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id="masthead" role="banner"> <nav id="site-navigation" class="main-navigation navbar-fixed-top navbar-left" role="navigation">  <div class="container" id="navigation_menu"> <div class="navbar-header"> <a class="navbar-brand" href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/">MORPH</a> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="cc_spacer"></div> <div class="site-header"> <div class="site-branding"> <a class="home-link" href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/" title="MORPH" rel="home"> <h1 class="site-title">MORPH</h1> <h2 class="site-description">A blog about languages and how they change</h2> </a> </div> </div> </header> <div id="content" class="site-content"> <div class="container"> <div class="row"> <header class="archive-page-header"> <h3 class="archive-page-title">Browsed by<br>Month: <span>January 2018</span></h3> </header> <div id="primary" class="col-md-9 content-area"> <main id="main" class="site-main" role="main"> <article id="post-175" class="post-content post-175 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-case category-english-languages category-english category-morphology category-prescriptivism category-syntax"> <header class="entry-header"> <span class="screen-reader-text">What happened to whom (and why)?</span> <h2 class="entry-title"> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/31/what-happened-to-whom-and-why/" rel="bookmark">What happened to whom (and why)?</a> </h2> <div class="entry-meta"> <h5 class="entry-date"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o"></i> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/31/what-happened-to-whom-and-why/" title="11:05 am" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2018-01-31T11:05:43+00:00" pubdate>January 31, 2018 </time></a><span class="byline"><span class="sep"></span><i class="fa fa-user"></i> <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/author/js0088/" title="View all posts by Helen" rel="author">Helen</a></span></span> <i class="fa fa-comments-o"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Comments </span> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/31/what-happened-to-whom-and-why/#comments" class="comments-link" >3 comments</a></h5> </div> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p><em>Wh-</em> words like <em>which, whom </em>and <em>why</em> get a lot of knickers in a twist, as attested by <a href="http://theoatmeal.com/comics/who_vs_whom">this oatmeal comic</a> on when to use <em>who</em> vs <em>whom</em>, or the age-old debate about the correct use of <em>which </em>vs <em>that </em>(on which see <a href="http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/12/07/a-rule-which-will-live-in-infamy/">this blog post</a> by Geoffrey Pullum). But in Old English the <em>wh-</em> words formed a complete and regular system which would have been easy to get the hang of. They were used strictly as interrogative pronouns – words that we use for asking questions like <em>who ate all the pies?</em> – rather than relative pronouns, which give extra information about an item in the sentence (<em>Jane, who ate all the pies, is a prolific blogger</em>) or narrow down the reference of a noun (<em>women who eat pies are prolific bloggers</em>). They developed their modern relative use in Middle English, via reinterpretation of indirect questions – in other words, sentences like <em>she asked who ate all the pies</em>, containing the question <em>who ate all the pies?</em>, served as the template for new sentences like <em>she knew who ate all the pies</em>, where <em>who</em> functions as a relative.</p> <figure id="attachment_177" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-177" style="width: 512px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" class="wp-image-177 size-full" src="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Pie_eating_contest_bathing_beach.jpg" alt="" width="512" height="378" srcset="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Pie_eating_contest_bathing_beach.jpg 512w, https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Pie_eating_contest_bathing_beach-300x221.jpg 300w, https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Pie_eating_contest_bathing_beach-366x270.jpg 366w" sizes="(max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /><figcaption id="caption-attachment-177" class="wp-caption-text">Who ate all the pies? They did.</figcaption></figure> <p>Originally, the new relative pronoun <em>whom</em> (in its Middle English form <em>hwām</em>) functioned as the dative case form of <em>who, </em>used when the person in question is the indirect object of a verb or after prepositions like <em>for</em>. For direct objects, the accusative form <em>hwone</em> was used instead. So to early Middle English ears, <em>the man for whom I baked a pie</em> would be fine, while <em>the man whom I baked in a pie </em>would be objectionable (on grammatical as well as ethical grounds). Because nouns also had distinct nominative, dative and accusative forms, the <em>wh- </em>words would have posed no special difficulty for speakers. But as English lost distinct case forms for nouns, the pronoun system was also simplified, and the originally dative forms started to replace accusative forms, just as <em>who</em> is now replacing <em>whom</em>. This created a two-way opposition between subject and non-subject which is best preserved in our system of personal pronouns: we say <em>he/she/they baked a pie</em>, but <em>I baked him/her/them</em> <em>(in) a pie.</em></p> <p>Thus <em>hwone</em> disappeared the way of <em>hine</em>, the old accusative form of <em>he</em>. Without the support of a fully-functioning case system in the nouns, other case forms of pronouns were reinterpreted. Genitive pronouns like <em>my </em>and <em>his</em> were transformed into possessive adjectives (<em>his pie </em>is equivalent to <em>the pie of him, </em>but you can no longer say things like <em>I thought his</em> to mean ‘I thought of him’). The <em>wh-</em> words also used to have an instrumental case form, <em>hwȳ, </em>meaning ‘by/through what?’, which became an autonomous word <em>why</em>.</p> <p>Although <em>him </em>and <em>them</em> are still going strong, <em>whom</em> has been experiencing a steady decline. Defenders of ‘whom’ will tell you that the rule for deciding whether to use <em>who</em> or <em>whom </em>is exactly the same as that for <em>he </em>and <em>him</em>, but outside the most formal English, <em>whom</em> is now mainly confined to fixed phrases like ‘to whom it may concern’. For many speakers, though, it has swapped its syntactic function for a sociolinguistic one by becoming merely a ‘posh’ variant of <em>who</em>: in the words of James Harding, creator of the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/2261517754/">‘Whom’ Appreciation Society</a>, “those who abandon ‘whom’ too soon will regret it when they next find themselves in need of sounding like a butler.”</p> <p><img decoding="async" class="aligncenter wp-image-178 size-full" src="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/whom.gif" alt="" width="725" height="242" /></p> </div> <footer class="entry-footer"> </footer> </article> <article id="post-164" class="post-content post-164 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-english category-syntax"> <header class="entry-header"> <span class="screen-reader-text">Language change across the lifespan</span> <h2 class="entry-title"> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/24/language-change-across-the-lifespan/" rel="bookmark">Language change across the lifespan</a> </h2> <div class="entry-meta"> <h5 class="entry-date"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o"></i> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/24/language-change-across-the-lifespan/" title="3:18 pm" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date" datetime="2018-01-24T15:18:15+00:00" pubdate>January 24, 2018 </time></a><span class="byline"><span class="sep"></span><i class="fa fa-user"></i> <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/author/matthew/" title="View all posts by Matthew Baerman" rel="author">Matthew Baerman</a></span></span> <i class="fa fa-comments-o"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Comments </span> <a href="https://morph.surrey.ac.uk/index.php/2018/01/24/language-change-across-the-lifespan/#comments" class="comments-link" >1 comment</a></h5> </div> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p>When I was asked if I could write a blog post, my first thought was “Well, I <em>could</em> do.” And I immediately did an internal double-take, as I had uttered something which, for me, should not be a possible English sentence. My North American English ear ought to reject this sort of orphaned “do” (“I could <strong>do</strong>”, “I will <strong>do</strong>”, “I should have <strong>done</strong>”, where North Americans would just leave it out), which struck me as some sort of diseased outgrowth when I first heard it in Britain some years ago. (For more information, see <a href="https://separatedbyacommonlanguage.blogspot.co.uk/2007/09/pro-predicate-do-and-verb-phrase.html">here</a>.) After many years in the UK I believe I have retained my native pronunciation and native vocabulary — though sometimes just to be polite I stand “in a queue” rather than “on line” (as one does where I come from) — so why should my syntax change, of all things? It’s like I’ve kept up surface appearances (sound and words) but undergone some internal metamorphosis in my syntactic structures. Scary.</p> <p>I’m certainly not alone in being a dialect contact situation, and watching my own language change in response to that. Is the way that it happened to me part of some general pattern? Or are other people affected differently, say, changing their pronunciation while jealously maintaining their syntax?</p> </div> <footer class="entry-footer"> </footer> </article> </main> </div> <div id="secondary" class="col-md-3 sidebar widget-area" role="complementary"> <aside id="mc4wp_form_widget-2" class="widget widget_mc4wp_form_widget"><h4 class="widget-title">Follow Morph</h4><script>(function() { window.mc4wp = window.mc4wp || { listeners: [], forms: { on: function(evt, cb) { window.mc4wp.listeners.push( { event : evt, callback: cb } ); } } } })(); </script><form id="mc4wp-form-1" class="mc4wp-form mc4wp-form-123" method="post" data-id="123" data-name="Follow Morph" ><div class="mc4wp-form-fields"><p> Receive notification of new posts by email. </p><p> <label>Email address: </label> <input type="email" name="EMAIL" placeholder="Your email address" required /> </p> <p> <input type="submit" value="Sign up" /> </p></div><label style="display: none !important;">Leave this field 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class="level-1" value="84">   Batsbi  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="53">   Bierebo  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="152">   Brazilian Sign Language  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="166">   Bulgarian  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="160">   Catalan  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="58">   Czech  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="143">   Daakaka  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="142">   Daakie  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="144">   Dalkalaen  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="105">   Dhivehi  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="42">   Dutch  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="120">   E  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="121">   Efe  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="8">   English  (25)</option> <option class="level-1" value="132">   Estonian  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="122">   Ewe  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="148">   Fanbak  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="86">   Filomeno Mata Totonco  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="19">   French  (13)</option> <option class="level-1" value="67">   Fula  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="11">   Gaelic  (4)</option> <option class="level-1" value="168">   Gaulish  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="10">   German  (7)</option> <option class="level-1" value="151">   German Sign Language  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="36">   Greek  (4)</option> <option class="level-1" value="149">   Greek Sign Language  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="162">   Gujarati  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="94">   Iaai  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="45">   Icelandic  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="163">   Italian  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="150">   Italian Sign Language  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="96">   Kazakh  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="123">   Kerek  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="109">   Krongo  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="141">   Lamap  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="12">   Larike  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="74">   Latin  (5)</option> <option class="level-1" value="169">   Lewo  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="13">   Lihir  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="125">   Mam  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="170">   Merei  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="124">   Naman  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="126">   Nen  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="119">   North Ambrym  (4)</option> <option class="level-1" value="107">   Nuer  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="127">   Ofo  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="73">   Old French  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="43">   Old Norse  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="128">   Ososo  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="66">   Paamese  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="161">   Persian  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="92">   Polish  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="37">   Portuguese  (3)</option> <option class="level-1" value="139">   Raga  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="146">   Raljaja  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="145">   Raljako  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="110">   Russian  (3)</option> <option class="level-1" value="133">   Russian Sign Language  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="136">   Sa  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="140">   Sang  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="164">   Sanskrit  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="167">   Serbian  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="137">   Ske  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="9">   Slovenian  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="108">   Soq  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="44">   Swedish  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="158">   Sylheti  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="54">   Tamil  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="104">   Turkish  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="130">   U  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="129">   Utu  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="147">   Vatlongos  (2)</option> <option class="level-1" value="154">   Welsh  (3)</option> <option class="level-1" value="85">   Wipi  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="159">   Yimas  (1)</option> <option class="level-1" value="131">   Yoy  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="173">lexicalisation  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="111">Lexicography  (2)</option> <option class="level-0" value="75">lexicon  (13)</option> <option class="level-0" value="81">linguistic reconstruction  (3)</option> <option class="level-0" value="38">metathesis  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="2">morphology  (17)</option> <option class="level-0" value="3">number  (2)</option> <option class="level-0" value="68">Oceanic languages  (7)</option> <option class="level-0" value="63">Optimal categorisation  (5)</option> <option class="level-0" value="118">palindrome  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="155">Personification  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="59">phonology  (5)</option> <option class="level-0" value="70">possession  (5)</option> <option class="level-0" value="22">Prescriptivism  (6)</option> <option class="level-0" value="93">Psycholinguistics  (3)</option> <option class="level-0" value="77">reanalysis  (3)</option> <option class="level-0" value="102">scripts  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="83">Semantics  (3)</option> <option class="level-0" value="115">Sign languages  (1)</option> <option class="level-0" value="106">sociolinguistics  (3)</option> <option class="level-0" value="24">sound change  (7)</option> <option 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