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navigation-not-searchable">"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crime_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Crime (disambiguation)">Crime (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Criminal (disambiguation)">Criminal (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criminals_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Criminals (disambiguation)">Criminals (disambiguation)</a>.</div> In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> or other authority.<a href="#cite_note-oed-1">[1]</a> The term crime does not, in modern <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, have any simple and universally accepted definition,<a href="#cite_note-Farmer-2">[2]</a> though <a href="/wiki/Statutory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory">statutory</a> definitions have been provided for certain purposes.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The most popular view is that crime is a <a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">category</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.<a href="#cite_note-Farmer-2">[2]</a> One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public <a href="/wiki/Wrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrong">wrong</a>"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.<a href="#cite_note-oed-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-oxdic-4">[4]</a> The notion that acts such as <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a> are to be prohibited exists worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-5">[5]</a> What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a> of each relevant <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">criminal code</a>, in some <a href="/wiki/Common_law_(legal_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law (legal system)">common law</a> nations no such comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a> exists. The state (<a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">government</a>) has the power to severely restrict one's <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">procedures</a> to which investigations and <a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">trials</a> must adhere. If found <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(law)" title="Guilt (law)">guilty</a>, an offender may be <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentenced</a> to a form of reparation such as a <a href="/wiki/Community_sentence" title="Community sentence">community sentence</a>, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisonment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">life imprisonment</a> or, in some <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death</a>. Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (<a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">actus reus</a>) must – with <a href="/wiki/Strict_liability" title="Strict liability">certain exceptions</a> – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (<a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a>).<a href="#cite_note-oxdic-4">[4]</a> While every crime violates the law, not every <a href="/wiki/Violation_of_the_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Violation of the law">violation of the law</a> counts as a crime. Breaches of <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">torts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_contract" title="Breach of contract">breaches of contract</a>) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition">1 Definition</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Legalism">1.1 Legalism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Sociology">1.2 Sociology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Psychology">1.3 Psychology</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Early_history">2.1 Early history</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Post-classical_era">2.2 Post-classical era</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Modern_era">2.3 Modern era</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Criminal_law">3 Criminal law</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Criminalization">3.1 Criminalization</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Law_enforcement">3.2 Law enforcement</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Criminal_procedure">3.3 Criminal procedure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Liability">3.4 Liability</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#International_criminal_law">3.5 International criminal law</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Types">4 Types</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#White-collar_crime">4.1 White-collar crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Blue-collar_crime">4.2 Blue-collar crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Violent_crime">4.3 Violent crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Property_crime">4.4 Property crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Public_order_crime">4.5 Public order crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Political_crime">4.6 Political crime</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Inchoate_crime">4.7 Inchoate crime</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Participants">5 Participants</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Criminal">5.1 Criminal</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Victim">5.2 Victim</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Crime_statistics">6 Crime statistics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Public_perception">6.1 Public perception</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Criminal_justice">7 Criminal justice</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Natural-law_theory">7.1 Natural-law theory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Corrections_and_punishment">7.2 Corrections and punishment</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Criminology">8 Criminology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Causes_and_correlates">9 Causes and correlates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Notes">11 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#References">12 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199730%E2%80%9337-6">[6]</a> Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20132%E2%80%933-7">[7]</a> The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199749-8">[8]</a> Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legalism">Legalism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Western_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Western philosophy)">Legalism (Western philosophy)</a></div> Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199731%E2%80%9335-10">[10]</a> Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a>. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20131%E2%80%932-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">English criminal law</a> and the related <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> of <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: <a href="/wiki/Common_law_offence" title="Common law offence">common law offences</a>. The courts used the concept of <a href="/wiki/Malum_in_se" title="Malum in se">malum in se</a> to develop various common law offences.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3></div> As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause <a href="/wiki/Harm" title="Harm">harm</a> and violate <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199735%E2%80%9336-14">[14]</a> Under this definition, crime is a type of <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20043-15">[15]</a> and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201410-17">[17]</a> In legal systems based on <a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">legal moralism</a>, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democratic">liberal democratic</a> societies that prioritize <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> over other moral beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199738-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a> defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199738-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div> Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199736%E2%80%9337-19">[19]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201418-20">[20]</a> Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-21">[21]</a> often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201446-22">[22]</a> Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">criminal codes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-21">[21]</a> The earliest known criminal code was the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a> (c. 2100 – c. 2050 BC),<a href="#cite_note-schoyen-23">[23]</a> and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201426-24">[24]</a> The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201447-25">[25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> systematized law and applied their system across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The initial rules of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201442-27">[27]</a> The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201436-28">[28]</a> Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201418-20">[20]</a> This idea was further popularized with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a>. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20148-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> developed its own system of criminal justice as <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201464-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_era">Post-classical era</h3></div> In <a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">post-classical</a> Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201484,_91%E2%80%9394-31">[31]</a> In some places, such as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201497%E2%80%93105-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a> first developed in England under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201463%E2%80%9364-33">[33]</a> Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3></div> In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">Imprisonment</a> developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20148-29">[29]</a> Increasing <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological criminology</a> was popularized by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> in the late-19th century. This was a <a href="/wiki/Biological_determinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological determinist">biological determinist</a> school of thought based in <a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">social darwinism</a>, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201023%E2%80%9324-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201038-35">[35]</a> The concept of crime underwent a period of change as <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> was widely accepted in the years following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from <a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">antisocial</a> behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">centre-left politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20044%E2%80%935-36">[36]</a> Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Dahmer" title="Jeffrey Dahmer">Jeffrey Dahmer</a>, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714-37">[37]</a> Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201043-38">[38]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style> Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">socialist law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201448-39">[39]</a> Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-40">[40]</a> In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a <a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">feud</a> that lasts over several generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201423%E2%80%9324-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminalization">Criminalization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></div> The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201322-42">[42]</a> Criminalization has significant <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201332%E2%80%9333-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_enforcement">Law enforcement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></div> The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">law enforcement agencies</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a>, which are empowered to <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a> suspected perpetrators of crimes.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010485%E2%80%93486-45">[45]</a> One common variant, <a href="/wiki/Community_policing" title="Community policing">community policing</a>, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010487-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_procedure">Criminal procedure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></div> When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentence</a> to determine the penalty for the crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201318-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability">Liability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">Legal liability</a></div> If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_criminal_law">International criminal law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div> International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> As with all international law, these laws are created through <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">international custom</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20092%E2%80%933-50">[50]</a> and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20096-51">[51]</a> International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunals</a> to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash200910%E2%80%9311-52">[52]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White-collar_crime">White-collar crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar crime</a></div> White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include <a href="/wiki/Wage_theft" title="Wage theft">wage theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ponzi_scheme" title="Ponzi scheme">Ponzi schemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">insider trading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">labor racketeering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">cybercrime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forgery</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blue-collar_crime">Blue-collar crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar crime</a></div> Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">burglary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a> or <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violent_crime">Violent crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Violent_crime" title="Violent crime">Violent crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Offence against the person</a></div> Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a> against another person.<a href="#cite_note-:1-54">[54]</a> Common examples of violent crime include <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">robbery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self-defense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Use_of_force" title="Use of force">use of force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of war">acts of war</a>. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_crime">Property crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Property_crime" title="Property crime">Property crime</a></div> Common examples of property crime include <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">burglary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Examples of financial crimes include <a href="/wiki/Counterfeiting" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeiting">counterfeiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">smuggling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">tax evasion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201413-59">[59]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Occupational_crime" title="Occupational crime">occupational crime</a>, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly <a href="/wiki/Confidence_trick" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence trick">scams</a> include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Computing1-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_order_crime">Public order crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime">Public-order crime</a></div> Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">drug-related crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_intoxication" title="Public intoxication">public intoxication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loitering" title="Loitering">loitering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace" title="Breach of the peace">breach of the peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_panhandling" title="Aggressive panhandling">panhandling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy" title="Vagrancy">vagrancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Street_harassment" title="Street harassment">street harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noise_regulation" title="Noise regulation">excessive noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Littering" class="mw-redirect" title="Littering">littering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173%E2%80%93174-61">[61]</a> Public order crime is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">broken windows theory</a>, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173-62">[62]</a> Some public order crimes are considered <a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">victimless crimes</a> in which no specific victim can be identified.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Most nations in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETonry20113-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_take_the_name_of_the_Lord_thy_God_in_vain" title="Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain">invoking the name of God</a> are commonly recognized as crimes in <a href="/wiki/Theocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocratic">theocratic</a> societies or those heavily influenced by religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_crime">Political crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political crime</a></div> Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include <a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">subversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">riot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_assembly" title="Unlawful assembly">unlawful assembly</a>. Political crimes are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Political_agenda" title="Political agenda">political agenda</a> of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissidents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHead20161-65">[65]</a> Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973111-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHead20162-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State crime</a> that is carried out by the state to <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">repress</a> law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss20033%E2%80%934-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inchoate_crime">Inchoate crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offense" title="Inchoate offense">Inchoate offense</a></div> Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include <a href="/wiki/Attempt" title="Attempt">attempt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a>. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that <a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">renunciation</a> of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Participants">Participants</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal">Criminal</h3></div> A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997123%E2%80%93124-70">[70]</a> Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997125%E2%80%93126-71">[71]</a> Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197316%E2%80%9317-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victim">Victim</h3></div> A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20174-73">[73]</a> In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20173-74">[74]</a> Victimization is associated with <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-traumatic stress">post-traumatic stress</a> and a long-term decrease in <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20173-74">[74]</a> Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674%E2%80%93675-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997153-77">[77]</a> Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a>. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674%E2%80%93675-76">[76]</a> Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997150-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20172-79">[79]</a> The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (psychology)">deterrence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-Girgen-82">[82]</a> Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-Girgen-82">[82]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Crime_statistics">Crime statistics</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime statistics</a> may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Under-reporting" title="Under-reporting">Under-reporting</a> of crime is common, particularly in developing nations, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Dark_figure_of_crime" title="Dark figure of crime">dark figure of crime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Victim_study" title="Victim study">Victim studies</a> may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.<a href="#cite_note-:3-83">[83]</a> The gap to official statistics is generally smaller with higher <a href="/wiki/Crime_harm_index" title="Crime harm index">severity of the crime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-walsh-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clearance_rate" title="Clearance rate">Clearance rate</a> measures the fraction of crimes where a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_charge" title="Criminal charge">criminal charge</a> has been laid or the responsible person <a href="/wiki/Conviction" title="Conviction">convicted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-d087-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fear_of_crime" title="Fear of crime">Fear of crime</a> can be distinct from crime <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_perception">Public perception</h3></div> Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and <a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">crime fiction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah19974-88">[88]</a> Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with <a href="/wiki/Alarmism" title="Alarmism">alarmism</a> and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a> in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714%E2%80%9316-89">[89]</a> As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199763%E2%80%9364-90">[90]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Criminal_justice">Criminal justice</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">Crime prevention</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural-law_theory">Natural-law theory</h3></div> Justifying the state's use of <a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">force</a> to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> or constructs them. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, which is the first principle of human acts".<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> He regarded people as by nature <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> described the thesis:<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <dl><dd>"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."</dd></dl> But <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Austin (legal philosophy)">John Austin</a> (1790–1859), an early <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">positivist</a>, applied <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H.L.A. Hart</a> saw the law as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistency</a>, and that the state's agents used state power with <a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">responsibility</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a> rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of <a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">deference</a> (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corrections_and_punishment">Corrections and punishment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Corrections" title="Corrections">Corrections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></div> Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to <a href="/wiki/Censure" title="Censure">censure</a> the criminal act.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973138-97">[97]</a> Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973133-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive justice</a> seeks to create a system of <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a> and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197317%E2%80%9318-99">[99]</a> This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">deterrence</a> that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201316-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a> seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">recidivism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004211-101">[101]</a> Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social networks</a>, reducing <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, influencing <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a>, and providing <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a> for physical and mental ailments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004212%E2%80%93213-102">[102]</a> Rehabilitative programs may include <a href="/wiki/Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">counseling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004215-103">[103]</a> Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-40">[40]</a> In places with widespread corruption or limited <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, crime may be punished extralegally through <a href="/wiki/Mob_rule" title="Mob rule">mob rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201424-104">[104]</a> Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201423-105">[105]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Criminology">Criminology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_science" title="Crime science">Crime science</a></div> The study of crime is called criminology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16">[16]</a> Criminology is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> that addresses issues of <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>. It includes the <a href="/wiki/Motivations_for_hate_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Motivations for hate crime">motivations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">consequences</a> of crime and its <a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">perpetrators</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">preventative measures</a>, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-107">[107]</a> Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16">[16]</a> Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including <a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">social control theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">subcultural theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">strain theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">differential association</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">labeling theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-107">[107]</a> Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">crime prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">anthropological criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_psychology" title="Criminal psychology">criminal psychology</a>, criminal sociology, criminal <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">victimology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197357%E2%80%9366-108">[108]</a> Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPease20107-109">[109]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Causes_and_correlates">Causes and correlates</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes and correlates of crime">Causes and correlates of crime</a></div> Criminal behavior determinants include <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_opportunity" title="Crime of opportunity">opportunity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_passion" title="Crime of passion">crime of passion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-a498-110">[110]</a> A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a>, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deter</a> crime in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> Crime corresponds heavily with <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a>; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045%E2%80%936-111">[111]</a> Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> There is no known <a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetics and crime">genetic cause of crime</a>. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201044%E2%80%9345-112">[112]</a> One biological factor is the <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">disparity between men and women</a>, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Crime distribution shows a <a href="/wiki/Long_tail" title="Long tail">long tail</a> with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">recidivism</a>, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.<a href="#cite_note-f204-114">[114]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/40px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 28px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/40px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="30" data-height="28" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/60px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/120px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_displacement" title="Crime displacement">Crime displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized crime</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-oed-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oed_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"Crime". Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crime&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary+Second+Edition+on+CD-ROM&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farmer-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farmer_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farmer_2-1">b</a> Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors), <a href="/wiki/The_New_Oxford_Companion_to_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Oxford Companion to Law">The New Oxford Companion to Law</a>, Oxford University Press, 2008 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929054-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929054-3">978-0-19-929054-3</a>), p. 263 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604015215/https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> 2016-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_and_Labour_Relations_(Consolidation)_Act_1992" title="Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992">Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992</a> and by the Schedule to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prevention_of_Crimes_Act_1871&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prevention of Crimes Act 1871 (page does not exist)">Prevention of Crimes Act 1871</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-oxdic-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_A._Martin2003" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth A. 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Theoretical Criminology. 5 (4): 467–485. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480601005004004">10.1177/1362480601005004004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1362-4806">1362-4806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretical+Criminology&rft.atitle=The+Genesis+of+%27Fear+of+Crime%27&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E467-%3C%2Fspan%3E485&rft.date=2001-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1362480601005004004&rft.issn=1362-4806&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1362480601005004004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah19974-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah19974_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714–16-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199714%E2%80%9316_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 14–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199763–64-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199763%E2%80%9364_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 63–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas,_Aquinas2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Aquinas (2002). On law, morality, and politics. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). 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(1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/takingrightsseri00dwor">Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674867114" title="Special:BookSources/0674867114"><bdi>0674867114</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4313351">4313351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+rights+seriously+%3A+%5Bwith+a+new+appendix%2C+a+response+to+critics%5D&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4313351&rft.isbn=0674867114&rft.au=Dworkin%2C+Ronald.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftakingrightsseri00dwor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinnis2015" class="citation book cs1">Finnis, John (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/">Natural Law & Natural Rights</a>. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">OUP</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199599141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199599141"><bdi>978-0199599141</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806015838/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-08-06. Retrieved 2019-07-17. <q>The moral standards...which Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it would be more accurate (according to Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Law+%26+Natural+Rights&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0199599141&rft.aulast=Finnis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fnatural-law-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBix2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bix, Brian H. 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Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology. 7 (3): 359–384. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40865-021-00172-w">10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2199-4641">2199-4641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Developmental+and+Life-Course+Criminology&rft.atitle=Age%2C+Gender%2C+and+Crime+in+a+Stockholm+Birth+Cohort+to+Age+64&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E359-%3C%2Fspan%3E384&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40865-021-00172-w&rft.issn=2199-4641&rft.aulast=Carlsson&rft.aufirst=Christoffer&rft.au=Sivertsson%2C+Fredrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs40865-021-00172-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshworthHorder2013" class="citation book cs1">Ashworth, Andrew; Horder, Jeremy (2013). Principles of Criminal Law (7th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199672684" title="Special:BookSources/9780199672684"><bdi>9780199672684</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Criminal+Law&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199672684&rft.aulast=Ashworth&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Horder%2C+Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBantekasNash2009" class="citation book cs1">Bantekas, Ilias; Nash, Susan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmONAgAAQBAJ">International Criminal Law</a>. 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Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349258383" title="Special:BookSources/9781349258383"><bdi>9781349258383</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminology%3A+Past%2C+Present+and+Future%3A+A+Critical+Overview&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781349258383&rft.aulast=Fattah&rft.aufirst=Ezzat+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyEauCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHead2016" class="citation book cs1">Head, Michael (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkpDAAAQBAJ">Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism</a>. 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/6259.html">On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence</a>, NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2003" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1nwKqP-HkoC">The Dynamics of Political Crime</a>. 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CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420085525" title="Special:BookSources/9781420085525"><bdi>9781420085525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Handbook+of+Criminology&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781420085525&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6EAeC__66FQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Pease, Ken. "Crime Science". In <a href="#CITEREFShohamKnepperKett2010">Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)</a>, pp. 3–22.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Davie, Neil. "Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective". In <a href="#CITEREFShohamKnepperKett2010">Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)</a>, pp. 23–49.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">O'Neill, Megan. "The Police Response to Crime". In <a href="#CITEREFShohamKnepperKett2010">Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)</a>, pp. 483–510.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. "Understanding Repeat Victimization: A Longitudinal Study". In <a href="#CITEREFShohamKnepperKett2010">Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010)</a>, pp. 649–680.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpalek2017" class="citation book cs1">Spalek, Basia (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bhtHEAAAQBAJ">Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice</a> (2nd ed.). 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Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631220923" title="Special:BookSources/9780631220923"><bdi>9780631220923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Criminology&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780631220923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgcGUEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An Assessment of Theory and Research". In <a href="#CITEREFSumner2004">Sumner (2004)</a>, pp. 211–227.</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonry2011" class="citation book cs1">Tonry, Michael, ed. 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In <a href="#CITEREFWelshFarrington2012">Welsh & Farrington (2012)</a>, pp. 173–188.</li></ul></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Crime at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/20px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/20px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Crime">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 14px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="14" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Crimes" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Crimes">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="q:Crime">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/20px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/20px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="voy:Crime">Travel guides</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 12px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="12" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83267" class="extiw" title="d:Q83267">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crime&oldid=1282047777">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crime&oldid=1282047777</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Crime&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 24 March 2025, at 00:09 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdaad" title="Misdaad – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Misdaad" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="جريمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جريمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinay%C9%99t" title="Cinayət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cinayət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%86" title="سوچ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سوچ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7" title="অপরাধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপরাধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C4%81n-ch%C5%8De" title="Hoān-chōe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoān-chōe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Злачынства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Злачынства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Злачынства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Злачынства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Престъпление – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Престъпление" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torfed" title="Torfed – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Torfed" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crim" title="Crim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Криминал – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Криминал" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%BD_%C4%8Din" title="Trestný čin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Trestný čin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trosedd" title="Trosedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trosedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrydelse" title="Forbrydelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forbrydelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen" title="Verbrechen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verbrechen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuritegu" title="Kuritegu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kuritegu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Έγκλημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έγκλημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimen" title="Crimen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crimen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimo" title="Krimo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Krimo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B2%D9%87" title="بزه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بزه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3garbrot" title="Lógarbrot – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lógarbrot" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdie" title="Misdie – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Misdie" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir" title="Coir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%84" title="범죄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="범죄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laifi" title="Laifi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Laifi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Հանցանք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանցանք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazneno_djelo" title="Kazneno djelo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kazneno djelo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimino" title="Krimino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Krimino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidana" title="Pidana – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pidana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine" title="Crimine – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Crimine" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A6pur" title="Glæpur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Glæpur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine" title="Crimine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crimine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94" title="עבירה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עבירה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadurjanan" title="Kadurjanan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kadurjanan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A7" title="ಅಪರಾಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಪರಾಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="დანაშაული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დანაშაული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81" title="Қылмыс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қылмыс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinai" title="Jinai – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jinai" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krim" title="Krim – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Krim" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krim" title="Krim – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Krim" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawan" title="Tawan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tawan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Кылмыш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кылмыш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B3" title="ອາຊະຍາກຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອາຊະຍາກຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scelus" title="Scelus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scelus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noziegums" title="Noziegums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Noziegums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nusikaltimas" title="Nusikaltimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nusikaltimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminaliteit" title="Criminaliteit – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Criminaliteit" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%B1ncselekm%C3%A9ny" title="Bűncselekmény – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bűncselekmény" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Злосторство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Злосторство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heloka_bevava" title="Heloka bevava – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Heloka bevava" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="അപരാധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അപരാധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="الجريمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الجريمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenayah" title="Jenayah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jenayah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%87%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ရာဇဝတ်မှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရာဇဝတ်မှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdaad" title="Misdaad – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Misdaad" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="犯罪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="犯罪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrytelse" title="Forbrytelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forbrytelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakka" title="Yakka – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Yakka" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinoyat" title="Jinoyat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jinoyat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE" title="ਜੁਰਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੁਰਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85" title="جرم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جرم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraim" title="Kraim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kraim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przest%C4%99pstwo" title="Przestępstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przestępstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%B1nayat" title="Jınayat – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Jınayat" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrac%C8%9Biune" title="Infracțiune – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Infracțiune" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27uma" title="Q'uma – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Q'uma" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Преступление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Преступление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B9%D1%83_%D0%BE%D2%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83" title="Буруйу оҥоруу – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Буруйу оҥоруу" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimi" title="Krimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Krimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B0" title="අපරාධ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අපරාධ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%BD_%C4%8Din" title="Trestný čin – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Trestný čin" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gef" title="Gef – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Gef" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاوان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاوان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Злочин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Злочин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikos" title="Rikos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rikos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brott" title="Brott – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Brott" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குற்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குற்றம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Җинаять – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җинаять" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="నేరం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నేరం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="อาชญากรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาชญากรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Ҷиноят – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷиноят" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A7" title="Suç – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Suç" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%AA%E7%8A%AF" title="罪犯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="罪犯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="犯罪 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="犯罪" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%9F" title="פארברעכן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פארברעכן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="犯罪 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="犯罪" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="犯罪 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="犯罪" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegajulan" title="Kegajulan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kegajulan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" 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