">The Qing empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71759">Political institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71760">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-development">Economic development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71762" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society">Qing society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71763"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society#ref71763">Social organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society">State and society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71765">Trends in the early Qing</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71766">Late Qing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71767" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71767">Western challenge, 1839–60</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath">The first Opium War and its aftermath</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath#ref71769">The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71770" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising">Popular uprising</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71771">The Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71772">The Nian Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions">Muslim rebellions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71774">Effects of the rebellions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71775" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71775">The Self-Strengthening Movement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s">Foreign relations in the 1860s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71777">Industrialization for “self-strengthening”</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71778" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71778">Changes in outlying areas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71779">East Turkistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal">Tibet and Nepal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71781">Myanmar (Burma)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71782">Vietnam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71783"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands">Japan and the Ryukyu Islands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71784"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71784">Korea and the Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71785" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71785">Reform and upheaval</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71786"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898">The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71787"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898#ref71787">The Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71788" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty">Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71789">Sun Yat-sen and the United League</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71790">Constitutional movements after 1905</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12">The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71792">The early republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71793" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71793">The development of the republic (1912–20)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71794">Early power struggles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I">China in World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71796">Japanese gains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71797">Yuan’s attempts to become emperor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71798">Conflict over entry into the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government">Formation of a rival southern government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71800">Wartime changes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71801">Intellectual movements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71802">An intellectual revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests">Riots and protests</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71804">The interwar years (1920–37)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71805">Beginnings of a national revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71806">The Nationalist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71807">The Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation">Communist-Nationalist cooperation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71809">Reactions to warlords and foreigners</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71810">Militarism in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71811">The foreign presence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT">Reorganization of the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71813">Struggles within the two-party coalition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71814"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71814">Clashes with foreigners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71815">KMT opposition to radicals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition">The Northern Expedition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition#ref71817">Expulsion of communists from the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937">The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937#ref71819">Japanese aggression</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists">War between Nationalists and communists</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71821">The United Front against Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref214399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref214399">The late republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71822" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71822">The war against Japan (1937–45)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71823">The Sino-Japanese War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71824">Phase one</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation">Phase two: stalemate and stagnation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71826">Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71827">The international alliance against Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China">U.S. aid to China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71829">Conflicts within the international alliance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71830">Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration">Nationalist deterioration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71832">Communist growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71833">Efforts to prevent civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71834" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49">Civil war (1945–49)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71835"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71835">A race for territory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71836">Attempts to end the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting">Resumption of fighting</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting#ref71838">The tide begins to shift</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution">A land revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71840">The decisive year, 1948</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71841"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71841">Communist victory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Establishment-of-the-Peoples-Republic">Establishment of the People’s Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71844"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reconstruction-and-consolidation-1949-52">Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71845" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57">The transition to socialism, 1953–57</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71846">Rural collectivization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71847">Urban socialist changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments#ref71849">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/New-directions-in-national-policy-1958-61">New directions in national policy, 1958–61</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Readjustment-and-reaction-1961-65">Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76">The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76#ref71853">Attacks on cultural figures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members">Attacks on party members</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71855">Seizure of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71856">The end of the radical period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-changes">Social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Struggle-for-the-premiership">Struggle for the premiership</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution">Consequences of the Cultural Revolution</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71860">China after the death of Mao</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71861" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71861">Domestic developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref258955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref258955">Readjustment and recovery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71862"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes">Economic policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes#ref71863">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Educational-and-cultural-policy-changes">Educational and cultural policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref353938"><a 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Martin, Chen, Cheng-Siang, Suzuki, Chusei, Zürcher, Erik, Elman, Benjamin, Feuerwerker, Albert, DeWoskin, Kenneth J., Chan, Hoklam, Keightley, David N., Lewis, John Wilson, Dull, Jack L., Lieberthal, Kenneth G., Hucker, Charles O." data-authors-initial="Franke, H., Young, E.P., Liu, J.T., Rawski, E.S., Silbergeld, J., White, L., Twitchett, D.C., McKnight, B.E., Hsu, C., Wilbur, C.M., Chen, C., Suzuki, C., Zürcher, E., Elman, B., Feuerwerker, A., DeWoskin, K.J., Chan, H., Keightley, D.N., Lewis, J.W., Dull, J.L., Lieberthal, K.G., Hucker, C.O." data-title="China" data-published-date="17 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="China" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">https://www.britannica.com/place/China</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/111803"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/countries/30-cool-facts-about-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Geographic Kids - 30 cool facts about China!</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - China</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/China/345666" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/China/272682" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Chung-hua, Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-kuo, Chung-kuo, People’s Republic of China, Zhongguo, Zhonghua, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Herbert-Franke/973" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Herbert Franke</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of Far Eastern Studies, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Author of <i>China Under Mongol Rule.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Herbert Franke</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Ernest-P-Young/3290" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Ernest P. Young</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of History, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Author of <i>The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Ernest P. Young</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-17T00:00:00CST" >Feb 17, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/cbc88159e3ccb706c8ca268375931fda" rel="nofollow">Germany's economy is in the dumps. Here are 5 reasons why</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 9:33 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/20950f357276b9bb8f2a70a4b3c03e96" rel="nofollow">Downloads of DeepSeek's AI apps paused in South Korea over privacy concerns</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 6:07 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/4248f25f322cb8bef2aebfdeb7664ae7" rel="nofollow">Fixing Germany's economy is a critical task for the country's next government</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 4:10 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/8374f7675d25a747f00364617b1bc970" rel="nofollow">China says US has 'gravely backpedaled' on Taiwan</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 17, 2025, 4:08 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/7f895ec83f3f82aa9f0481e89715541e" rel="nofollow">TikTok returns to Apple and Google app stores in the US</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 3:08 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref258958"> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Sino-Tibetan family, both numerically and in the extent of its distribution, is by far the most prominent; within this family, Han Chinese is the most widely <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/speech-language" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">spoken language</a>. Although unified by their tradition—the written ideographic characters of their language as well as many other cultural traits—the Han speak several mutually unintelligible <span id="ref589558"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/dialect" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dialects</a> and display marked regional differences. By far the most important Chinese tongue is <span id="ref589559"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mandarin-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mandarin</a>, or <em>putonghua</em>, meaning “ordinary language” or “common language.” There are three variants of Mandarin. The first of these is the <span id="ref589560"></span>northern variant, of which the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Beijing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Beijing</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dialect" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dialect" data-type="MW">dialect</a>, or Beijing <em>hua</em>, is typical and which is spoken to the north of the Qin Mountains–Huai River line; as the most widespread Chinese tongue, it has officially been adopted as the basis for a national language. The second is the <span id="ref589561"></span>western variant, also known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chengdu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chengdu</a> or Upper Yangtze variant; this is spoken in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sichuan-Basin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sichuan Basin</a> and in adjoining parts of southwestern China. The third is the <span id="ref589562"></span>southern variant, also known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nanjing-China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nanjing</a> or Lower Yangtze variant, which is spoken in northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jiangsu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jiangsu</a> and in southern and central <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Anhui" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Anhui</a>. Some authorities also recognize a fourth variant, Northwestern, which is used in most of northwestern China. Related to Mandarin are the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hunan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hunan</a>, or <span id="ref589563"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xiang-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Xiang</a>, language, spoken by people in central and southern Hunan, and the <span id="ref589564"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gan-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gan</a> dialect. The <span id="ref589565"></span>Huizhou language, spoken in southern Anhui, forms an enclave within the southern Mandarin area.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Less intelligible to Mandarin speakers are the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dialects" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dialects" data-type="MW">dialects</a> of the southeast coastal region, stretching from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shanghai</a> to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangzhou" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Guangzhou</a> (Canton). The most important of these is the <span id="ref589566"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wu-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wu</a> language, spoken in southern Jiangsu and in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Zhejiang" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Zhejiang</a>. This is followed, to the south, by the <span id="ref589567"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Northern-Min-language" class="md-crosslink ">Fuzhou</a>, or Northern <span id="ref589568"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Min-languages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Min</a>, language of northern and central <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Fujian" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Fujian</a> and by the Xiamen-Shantou (<span id="ref589569"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amoy-language" class="md-crosslink ">Amoy-Swatow</a>), or Southern Min, language of southern Fujian and easternmost <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangdong" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Guangdong</a>. The <span id="ref589570"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hakka-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hakka</a> language of southernmost <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jiangxi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jiangxi</a> and northeastern Guangdong has a rather scattered pattern of distribution. Probably the best known of these southern dialects is Yue, particularly <span id="ref589571"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cantonese-language" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cantonese</a>, which is spoken in central and western Guangdong, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hong-Kong" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hong Kong</a>, and in southern Guangxi—a dialect area in which a large proportion of overseas Chinese originated.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In addition to the Han, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manchu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Manchu</a> and the <span id="ref589572"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hui-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hui</a> (Chinese <span id="ref589573"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-world" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Muslims</a>) also speak Mandarin and use the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-writing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chinese writing</a> system. The Hui, firm adherents of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Islam</a>, are descendants of Persian and Central Asian Muslims who traveled to China as merchants, soldiers, and scholars and intermarried with several Chinese nationalities. They are intermingled with the Han throughout much of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> and are distinguished as Hui only in the area of their heaviest concentration, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ningxia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia</a>. Other Hui <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a> are organized as <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="autonomous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomous" data-type="MW">autonomous</a> prefectures (<em>zizhizhou</em>) in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xinjiang" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Xinjiang</a> and as autonomous counties (<em>zizhixian</em>) in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Qinghai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Qinghai</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hebei" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hebei</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guizhou" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Guizhou</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Yunnan</a>. Increasingly, the Hui have been moving from their scattered settlements into the area of major concentration, possibly in order to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="facilitate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/facilitate" data-type="MW">facilitate</a> intermarriage with other Muslims.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589574"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manchu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Manchu</a> claim that they are descendants of the Manchu warriors who invaded China in the 17th century and founded the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1911/12). Manchu is virtually a dead language—though it is closely related to Sibo (or Xibe), which is still vital—and the Manchu have been completely <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="assimilated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assimilated" data-type="MW">assimilated</a> into Han Chinese <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a>. They are found mainly in North China and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Northeast</a>, but they form no separate autonomous areas above the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/commune-Chinese-agriculture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">commune</a> level.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589576"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zhuang" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Zhuang</a> (Zhuangjia) are China’s largest <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/minority" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">minority group</a>. Most of them live in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangxi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi</a>. They are also found in national autonomous areas in neighboring Yunnan and Guangdong. They depend mainly on rice cultivation for their livelihood. In religion the Zhuang are animists, worshipping particularly the spirits of their ancestors. Members of the <span id="ref589577"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buyid-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Buyi</a> (Zhongjia) group are concentrated in southern Guizhou, where they share an autonomous prefecture with the <span id="ref589578"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Miao" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Miao</a> (Hmong) group. The <span id="ref589579"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dong" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dong</a> people are settled in small communities in Guangxi and Guizhou; they share with the Miao group an autonomous prefecture set up in southeast Guizhou in 1956.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref589582"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tibetan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tibetans</a> are distributed over the entire Qinghai-Tibetan highland region. Outside <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tibet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tibet</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tibetan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tibetan</a> minorities are found in five Tibetan autonomous prefectures in Qinghai, two in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sichuan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Sichuan</a>, and one each in Yunnan and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gansu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gansu</a>. The Tibetans still maintain their tribal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="characteristics" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/characteristics" data-type="EB">characteristics</a>, but few of them are nomadic. Though essentially farmers, they also raise livestock and, like other tribal peoples in the Chinese far west, hunt to supplement their food supply. The major religion of Tibet has been <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tibetan-Buddhism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tibetan Buddhism</a> since about the 17th century; before 1959 the social and political institutions of this region were still based largely on that faith. Many of the <span id="ref589583"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yi-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yi</a> (Lolo) are concentrated in two autonomous prefectures—one in southern Sichuan and another in northern Yunnan. They raise crops and sometimes keep flocks and herds.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref589584"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hmong-Mien-languages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Miao-Yao</a> (Hmong-Mien) peoples, with their major concentration in Guizhou, are distributed throughout the central south and southwestern provinces and are found also in some small areas in eastern China. They are subdivided into many rather distinct groupings. Most of them have now lost their traditional tribal practices through the influence of the Han, and it is only their language that serves to distinguish them. Two-thirds of the Miao are settled in Guizhou, where they share two <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="autonomous" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/autonomous" data-type="EB">autonomous</a> prefectures with the Dong and Buyi groups. The <span id="ref589585"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yao-African-people" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yao</a> people are concentrated in the Guangxi-Guangdong-Hunan border area.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In some areas of China, especially in the southwest, many different ethnic groups are geographically intermixed. Because of language barriers and different economic structures, these peoples all maintain their own cultural traits and live in relative isolation from one another. The Han are active in the towns and fertile river valleys of some of these locales, while the minority peoples continue to base their livelihood on more-traditional forms of agriculture or on grazing their livestock on hillsides and mountains. The vertical distribution of these peoples is in zones—usually the higher they live, the less complex their way of life. In former times they did not mix well with one another, but now, with highways penetrating deep into their settlements, they have better opportunities to communicate with other groups and have benefited from improved living conditions.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":10,"pagesTotal":128,"pageId":111803,"pageLength":1080,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":10,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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