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It was introduced in the early 20th century by film manufacturers and intended as a safe [[film base]] replacement for unstable and highly [[flammable]] [[Nitrocellulose#Film|nitrate film]]. [[Cellulose diacetate]] film was first employed commercially for [[photographic film]] in 1909. [[Cellulose acetate propionate]] and [[cellulose acetate butyrate]] were introduced in the 1930s, and [[cellulose triacetate]] in the late 1940s. Acetate films were later replaced by [[polyester]] bases. The motion picture industry continued to use [[cellulose nitrate]] supports until the introduction of cellulose triacetate in 1948, which met the rigorous safety and performance standards set by the cinematographic industry.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Ram |first= A. Tulsi |title= Archival Preservation of Photographic Film-A Perspective |journal= Polymer Degradation and Stability |volume= 29 |issue= 1 |year=1990 |page= 4 |doi= 10.1016/0141-3910(90)90019-4 |issn= 0141-3910}}</ref> The [[chemical instability]] of cellulose acetate material, unrecognized at the time of its introduction, has since become a major problem for film archives and collections. [[Digitization]] is now the best way to preserve the contents of cellulose acetate film. ==History== [[Cellulose diacetate]] film was first created by the German chemists [[Arthur Eichengrün]] and Theodore Becker, who patented it under the name '''Cellit''', from a process they devised in 1901 for the direct acetylation of cellulose at a low temperature to prevent its degradation, which permitted the degree of acetylation to be controlled, thereby avoiding total conversion to its triacetate. Cellit was a stable, non-brittle cellulose acetate polymer that could be dissolved in acetone for further processing. A cellulose diacetate film more readily dissolved in [[acetone]] was developed by the American chemist George Miles in 1904. Miles's process (partially hydrolysing the polymer) was employed commercially for [[photographic film]] in 1909 by [[Eastman Kodak]] and the [[Pathé]] Frères. Starting with cellulose diacetate, this innovation continued with [[cellulose acetate propionate]] and [[cellulose acetate butyrate]] in the 1930s, and finally in the late 1940s, [[cellulose triacetate]] was introduced, and later [[polyester]] bases.<ref>{{cite book |author= National Film Preservation Foundation |year= 2004 |title= The Film Preservation Guide: The Basics for Archives, Libraries, and Museums |url= http://www.filmpreservation.org/preservation-basics/the-film-preservation-guide |location= San Francisco |publisher= National Film Preservation Foundation |page= 9 |isbn= 9780974709901 |access-date= January 5, 2013 |archive-date= 14 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190414113026/https://www.filmpreservation.org/preservation-basics/the-film-preservation-guide |url-status= dead }}</ref> These less flammable substitutes for nitrate film were called safety film. ===Boroid=== [[File:Advertisement - The Stage - 10-10-1912.jpg|alt=BOROID advertisement 'The Stage'|thumb|BOROID advertisement 'The Stage']] In 1910, a newly discovered, non-inflammable, film format 'BOROID' was presented to the British cinematographic trade using acetate-based cellulose. It was developed, he claimed 'accidentally', by the prolific inventor Benno Borzykowski, a partner in Photochemie G.m.b.H. Berlin, and Director of the Benobor Syndicate, who had worked on other patents for artificial silk and other fabrics. BOROID was a by-product of that work by Borzykowski, but was not patented. ("The process has not been patented and will not be; it is a secret formula known only to the inventor and two trustees in England. He has never sold the process itself, merely the right to manufacture and market…"<ref name= "EdFilm"/>) Borzykowski published other UK patents including "Original printed patent application number 21,719 for a new or improved process for the production of a substitute for glass sheets or plates and other articles…" in 1910. The Boroid company commenced trading on 21 November 1910, being originally registered in London at 58 Coleman St., moving to 104 High Holborn in May 1911, and finally to 48 Rupert St. in June 1913. Boroid Ltd. issued its detailed share prospectus in the ''(Westminster Gazette of Monday 16 January 1911 (P12 col. 1 and 2)'': A number of testimonials were provided, including a very detailed one from [[Alfred John West|Alfred J West F.R.G.S.]] of 'Our Navy', in which he proposed to move his entire production to 'non-flam' BOROID film: 'BOROID' had most of its assets in Germany, and the Great War of 1914-1919 put an immediate end to the business in the UK when BOROID film stock became unavailable. A Receiver was appointed by the debenture holders on 12 May 1914 (The London Project). Borzykowski moved to America and was interviewed in an article in the Educational Film Magazine in the April 1919 edition.<ref name= "EdFilm">[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Educational_Film_Magazine_%28Jan-Jun_1919%29_%28IA_educationalfilmm01city%29.pdf Educational Film Magazine in the April 1919 edition] (p.&nbsp;22-25. p.&nbsp;136 in the linked PDF file)</ref> == Decay and the "vinegar syndrome" == {{Main|Vinegar syndrome}} [[File:Vinegar Syndrome D.D. Teoli Jr (2).jpg|thumb|Shrinking and warpage of [[16 mm film|16&nbsp;mm film]] caused by vinegar syndrome]] Beginning in the 1980s, there was a great deal of focus upon film stability following frequent reports of cellulose triacetate degradation. Cellulose acetate releases [[acetic acid]], the key ingredient in [[vinegar]], which is responsible for its acidic smell. The problem became known as "[[vinegar syndrome]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Adelstein |first1= P.Z. |first2= J.M. |last2=Reilly |first3= D.W. |last3= Nishimura |first4= C.J. |last4= Erbland |title= Stability of Cellulose Ester Base Photographic Film: Part I-Laboratory Testing Procedures |journal= SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal |volume= 101 |issue= 5 |date=May 1992 |page= 336 | name-list-style= amp |doi= 10.5594/J02284 |issn= 1545-0279 }}</ref> This accelerates degradation within the film, and can also contribute to damage to surrounding films and metals.<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/historical-films-may-be-decaying-much-faster-than-we-thought-thanks-to-vinegar-syndrome-131712|title=Historical films may be decaying much faster than we thought thanks to 'vinegar syndrome'|first=Ida R.|last=Ahmad|website=The Conversation|date=19 May 2020 }}</ref> The first instance of cellulose triacetate degradation was reported to the [[Kodak|Eastman Kodak]] Company within a decade of its introduction in 1948. The first report came from the Government of India, whose film materials were stored in hot, humid conditions. It was followed by further reports of degradation from collections stored in similar conditions. These observations resulted in continuing studies in the [[Kodak]] laboratories during the 1960s. Film degradation can only be delayed by storage in dry and cold conditions. It was initially thought that storage under recommended conditions might delay decay by 450 years, but some films are developing vinegar syndrome after just 70 years of cold dry storage.<ref name="Ahmad"/> Arri and others sold [[film recorder]]s specifically for recording video onto film for archival purposes based on the assumption that vinegar syndrome could be delayed for long periods of time.<ref>[https://www.tate.org.uk/file/laser-recording-system-colour-microfilm-creating-digital-copies-dying-technologies-project Laser recording system colour microfilm creating digital copies] tate.org.uk</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/Blog/Blog_Post/?contentId=4295001459|title = Filmmaker Stories}}</ref> === Testing for degradation === A testing product developed by the [[Image Permanence Institute]], A-D, or "acid-detection" indicator strips change color from blue through shades of green to yellow with increasing exposure to acid. According to the test User's Guide, they were "created to aid in the preservation of collections of photographic film, including sheet and [[roll film]]s, cinema film, and microfilm. They provide a nondestructive method of determining the extent of vinegar syndrome in film collections."<ref>{{cite book |author= Image Permanence Institute |title= User's Guide for A-D Strips: Film Base Deterioration Monitor |location= Rochester, NY |publisher= Image Permanence Institute |year= 2001}}</ref> These tools can be used to determine the extent of damage to a film collection and which steps should be taken to prolong their usability. == Preservation and storage == Currently there is no practical way of halting or reversing the course of degradation. Many film collectors use [[camphor]] tablets but it is not known what the long term effects on the film would be.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= M. |last2= Edge |first3= C.V. |last3= Horie |first4= T.S. |last4= Jewitt |first5= J.H. |last5= Appleyard |title= Degradation of Historic Cellulose Triacetate Cinematograph Film: Influence of Various Film Parameters and Prediction of Archival Life |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 36 |issue= 6 |year= 1998 |page=194 |doi= 10.1080/00223638.1988.11736999 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> While there has been significant research regarding various methods of slowing degradation, such as storage in [[molecular sieve]]s, temperature and moisture are the two key factors affecting the rate of deterioration. According to the [[Image Permanence Institute]], fresh acetate film stored at a temperature of {{cvt|70|F|order=flip}} and 40% relative humidity will last approximately 50 years before the onset of vinegar syndrome. Reducing the temperature by {{cvt|15|F|order=flip}} while maintaining the same level of humidity brings a dramatic improvement: at a temperature of {{cvt|55|F|order=flip}} and 40% relative humidity, the estimated time until onset of vinegar syndrome is 150 years.<ref>{{cite book |last= Reilly |first= James M. |title= IPI Storage Guide for Acetate Film: Instructions for Using the Wheel, Graphs, and Table: Basic Strategy for Film Preservation |url=https://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/webfm_send/299|location= Rochester |publisher= Image Permanence Institute |year= 1993 |pages= 5–6 |oclc= 28283222}}</ref> A combination of low temperature and low relative humidity represents the optimum storage condition for cellulose acetate base films,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Adelstein |first1= P.Z. |first2= J.M. |last2= Reilly |first3= D.W. |last3= Nishimura |first4= C.J. |last4= Erbland |title= Stability of Cellulose Ester Base Photographic Film: Part II-Practical Storage Considerations |journal= SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal |volume= 101 |issue= 5 |date=May 1992 |page=353 |doi= 10.5594/J02285 |issn= 1545-0279 |name-list-style= amp}}</ref> with the caveat that relative humidity should not be lowered below 20%, or the film will dry out too much and become brittle.<ref>Reilly (1993), p. 4.</ref> Cold storage options for the preservation of acetate film range from insulated cold storage rooms, or vaults, with relative humidity control (typical settings in the range of {{cvt|35|-|40|F|order=flip}} temperature, and 30–35% relative humidity), which might be used by archival institutions for large and medium-sized collections, to free-standing freezer units, which can be cost-effective for small collections, but necessitate vapor-proof packaging of the films to protect against relative humidity extremes and condensation.<ref>{{cite book |author= National Film Preservation Foundation |year= 2004 |title= The Film Preservation Guide: The Basics for Archives, Libraries, and Museums |url= http://www.filmpreservation.org/preservation-basics/the-film-preservation-guide |location= San Francisco |publisher= National Film Preservation Foundation |page= 62 |access-date= 5 January 2013 |archive-date= 14 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190414113026/https://www.filmpreservation.org/preservation-basics/the-film-preservation-guide |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=Sarah S.|date=2007|title=Cold Storage Options: Costs and Implementation Issues|url=https://resources.culturalheritage.org/pmgtopics/2007-volume-twelve/12_30_wagner.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Topics in Photographic Preservation|volume=12|pages=224–238|issn=1048-4388|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428114717/https://resources.culturalheritage.org/pmgtopics/2007-volume-twelve/12_30_wagner.pdf|archive-date=April 28, 2021}}</ref> Commercial storage facilities may offer varying environmental conditions at different rates.<ref>Wagner (2007), p. 226; ''The Film Preservation Guide'' (2007), p. 63–64.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bonded.com/storage.php |title= Film and Media Storage |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100914130421/http://www.bonded.com/storage.php |archive-date= September 14, 2010 |publisher= Bonded Services Group}}</ref> Microenvironments—the conditions inside an enclosure—can also affect the condition of cellulose acetate film. Enclosures that are breathable or that contain an acid absorbent are instrumental in reducing the rate of decay due to vinegar syndrome. Sealed metal containers can trap the decay products released by the film, promoting the spread of vinegar syndrome.<ref>{{cite conference |first1= Jean-Louis |last1= Bigourdan |first2= J. |last2= Reilly |title= Effectiveness of Storage Conditions in Controlling the Vinegar Syndrome: Preservation Strategies for Acetate Base Motion-Picture Film Collections |url= https://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/webfm_send/307 |format= PDF |book-title= Archiver et communiquer l'image et le son: les enjeux du 3ème millenaire |conference= Joint Technical Symposium Paris 2000 |editor1-first= Michelle |editor1-last=Aubert |editor2-first= Richard |editor2-last= Billeaud |location= Paris |publisher= CNC |date=May 2000 |pages= 14–34 |isbn=9782910202033 |name-list-style= amp |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190916012356/https://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/webfm_send/307 |archive-date= September 16, 2019}}</ref> == Rescuing damaged film == During early stages of decay, the film content can be rescued by transferring it to new [[film stock]]. Once the film becomes too brittle or the shrinkage is excessive, it cannot be copied. Because the gelatin emulsion usually stays intact during the degradation process, it is possible to save the image on sheet film using solvents to dissolve the base off the emulsion. Once the emulsion has been freed from the shrunken support, it can be photographed or transferred to a new support. Because of the solvents used, this is a delicate and potentially hazardous procedure and is an expensive process for a large collection. Degraded motion picture film cannot be restored in this way, but sheet films often can.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Reilly |first= James M |title= Basic Strategy for Acetate Film Preservation |journal= Microform and Imaging Review |volume= 31 |issue= 4 |date=November 2007 |page= 118 |doi= 10.1515/MFIR.2002.117 |s2cid= 161088393 |issn= 0949-5770}}</ref> Digitization is now the best way to preserve the contents of cellulose acetate film. Current standards now allow for scanning at more than ample resolution to produce a copy of the same picture and sound quality as the original. Transfer processes at [[10K resolution|10K (pixel) resolution]] are not uncommon. Transferring is now done without film-damaging sprocket transport, hence, the original film stock suffers little, if any, damage. The Godfather trilogy is one of the best and earliest examples of full resolution digital transfer and ultimate restoration. This seminal project was completed several years ago, and the process has significantly improved since then. [[4K resolution|4K digital resolution]], often available for home viewing, will deliver quality equal to an original analogue [[35 mm movie film|35&nbsp;mm film]]. The 10K transfer resolution standard seems to accommodate most, or all 65–75&nbsp;mm wide-screen variants. These film variants were developed in the 1950s and 1960s, (e.g., Spectra-vision, Vista-Vision, CinémaScope, etc.){{cn|date=January 2024}} == Other uses == Cellulose acetate film is also used to make replicates of materials and biological samples for [[Microscope|microscopy]]. The techniques were developed for metallographic needs to examine the grain structure of polished metals. [[Replication (metallography)|Replication]] can be used to understand the distribution, for example, of different types of iron in carbon steel samples, or the fine distribution of damage to a sample subject to mechanical wear.<ref>{{cite journal |first1= G.F. |last1= Vander Voort |first2= A. |last2= Roósz |date=February 1984 |title= Measurement of the Interlamellar Spacing of Pearlite |journal= Metallography |volume= 17 |issue= 1 |pages= 1–17 |doi= 10.1016/0026-0800(84)90002-8 |issn= 0026-0800 |name-list-style= amp}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1= P.A. |last1=Higham |first2= F.H. |last2= Stott |first3= B. |last3= Bethune |title= Mechanisms of Wear of the Metal Surface During Fretting Corrosion of Steel on Polymers |journal= Corrosion Science |volume= 18 |issue= 1 |year= 1978 |pages= 3–13 |issn= 0010-938X |doi= 10.1016/S0010-938X(78)80071-7 |name-list-style= amp}}</ref> == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == {{refbegin|2}} *{{cite journal |last1= Adelstein |first1= P.Z. |first2= J.M. |last2= Reilly |first3= D.W. |last3= Nishimura |first4= C.J. |last4= Erbland |title= Stability of Cellulose Ester Base Photographic Film: Part III-Measurement of Film Degradation |journal= SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal |volume= 104 |date=May 1995 |issue= 5 |pages= 281–291 |doi= 10.5594/J15292 |issn= 1545-0279 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Adelstein |first1= P.Z. |first2= J.M. |last2= Reilly |first3= D.W. |last3= Nishimura |first4= C.J. |last4= Erbland |first5= J.L. |last5= Bigourdan |title= Stability of Cellulose Ester Base Photographic Film: Part V- Recent Findings |journal= SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal |volume= 104 |issue= 7 |date=July 1995 |pages= 439–447 |doi= 10.5594/J17707 |issn= 1545-0279 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= M. |last2= Edge |first3= C.V. |last3= Horie |first4= T.S. |last4= Jewitt |first5= J.H. |last5= Appleyard |title= The Degradation and Stabilization of the Historic Cellulose acetate/ Nitrate Base Motion-picture Film |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 36 |issue= 3 |year= 1988 |pages= 103–106 |doi= 10.1080/00223638.1988.11736978 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= M. |last2= Edge |first3= C.V. |last3= Horie |first4= T.S. |last4= Jewitt |first5= J.H. |last5= Appleyard |title= The Degradation Characteristics of Archival Cellulose Triacetate Base Cinematograph Film |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 36 |issue= 6 |year= 1998 |pages= 199–203 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= M. |last2= Edge |first3= T.S. |last3= Jewitt |first4= C.V. |last4=Horie |title= Initiation of the Degradation of Cellulose Triacetate Base Motion Picture Film |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 38 |issue= 2 |year= 1990 |pages= 54–59 |doi= 10.1080/00223638.1989.11737073 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= J.H. |last2= Appleyard |first3= E. |last3= Edge |first4= D. |last4= Francis |first5= C.V. |last5= Horie |first6= T.S. |last6= Jewitt |title= The Nature of the Degradation of Archival Cellulose-Ester Base Motion-Picture Film: The Case for Stabilization |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 36 |issue= 2 |year= 1988 |pages= 34–39 |doi= 10.1080/00223638.1988.11736956 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Allen |first1= N.S. |first2= M. |last2= Edge |first3= T.S. |last3= Jewitt |first4= C.V. |last4= Horie |title= Stabilization of Cellulose Triacetate Base Motion Picture Film |journal= The Journal of Photographic Science |volume= 30 |issue= 1 |year= 1990 |pages=26–29 |issn= 0022-3638 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite journal |last1= Edge |first1= M. |first2= N.S. |last2= Allen |first3= T.S. |last3= Jewitt |first4= C.V. |last4= Horie |title= Fundamental Aspects of the Degradation of Cellulose Triacetate Base Cinematograph Film |journal= Polymer Degradation and Stability |volume= 25 |issue= 2–4 |year=1989 |pages= 345–362 |doi= 10.1016/S0141-3910(89)81016-X |issn= 0141-3910 |name-list-style= amp}} *{{cite book |last= Horvath |first= David G. |year= 1987 |title= The Acetate Negative Survey Final Report |location= Louisville, KY |publisher= Ekstrom Library Photographic Archives, University of Louisville |url= http://louisville.edu/library/ekstrom/special/files/Acetates |oclc= 16441840}} *{{cite conference |last1= Meyer |first1= Mark-Paul |first2= Paul |last2= Read |title= Restoration and Preservation of Vinegar Syndrome Decayed Acetate Film |editor1-first= Michelle |editor1-last= Aubert |editor2-first= Richard |editor2-last= Billeaud |book-title= Archiver et communiquer l'image et le son :les enjeux du 3ème millenaire : actes du Symposium Technique Mixte—JTS Paris 2000 |pages= 54–65 |location= Paris |publisher= CNC |year= 2000 |isbn= 9782910202033}} *{{cite journal |last1= Ram |first1= A.T. |first2= D.F. |last2=Kopperl |first3= R.C. |last3=Sehlin |title= The Effects and Prevention of Vinegar Syndrome |journal= The Journal of Imaging Science and Technology |volume= 38 |issue= 3 |year=1994 |pages= 249–261 |issn= 1062-3701 |name-list-style= amp}} {{refend}} == External links == *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070610164528/http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/preservation/information/photographic/messier/messier.htm Article on the long term archival of triacetate photographic films] *[https://www.loc.gov/preserv/care/film.html Care, Handling, and Storage of Motion Picture Film, Library of Congress] *[https://www.loc.gov/film/photogal.html National Film Preservation Board] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609143155/http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/preservation/preservation.html UCLA Film and Television Archives] *[https://www.imagepermanenceinstitute.org/webfm_send/308 Vinegar Syndrome: An Action Plan, Image Permanence Institute] {{DEFAULTSORT:Cellulose Acetate Film}} 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