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innovation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encouragement_of_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Copyright limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_for_small_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_for_small_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Protection for small companies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_for_small_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hardware_patents_analogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware_patents_analogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Hardware patents analogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardware_patents_analogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_against_patentability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_against_patentability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Arguments against patentability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_against_patentability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments against patentability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_against_patentability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Software_is_math" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_is_math"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Software is math</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software_is_math-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software_encourages_patent_thickets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_encourages_patent_thickets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Software encourages patent thickets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software_encourages_patent_thickets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinders_research_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinders_research_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Hinders research and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinders_research_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinders_innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinders_innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Hinders innovation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinders_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cost_and_loss_of_R&D_funds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost_and_loss_of_R&D_funds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Cost and loss of R&D funds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost_and_loss_of_R&D_funds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software_is_different" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_is_different"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Software is different</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software_is_different-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trivial_patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trivial_patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Trivial patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trivial_patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Open_source_disadvantage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Open_source_disadvantage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Open source disadvantage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Open_source_disadvantage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software_patents'_usefulness_as_an_information_source_is_limited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_patents'_usefulness_as_an_information_source_is_limited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Software patents' usefulness as an information source is limited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software_patents'_usefulness_as_an_information_source_is_limited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long_patent_pendencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long_patent_pendencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Long patent pendencies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long_patent_pendencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patent_trolls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patent_trolls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Patent trolls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patent_trolls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disproportionately_harms_startups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disproportionately_harms_startups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Disproportionately harms startups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disproportionately_harms_startups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>U.S. Supreme Court decisions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle U.S. Supreme Court decisions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bilski_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bilski_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span><i>Bilski</i> case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bilski_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mayo_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mayo_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>Mayo</i> case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mayo_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alice_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alice_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span><i>Alice</i> case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alice_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Subsequent developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Computer programs, software and patent law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">Software patent</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_and_free_software" title="Software patents and free software">Free software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_software_patents" title="List of software patents">List of patents</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_TRIPs_Agreement" title="Software patents under TRIPs Agreement">TRIPS Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_programs_and_the_Patent_Cooperation_Treaty" title="Computer programs and the Patent Cooperation Treaty">Patent Cooperation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_the_European_Patent_Convention" title="Software patents under the European Patent Convention">European Patent Convention</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Countries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_Canadian_patent_law" title="Software patents under Canadian patent law">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_United_Kingdom_patent_law" title="Software patents under United Kingdom patent law">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_United_States_patent_law" title="Software patents under United States patent law">United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Case law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_decisions_of_the_EPO_Boards_of_Appeal_relating_to_Article_52(2)_and_(3)_EPC" title="List of decisions of the EPO Boards of Appeal relating to Article 52(2) and (3) EPC">European Patent Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UK_judgments_relating_to_excluded_subject_matter" title="List of UK judgments relating to excluded subject matter">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_method_patent" title="Business method patent">Business methods</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_programs,_software_and_patent_law" title="Template:Computer programs, software and patent law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_programs,_software_and_patent_law" title="Template talk:Computer programs, software and patent law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_programs,_software_and_patent_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer programs, software and patent law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>software patent debate</b> is the argument about the extent to which, as a matter of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>, it should be possible to <a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">patent software</a> and computer-implemented inventions. Policy debate on software patents has been active for years.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opponents to software patents have gained more visibility with fewer resources through the years than their pro-patent opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments and critiques have been focused mostly on the economic consequences of software patents. </p><p>One aspect of the debate has focused on the proposed <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> <a href="/wiki/Proposed_directive_on_the_patentability_of_computer-implemented_inventions" title="Proposed directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions">directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions</a>, also known as the "CII Directive" or the "Software Patent Directive," which was ultimately rejected by the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">EU Parliament</a> in July 2005. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_for_patentability">Arguments for patentability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Arguments for patentability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several arguments commonly given in defense of software patents or defense of the <a href="/wiki/Patentability" title="Patentability">patentability</a> of computer-implemented inventions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_disclosure">Public disclosure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Public disclosure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Through public disclosure, patents encourage the open sharing of information and additional transparency about <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">legal exposure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Through public disclosure, patents encourage the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical system">mechanical technology</a>, which may apply more broadly.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_benefit">Economic benefit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economic benefit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Software patents resulting from the production of patentable ideas can increase the valuation of small companies.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Software patents increase the return on investment made, which includes government funded research.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encouragement_of_innovation">Encouragement of innovation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Encouragement of innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The ability to patent new software developed as a result of research encourages investment in software-related research by increasing the potential return of investment of said research.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright_limitations">Copyright limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Copyright limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement_of_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright infringement of software">Copyright infringement of software</a></div> <p>Patents protect functionality. Copyright on the other hand only protects expression. Substantial modification to an original work, even if it performs the same function, would not be prevented by copyright. To prove copyright infringement also requires the additional hurdle of proving copying, which is not necessary for patent infringement. </p><p>Copyright law protects unique expressions, while patent law protects inventions, which in the case of software, are <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>; copyright cannot protect a novel means of accomplishing a function, merely the syntax of one such means.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This means that patents incentivize projects that are unique and innovative in functionality rather than simply form. Copyrights, in turn, only incentivize uniqueness in form.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection_for_small_companies">Protection for small companies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Protection for small companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Software patents can afford smaller companies market protection by preventing larger companies from stealing work done by a smaller organization, leveraging their greater resources to go to market before the smaller company can.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardware_patents_analogy">Hardware patents analogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hardware patents analogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hardware and software are sometimes interchangeable. If people can patent hardware, then ideas describing software implemented by that hardware should also be patentable.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_against_patentability">Arguments against patentability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Arguments against patentability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Opponents of software patents argue that: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_is_math">Software is math</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Software is math"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A program is the transcription of an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>. Since every (<a href="/wiki/Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">Turing-complete</a>) programming language implements Church's <a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">lambda calculus</a> by virtue of the <a href="/wiki/Church-Turing_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Church-Turing thesis">Church-Turing thesis</a>, a program is thus the transcription of a mathematical function. Math is not patentable. Therefore, neither is software.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_encourages_patent_thickets">Software encourages patent thickets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Software encourages patent thickets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Patent_thicket" title="Patent thicket">patent thicket</a> is a dense web of patents that companies must decipher to develop new technology. There are various types of patent thickets such as when a single innovation is protected by multiple patent holders or when a product is covered by numerous patents. The consequences of patent thickets are increased difficulty of innovation, complex cross-licensing relations between companies, and discouragement of newcomers from entering the software industry.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinders_research_and_development">Hinders research and development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hinders research and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Some scientific studies and expert reviews have concluded that patent systems paradoxically hinder technological progress<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and allows monopolies and powerful companies to exclude others from industrial science in a manner that is irreconcilable with <a href="/wiki/Anti-trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-trust">anti-trust</a> laws.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>, Nobel Prize–winning economist, argues, "Their exclusion from the patent system would discourage some software innovations, but the saving from litigation costs over disputed patent rights would more than compensate the economy for that cost."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinders_innovation">Hinders innovation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hinders innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a> published the <a href="/wiki/Defend_Innovation" title="Defend Innovation">Defend Innovation</a> whitepaper after doing two and a half years of research on software patents. They concluded that many overbroad software patents are being awarded, which is actually stifling innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interoperability" title="Interoperability">Interoperability</a> is thought to promote innovation, and patent systems have the potential to block the development of such technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There has been a lack of empirical evidence to suggest that patents have any positive effect on innovation, and furthermore, the system primarily “encourage[s] failing monopolists to inhibit competition by blocking innovation.”<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cost_and_loss_of_R&D_funds"><span id="Cost_and_loss_of_R.26D_funds"></span>Cost and loss of R&D funds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cost and loss of R&D funds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Should a software developer hire a <a href="/wiki/Patent_attorney" title="Patent attorney">patent attorney</a> to perform a <a href="/wiki/Clearance_search_and_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearance search and opinion">clearance search</a> and provide a <a href="/wiki/Clearance_search_and_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Clearance search and opinion">clearance opinion</a>, there is no guarantee that the search could be complete. Different patents and published patent applications may use different words to describe the same concepts and thus patents that cover different aspects of the invention may not show up in a search. The cost of a clearance search may not prove cost effective to businesses with smaller budgets or individual inventors.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>For the U.S. the economic benefit is dubious. A study in 2008 found that American public companies’ total profits from patents (excluding pharmaceuticals) in 1999 were about $4 billion, but that the associated litigation costs were $14 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-economist_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Software developers and hardware manufacturers may be forced to pay license fees for standards that are covered by patents (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Essential_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential patents">essential patents</a>). Some examples are <a href="/wiki/H.264" class="mw-redirect" title="H.264">H.264</a>, <a href="/wiki/MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graphics_Interchange_Format#Unisys_and_LZW_patent_enforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphics Interchange Format">GIF</a> (that uses the patented <a href="/wiki/LZW" class="mw-redirect" title="LZW">LZW</a> compression algorithm) and <a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a> for graphics.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright">Copyright</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Copyright"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>It is argued that traditional copyright has provided sufficient protection to facilitate massive investment in software development.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a> is the right of an author(s) to prevent others from copying their creative work without a license. Thus the author of a particular piece of software can sue someone that copies that software without a license. Copyright protection is given automatically and immediately without the need to register the copyright with a government, although registration does strengthen protection. Copyrighted material can also be kept secret.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_is_different">Software is different</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Software is different"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">artificial scarcity</a></div> <ul><li>Software programs are different from other electromechanical devices because they are designed solely in terms of their function. The inventor of a typical electromechanical device must design new physical features to qualify for a patent. On the other hand, a software developer need only design new functions to create a working embodiment of the program.<sup id="cite_ref-rplotkin_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rplotkin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Software is a component of a machine. The computer’s hardware is generic; it performs functions that are common to all of the software that is capable of being executed on the computer. Each software program that is capable of executing on the computer is a component of the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-rplotkin_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rplotkin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Computers "design" and build the structure of executable software. Thus, software developers do not <i>design</i> the executable software's physical structure because they merely provide the functional terms.<sup id="cite_ref-rplotkin_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rplotkin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trivial_patents">Trivial patents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Trivial patents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anecdotal evidence suggests that some software patents cover either trivial inventions or inventions that would have been obvious to persons of ordinary skill in the art at the time the invention was made.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Patent examiners rarely have a comprehensive knowledge of the specific technologies disclosed in the patent applications they examine. This is in large part due to the enormous number of micro-niches in the software field and the very limited number of hours (often less than 8 h per patent) available to examiners to review patent applications. So, patents are sometimes allowed on inventions that appear to be trivial extensions of existing technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_source_disadvantage">Open source disadvantage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Open source disadvantage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Software_patents_and_free_software" title="Software patents and free software">Software patents and free software</a></div> <ul><li>The free and open source software community, and many companies that use and contribute to open source oppose software patents because they can impede or prohibit the distribution of free software. They contend that patents threaten to undermine FLOSS, regardless of innovations produced by FLOSS collaborations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_patents'_usefulness_as_an_information_source_is_limited"><span id="Software_patents.27_usefulness_as_an_information_source_is_limited"></span>Software patents' usefulness as an information source is limited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Software patents' usefulness as an information source is limited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Some patent disclosures in the software field are not readable to some programmers; as a result, patents are rarely used as a source of technical information by software developers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long_patent_pendencies">Long patent pendencies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Long patent pendencies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In the software industry, <a href="/wiki/Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">product lifecycles</a> churn rapidly; a product can run through its entire lifecycle and become outdated during the time it takes a patent filed on the invention underlying it to issue.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3, p 45">: Chapter 3, p 45 </span></sup></li> <li>According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a>’s official statistics for 2015, the average <a href="/wiki/Pendency_for_patent_applications" class="mw-redirect" title="Pendency for patent applications">pendency for patent applications</a> categorized under “Computer Architecture, Software, and Information Security” was approximately two and a half years, exceeding the pendencies of all other patent categories.<sup id="cite_ref-www.uspto.gov_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.uspto.gov-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The average total pendency of European technology patents in 2015 was approximately two and a half years. Technology patents in China, Korea, Japan, and Europe had first action pendencies of approximately one year compared to those in the United States, with first action pendencies of under two years. Europe and the United States have the longest total pendencies of around 26 months, while China, Korea, and Japan have shorter total pendencies from 15 to 21 months.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patent_trolls">Patent trolls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Patent trolls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Software companies are becoming patent hoarders, spending billions of dollars on accumulating patents and even more on litigations and settlements – resources could be better put to use in creating new and innovative software advances. Too many patents are given out, making it difficult for developers to create new software due to possibility of accidental infringement. Engineers say it impedes their creativity.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2016 IBM earned 8,088 U.S. patents; thus earning the most grants from the U.S. Patent Office for the 24th year in a row. They bested their closest tech rival by more than 2,500 patents. Behemoths like IBM, Google, and Oracle gather as many patents in the fields considered 'hot' such as Artificial Intelligence to limit the innovation potential of smaller firms.<sup id="cite_ref-www.uspto.gov_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.uspto.gov-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2022)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Patent claims were part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Oracle_America,_Inc._v._Google,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.">Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.</a></i> case, where Oracle claimed that Google's implementation of Java within Android violated Oracle's copyright and patents. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke</a> Computer Science Professor <a href="/wiki/Owen_Astrachan" title="Owen Astrachan">Owen Astrachan</a> was involved in the case.</li> <li>Not only large companies are patent hoarders. NPEs (Non-Practising Entities) are businesses that assert patents through litigation to achieve revenues from alleged infringers without practising or commercialising the technology covered by the patents they hold, and generally without being the original inventor. NPEs are very effective in their litigations. Damages awards for NPEs almost are 3 times greater than practicing entities over recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NPE lawsuits are associated with half a trillion USD of lost wealth to defendants, mostly technology companies, from 1990 through 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-Bessen2012_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessen2012-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 26">: 26 </span></sup> These lawsuits substantially reduce technology developers' incentives to innovate.<sup id="cite_ref-Bessen2012_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessen2012-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 26">: 26 </span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disproportionately_harms_startups">Disproportionately harms startups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Disproportionately harms startups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Patent assertion entities (<a href="/wiki/Patent_trolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent trolls">patent trolls</a>) disproportionately affect startups, which are important for job creation and innovation. Companies with less than $100M annual revenue represent two-thirds of unique defendants in troll suits. A large percentage of startups reported that being sued by trolls resulted in significant operational impact.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions">U.S. Supreme Court decisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: U.S. Supreme Court decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> decisions since 2000, as well as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</a> and district court decisions interpreting and implementing them, have dramatically impacted the status of software patents in the United States. They have particularly affected many thousands of business-method patents that issued as a result of Federal Circuit decisions in the 1990s. The two principal Supreme Court decisions were <i><a href="/wiki/Bilski_v._Kappos" title="Bilski v. Kappos">Bilski v. Kappos</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Alice_v._CLS_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice v. CLS Bank">Alice v. CLS Bank</a></i>, the latter of which confirmed the applicability of the earlier decision <i><a href="/wiki/Mayo_v._Prometheus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayo v. Prometheus">Mayo v. Prometheus</a></i> to computer-related inventions in which a computer was used to implement an abstract principle or preexisting business practice. See also <i><a href="/wiki/Software_patents_under_United_States_patent_law" title="Software patents under United States patent law">Software patents under United States patent law</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bilski_case"><i>Bilski</i> case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bilski case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Bilski</i> case involved a patent application on methods for hedging against commodity price fluctuations, which the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">PTO</a> had rejected. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Bilski" title="In re Bilski">In re Bilski</a></i>, upheld the PTO's rejection on the grounds that the claims failed the <a href="/wiki/Machine-or-transformation_test" title="Machine-or-transformation test">machine-or-transformation test</a>, which the court held should be used as the sole test of patent eligibility. The court did not hold that all business methods are patent ineligible, though a minority of the judges would have ruled that business methods are not properly the subject of patents. </p><p>The Supreme Court affirmed the judgment of ineligibility, in <i><a href="/wiki/Bilski_v._Kappos" title="Bilski v. Kappos">Bilski v. Kappos</a></i>, but on more general, and less articulated in detail, grounds of undue abstractness. It rejected the Federal Circuit's elevation of the machine-or-transformation test as the sole test of patent eligibility, saying that rather it was simply a "useful clue." The 5-4 majority refused to hold that all business methods were incapable of being patented, but four justices would have established such a rule. A concurring opinion pointed out that the Court was unanimous, however, as to many issues in the <i>Bilski</i> case, including a rejection of the Federal Circuit's late 1990s <a href="/wiki/State_Street_Bank_v._Signature_Financial_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="State Street Bank v. Signature Financial Group"><i>State Street Bank</i></a> decision, which allowed patents on any advance, technical or nontechnical (and in that case a numerical financial calculation of stock price changes) that produces a "useful, concrete and tangible result." </p><p>The Supreme Court's <i>Bilski</i> decision was criticized because of its lack of detailed guidance on how to determine whether a claim was directed to an abstract idea. Nonetheless, it provided some clarification and affirmed the Federal Circuit's taking a new direction in its software-related patent cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mayo_case"><i>Mayo</i> case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mayo case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Mayo_v._Prometheus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayo v. Prometheus">Mayo v. Prometheus</a></i>, the Supreme Court invalidated a patent on a diagnostic method, because it non-inventively implemented a natural principle; the Court drew on cases involving computer software and other abstract ideas. In this case, the Court was much more detailed in describing how to recognize a patent-ineligible claim to an abstract idea. The <i>Mayo</i> methodology has come to dominate patent-eligibility law. It revived the approach of the <a href="/wiki/Parker_v._Flook" title="Parker v. Flook"><i>Flook</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Neilson_v._Harford" class="mw-redirect" title="Neilson v. Harford"><i>Neilson</i></a> cases, which is to treat the underlying principle, idea, or algorithm on which the claimed patent is based as if it were part of the prior art and to make patent eligibility turn on whether the implementation of it is inventive. This led to the "two-step" <i>Alice</i> test described next. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alice_case"><i>Alice</i> case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Alice case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the time the <i>Mayo</i> case was decided, there was some uncertainty over whether it applied only to natural principles (laws of nature) or more generally to patent eligibility of all abstract ideas and general principles, including those involved in software patents. The <i>Alice</i> decision confirmed that the test was general. The <i>Alice</i> case involved patents on electronic methods and computer programs for financial-trading systems on which trades between two parties who are to exchange payment are settled by a third party in ways that reduce the risk that one party performs while the other does not. The patents cover what amounts to a computerized escrow arrangement. </p><p>The Court held that <i>Mayo</i> explained how to address the problem of determining whether a patent claimed an unpatentable abstract idea or instead a potentially patentable practical implementation of an idea. This requires using a "two-step" analysis. </p><p>In the first step, the court must determine whether the patent claim under examination contains an abstract idea, such as an algorithm, method of computation, a Law of Nature or other general principle. If not, the claim is potentially patentable, subject to the other requirements of the patent code. If the answer is affirmative, the court must proceed to the next step. </p><p>In the second step of the analysis, the court must determine whether the patent adds to the idea "something extra" that embodies an "inventive concept." If there is no addition of an inventive element to the underlying abstract idea, the court finds the patent invalid under section 101. This means that the implementation of the idea must not be conventional or obvious to qualify for a patent. Ordinary and customary use of a general-purpose digital computer is insufficient; the Court said—"merely requiring generic computer implementation fails to transform [an] abstract idea into a patent-eligible invention." </p><p>The ruling continued with these points: </p> <ul><li>A mere instruction to implement an abstract idea on a computer "cannot impart patent eligibility."</li> <li>"[T]he mere recitation of a generic computer cannot transform a patent-ineligible abstract idea into a patent-eligible invention."</li> <li>"Stating an abstract idea 'while adding the words "apply it"' is not enough for patent eligibility."</li> <li>"Nor is limiting the use of an abstract idea to a particular technological environment."</li></ul> <p>The <i>Alice</i> decision met a mixed reception, but profoundly affected U.S. patent law. In its wake, as explained in the <a href="/wiki/Alice_v._CLS_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice v. CLS Bank">Wikipedia article on the case</a>, courts invalidated vast numbers of so-called software and business-method patents (the overwhelming majority of those the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit</a> considered) and the number of such patents issued has drastically fallen. The <i>Alice</i> decision has been widely criticized for its failure to specify in detail the boundaries of patent eligibility, but it has also been defended because its unanimity tends to stabilize decisional law in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_developments">Subsequent developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Subsequent developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <i>Alice</i>, the Federal Circuit and district courts invalidated large numbers of business-method and software patents based on those courts' interpretations of <i>Alice</i>. Federal Circuit Judge <a href="/wiki/William_Curtis_Bryson" title="William Curtis Bryson">William Bryson</a> summed this up in these terms: </p> <blockquote> <p>In short, such patents, although frequently dressed up in the argot of invention, simply describe a problem, announce purely functional steps that purport to solve the problem, and recite standard computer operations to perform some of those steps. The principal flaw in these patents is that they do not contain an “inventive concept” that solves practical problems and ensures that the patent is directed to something “significantly more than” the ineligible abstract idea itself. [Citing <i>Alice</i> and <i>Mayo</i>.] As such, they represent little more than functional descriptions of objectives, rather than inventive solutions. In addition, because they describe the claimed methods in functional terms, they preempt any subsequent specific solutions to the problem at issue. [Citing <i>Alice</i> and <i>Mayo</i>.] It is for those reasons that the Supreme Court has characterized such patents as claiming “abstract ideas” and has held that they are not directed to patentable subject matter. <sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_patents" title="Criticism of patents">Criticism of patents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debates_within_software_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Debates within software engineering">Debates within software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Information,_Communications_and_Consumer_Electronics_Technology_Industry_Associations" class="mw-redirect" title="European Information, Communications and Consumer Electronics Technology Industry Associations">European Information, Communications and Consumer Electronics Technology Industry Associations</a> (EICTA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_a_Free_Information_Infrastructure" title="Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure">Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure</a> (FFII)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_Software_Organisation" title="Irish Free Software Organisation">Irish Free Software Organisation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jacobsen_v._Katzer" title="Jacobsen v. Katzer">Jacobsen v. Katzer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piano_roll_blues" title="Piano roll blues">Piano roll blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozilla_Open_Software_Patent_License" title="Mozilla Open Software Patent License">Mozilla Open Software Patent License</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Software_patent_debate&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNichols1998" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, Kenneth (1998). <i>Inventing Software: The Rise of "computer-related" Patents</i>. 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Stern, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.law.gwu.edu/facweb/claw/Alice-EIPR.pdf"><i>Alice v CLS Bank: US Business Method and Software Patents Marching towards Oblivion?</i></a>, [2014] <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Eur. Intell. Prop. Rev.</span> 619, 629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15554380012400502922&q=%22Loyalty+Conversion%22&hl=en&as_sdt=20006&as_vis=1"><i>Loyalty Conversion Sys. Corp. v. American Airlines, Inc.</i></a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">software patent debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prizes instead of patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_library" title="Shadow library">Shadow library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li> <li><a 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