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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover Charadrius nivosus (Cassin, 1858) | Conservation Genetics</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover Charadrius nivosus (Cassin, 1858)"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Conservation Genetics - Delineating conservation units is a complex and often controversial process that is particularly challenging for highly vagile species. Here, we reassess population genetic..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="10592"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover Charadrius nivosus (Cassin, 1858)"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Conservation Genetics 2020 21:3"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2020-02-28"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2020 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2020 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Delineating conservation units is a complex and often controversial process that is particularly challenging for highly vagile species. Here, we reassess population genetic structure and identify those populations of highest conservation value in the threatened snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus, Cassin, 1858), a partial migrant shorebird endemic to the Americas. We use four categories of genetic data—mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites, Z-linked and autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)—to: (1) assess subspecies delineation and examine population structure (2) compare the sensitivity of the different types of genetic data to detect spatial genetic patterns, and (3) reconstruct demographic history of the populations analysed. Delineation of two traditionally recognised subspecies was broadly supported by all data. In addition, microsatellite and SNPs but not mtDNA supported the recognition of Caribbean snowy plovers (C. n. tenuirostris) and Floridian populations (eastern C. n. nivosus) as distinct genetic lineage and deme, respectively. Low migration rates estimated from autosomal SNPs (m&nbsp;&lt;&nbsp;0.03) reflect a&nbsp;general paucity of exchange between genetic lineages. In contrast, we detected strong unidirectional migration (m&nbsp;=&nbsp;0.26) from the western into the eastern nivosus deme. Within western nivosus, we found no genetic differentiation between coastal Pacific and inland populations. The correlation between geographic and genetic distances was weak but significant for all genetic data sets. All demes showed signatures of bottlenecks occurring during the past 1000&nbsp;years. We conclude that at least four snowy plover conservation units are warranted: in addition to subspecies nivosus and occidentalis, a third unit comprises the Caribbean tenuirostris lineage and a fourth unit the distinct eastern nivosus deme."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1572-9737"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Conservation Genetics"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2020-02-28"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="21"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="3"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="387"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="404"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2020 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Conservation Genetics"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Conserv Genet"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Netherlands"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1572-9737"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover Charadrius nivosus (Cassin, 1858)"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="21"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="3"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2020/06"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2020/02/28"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="387"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="404"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research Article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="size" content="379999"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Delineating conservation units is a complex and often controversial process that is particularly challenging for highly vagile species. Here, we reassess p"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="D’Urban Jackson, Josephine"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Bruford, Michael W."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Székely, Tamás"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="DaCosta, Jeffrey M."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Sorenson, Michael D."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Russo, Isa-Rita M."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Maher, Kathryn H."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Cruz-López, Medardo"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Galindo-Espinosa, Daniel"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Palacios, Eduardo"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="De Sucre-Medrano, Atahualpa Eduardo"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Cavitt, John"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Pruner, Raya"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Morales, Alcides L."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Gonzalez, Oscar"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Burke, Terry"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Küpper, Clemens"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Conservation Biology/Ecology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Ecology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Biodiversity"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Evolutionary Biology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Plant Genetics and Genomics"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Animal Genetics and Genomics"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Conserv Biol; citation_title=Using global sensitivity analysis of demographic models for ecological impact assessment; citation_author=ME Aiello-Lammens, HR Akcakaya; citation_volume=31; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=116-125; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Glob Chang Biol; citation_title=The impact of sea-level rise on snowy plovers in Florida: integrating geomorphological, habitat, and metapopulation models; citation_author=ME Aiello-Lammens, MAL Chu-agor, M Convertino, RA Fischer, I Linkov, HR Akçakaya; citation_volume=17; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=3644-3654; citation_id=CR3"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nat Rev Genet; citation_title=Genomics and the future of conservation genetics; citation_author=FW Allendorf, PA Hohenlohe, G Luikart; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=697-709; citation_id=CR4"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Mol Biol; citation_title=Basic local alignment search tool; citation_author=SF Altschul, W Gish, W Miller, EW Myers, DJ Lipman; citation_volume=215; citation_publication_date=1990; citation_pages=403-410; citation_id=CR5"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Check-list of North American birds; citation_publication_date=1957; citation_id=CR6; citation_publisher=American Ornithologist’s Union"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=R Soc Open Sci; citation_title=From conservation genetics to conservation genomics: a genome-wide assessment of blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) in Australian feeding aggregations; citation_author=CRM Attard, LB Beheregaray, J Sandoval-Castillo, KCS Jenner, PC Gill, M-NM Jenner, MG Morrice, LM Möller; citation_volume=5; citation_publication_date=2018; citation_pages=170925; citation_id=CR7"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="AviBase taxonomic concepts v.06 (2018) Snowy plover (Cuban) found on https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=D38979BC5364C406&sec=summary . 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Johnson, D Haussler, OA Ryder, E Willerslev, GR Graves, P Alström, J Fjeldså, DP Mindell, SV Edwards, EL Braun, C Rahbek, DW Burt, P Houde, Y Zhang, H Yang, J Wang, ED Jarvis, MT Gilbert, J Wang, ED Jarvis, MT Gilbert, J Wang; citation_volume=346; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=1311-1321; citation_id=CR151"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Science; citation_title=Complex evolutionary trajectories of sex chromosomes across bird taxa; citation_author=Q Zhou, J Zhang, D Bachtrog, N An, Q Huang, ED Jarvis, MTP Gilbert, G Zhang; citation_volume=346; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=1246338; citation_id=CR152"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="D’Urban Jackson, Josephine"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="josiedjackson@gmail.com"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Bruford, Michael W."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Székely, Tamás"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Maio Biodiversity Foundation, Maio, Republic of Cabo Verde"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="DaCosta, Jeffrey M."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Sorenson, Michael D."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Russo, Isa-Rita M."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Maher, Kathryn H."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="NERC-Biomolecular Analysis Facility, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Cruz-López, Medardo"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Posgrado de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Sinaloa, Mexico"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Galindo-Espinosa, Daniel"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Departamento Académico de Ciencias Marinas y Costeras, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Baja California Sur, La Paz, Mexico"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Palacios, Eduardo"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California Sur, La Paz, Mexico"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="De Sucre-Medrano, Atahualpa Eduardo"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratorio de Zoología, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, Mexico"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Cavitt, John"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Avian Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Pruner, Raya"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Panama City, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Morales, Alcides L."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Fideicomiso de Conservación de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Gonzalez, Oscar"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Grupo Aves del Perú, Lima 34, Peru"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Natural Sciences, Emmanuel College, Franklin Springs, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Burke, Terry"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="NERC-Biomolecular Analysis Facility, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Küpper, Clemens"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="ckuepper@orn.mpg.de"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2020/06/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover Charadrius nivosus (Cassin, 1858) - Conservation Genetics"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Delineating conservation units is a complex and often controversial process that is particularly challenging for highly vagile species. Here, we reassess population genetic structure and identify those populations of highest conservation value in the threatened snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus, Cassin, 1858), a partial migrant shorebird endemic to the Americas. We use four categories of genetic data—mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites, Z-linked and autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)—to: (1) assess subspecies delineation and examine population structure (2) compare the sensitivity of the different types of genetic data to detect spatial genetic patterns, and (3) reconstruct demographic history of the populations analysed. Delineation of two traditionally recognised subspecies was broadly supported by all data. In addition, microsatellite and SNPs but not mtDNA supported the recognition of Caribbean snowy plovers (C. n. tenuirostris) and Floridian populations (eastern C. n. nivosus) as distinct genetic lineage and deme, respectively. Low migration rates estimated from autosomal SNPs (m < 0.03) reflect a general paucity of exchange between genetic lineages. In contrast, we detected strong unidirectional migration (m = 0.26) from the western into the eastern nivosus deme. Within western nivosus, we found no genetic differentiation between coastal Pacific and inland populations. The correlation between geographic and genetic distances was weak but significant for all genetic data sets. All demes showed signatures of bottlenecks occurring during the past 1000 years. We conclude that at least four snowy plover conservation units are warranted: in addition to subspecies nivosus and occidentalis, a third unit comprises the Caribbean tenuirostris lineage and a fourth unit the distinct eastern nivosus deme."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" 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Here, we reassess population genetic structure and identify those populations of highest conservation value in the threatened snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus, Cassin, 1858), a partial migrant shorebird endemic to the Americas. We use four categories of genetic data—mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites, Z-linked and autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)—to: (1) assess subspecies delineation and examine population structure (2) compare the sensitivity of the different types of genetic data to detect spatial genetic patterns, and (3) reconstruct demographic history of the populations analysed. Delineation of two traditionally recognised subspecies was broadly supported by all data. In addition, microsatellite and SNPs but not mtDNA supported the recognition of Caribbean snowy plovers (C. n. tenuirostris) and Floridian populations (eastern C. n. nivosus) as distinct genetic lineage and deme, respectively. Low migration rates estimated from autosomal SNPs (m < 0.03) reflect a general paucity of exchange between genetic lineages. In contrast, we detected strong unidirectional migration (m = 0.26) from the western into the eastern nivosus deme. Within western nivosus, we found no genetic differentiation between coastal Pacific and inland populations. The correlation between geographic and genetic distances was weak but significant for all genetic data sets. All demes showed signatures of bottlenecks occurring during the past 1000 years. We conclude that at least four snowy plover conservation units are warranted: in addition to subspecies nivosus and occidentalis, a third unit comprises the Caribbean tenuirostris lineage and a fourth unit the distinct eastern nivosus deme.","datePublished":"2020-02-28T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2020-02-28T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"387","pageEnd":"404","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8","keywords":["\n Charadrius nivosus\n ","Microsatellite","ddRAD","mtDNA","Demography","Conservation units","Conservation Biology/Ecology","Ecology","Biodiversity","Evolutionary Biology","Plant Genetics and Genomics","Animal Genetics and Genomics"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig1_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig2_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig3_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig4_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig5_HTML.png","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig6_HTML.png"],"isPartOf":{"name":"Conservation Genetics","issn":["1572-9737","1566-0621"],"volumeNumber":"21","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer Netherlands","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Josephine D’Urban Jackson","url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8946-0772","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Bath","address":{"name":"Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"},{"name":"Cardiff University","address":{"name":"Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"josiedjackson@gmail.com","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Michael W. 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class="c-context-bar__title"> Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover <i>Charadrius nivosus</i> (Cassin, 1858) </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Josephine-D_Urban_Jackson-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Josephine-D_Urban_Jackson-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-search="D’Urban Jackson, Josephine" data-corresp-id="c1">Josephine D’Urban Jackson<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8946-0772"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8946-0772</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Michael_W_-Bruford-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Michael_W_-Bruford-Aff2" data-author-search="Bruford, Michael W.">Michael W. Bruford</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6357-6080"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-6357-6080</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Tam_s-Sz_kely-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Tam_s-Sz_kely-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-search="Székely, Tamás">Tamás Székely</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-0056"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-0056</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jeffrey_M_-DaCosta-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Jeffrey_M_-DaCosta-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-search="DaCosta, Jeffrey M.">Jeffrey M. DaCosta</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8590-2083"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8590-2083</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a>,<a href="#Aff5">5</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Michael_D_-Sorenson-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Michael_D_-Sorenson-Aff5" data-author-search="Sorenson, Michael D.">Michael D. Sorenson</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5375-2917"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-5375-2917</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff5">5</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Isa_Rita_M_-Russo-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Isa_Rita_M_-Russo-Aff2" data-author-search="Russo, Isa-Rita M.">Isa-Rita M. Russo</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-3633"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-3633</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Kathryn_H_-Maher-Aff1-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Kathryn_H_-Maher-Aff1-Aff6" data-author-search="Maher, Kathryn H.">Kathryn H. Maher</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1746-3119"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-1746-3119</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Medardo-Cruz_L_pez-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Medardo-Cruz_L_pez-Aff7" data-author-search="Cruz-López, Medardo">Medardo Cruz-López</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1737-9398"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-1737-9398</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Daniel-Galindo_Espinosa-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Daniel-Galindo_Espinosa-Aff8" data-author-search="Galindo-Espinosa, Daniel">Daniel Galindo-Espinosa</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Eduardo-Palacios-Aff9" data-author-popup="auth-Eduardo-Palacios-Aff9" data-author-search="Palacios, Eduardo">Eduardo Palacios</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4557-2427"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-4557-2427</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Atahualpa_Eduardo-De_Sucre_Medrano-Aff10" data-author-popup="auth-Atahualpa_Eduardo-De_Sucre_Medrano-Aff10" data-author-search="De Sucre-Medrano, Atahualpa Eduardo">Atahualpa Eduardo De Sucre-Medrano</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff10">10</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-John-Cavitt-Aff11" data-author-popup="auth-John-Cavitt-Aff11" data-author-search="Cavitt, John">John Cavitt</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff11">11</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Raya-Pruner-Aff12" data-author-popup="auth-Raya-Pruner-Aff12" data-author-search="Pruner, Raya">Raya Pruner</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4748-2495"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-4748-2495</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff12">12</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Alcides_L_-Morales-Aff13" data-author-popup="auth-Alcides_L_-Morales-Aff13" data-author-search="Morales, Alcides L.">Alcides L. Morales</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff13">13</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Oscar-Gonzalez-Aff14-Aff15" data-author-popup="auth-Oscar-Gonzalez-Aff14-Aff15" data-author-search="Gonzalez, Oscar">Oscar Gonzalez</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8686-3119"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8686-3119</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff14">14</a>,<a href="#Aff15">15</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Terry-Burke-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Terry-Burke-Aff6" data-author-search="Burke, Terry">Terry Burke</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3848-1244"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-3848-1244</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 17 authors for this article" title="Show all 17 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Clemens-K_pper-Aff16" data-author-popup="auth-Clemens-K_pper-Aff16" data-author-search="Küpper, Clemens" data-corresp-id="c2">Clemens Küpper<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1507-8033"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-1507-8033</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff16">16</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>4940 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-citations-medium"></use> </svg>6 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>16 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon--mentions" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mentions-medium"></use> </svg>1 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Mention</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Delineating conservation units is a complex and often controversial process that is particularly challenging for highly vagile species. Here, we reassess population genetic structure and identify those populations of highest conservation value in the threatened snowy plover (<i>Charadrius nivosus,</i> Cassin, 1858), a partial migrant shorebird endemic to the Americas. We use four categories of genetic data—mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), microsatellites, Z-linked and autosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)—to: (1) assess subspecies delineation and examine population structure (2) compare the sensitivity of the different types of genetic data to detect spatial genetic patterns, and (3) reconstruct demographic history of the populations analysed. Delineation of two traditionally recognised subspecies was broadly supported by all data. In addition, microsatellite and SNPs but not mtDNA supported the recognition of Caribbean snowy plovers (<i>C. n. tenuirostris</i>) and Floridian populations (eastern <i>C. n. nivosus</i>) as distinct genetic lineage and deme, respectively. Low migration rates estimated from autosomal SNPs (<i>m</i> < 0.03) reflect a general paucity of exchange between genetic lineages. In contrast, we detected strong unidirectional migration (<i>m</i> = 0.26) from the western into the eastern <i>nivosus</i> deme. Within western <i>nivosus,</i> we found no genetic differentiation between coastal Pacific and inland populations. The correlation between geographic and genetic distances was weak but significant for all genetic data sets. All demes showed signatures of bottlenecks occurring during the past 1000 years. We conclude that at least four snowy plover conservation units are warranted: in addition to subspecies <i>nivosus</i> and <i>occidentalis,</i> a third unit comprises the Caribbean <i>tenuirostris</i> lineage and a fourth unit the distinct eastern <i>nivosus</i> deme.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-023-01598-z/MediaObjects/10592_2023_1598_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10592-023-01598-z?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s10592-023-01598-z">Using recent genetic history to inform conservation options of two Lesser Caymans iguana (<i>Cyclura nubila caymanensis</i>) populations </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">19 January 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10709-022-00172-8/MediaObjects/10709_2022_172_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10709-022-00172-8?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s10709-022-00172-8">The first assessment of the genetic diversity and structure of the endangered West Indian manatee in Cuba </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">22 October 2022</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-021-01420-8/MediaObjects/10592_2021_1420_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10592-021-01420-8?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s10592-021-01420-8">Population genetic and genomic analyses of Western Massasauga (<i>Sistrurus tergeminus</i> ssp.): implications for subspecies delimitation and conservation </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">16 November 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732416942, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=10592" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>The delineation of conservation units such as evolutionary significant units (ESUs, Moritz <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Moritz C (1994) Defining “evolutionarily significant units” for conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 9:373–375" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e989">1994</a>) and management units (MUs) can be highly nuanced. Such units can be difficult to define in practice because of similarities in species-specific ecology and life history traits that are likely to promote cohesion among populations across a broad landscape. For example, highly vagile taxa such as pelagic organisms and species capable of flight may have high rates of gene flow, and are therefore unlikely to have many reciprocally monophyletic groups based on their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences (Crandall et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Crandall KA, Bininda-Emonds ORP, Mace GM, Wayne RK (2000) Considering evolutionary processess in conservation biology. Trends Ecol Evol 15:290–295" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e992">2000</a>; Medina et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Medina I, Cooke GM, Ord TJ (2018) Walk, swim or fly? Locomotor mode predicts genetic differentiation in vertebrates. Ecol Lett 21:638–645" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e995">2018</a>).</p><p>Traditionally, studies aiming to identify conservation units using genetics have sampled a small number of variable genetic loci such as mtDNA and/or microsatellites. However, a greater number of genetic markers increases the power to detect fine scale population structure, and hence, increases the reliability of defining conservation units and their associated characteristics such as past demographic changes and effective population sizes (Allendorf et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Allendorf FW, Hohenlohe PA, Luikart G (2010) Genomics and the future of conservation genetics. Nat Rev Genet 11:697–709" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1001">2010</a>; Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Funk WC, McKay JK, Hohenlohe PA, Allendorf FW (2012) Harnessing genomics for delineating conservation units. Trends Ecol Evol 27:489–496" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1004">2012</a>; Shafer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Shafer ABA, Gattepaille LM, Stewart REA, Wolf JBW (2015) Demographic inferences using short-read genomic data in an approximate Bayesian computation framework: in silico evaluation of power, biases and proof of concept in Atlantic walrus. Mol Ecol 24:328–345" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1007">2015</a>). Genomic methods, including restriction enzyme associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq, Baird et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Baird NA, Etter PD, Atwood TS, Currey MC, Shiver AL, Lewis ZA, Selker EU, Cresko WA, Johnson EA (2008) Rapid SNP discovery and genetic mapping using sequenced RAD markers. PLoS ONE 3:e3376" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1010">2008</a>; Miller et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Miller MR, Dunham JP, Amores A, Cresko WA, Johnson EA (2007) Rapid and cost-effective polymorphism identification and genotyping using restriction site associated DNA (RAD) markers. Genome Res 17:240–248" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1013">2007</a>), produce data from hundreds or thousands rather than tens of loci distributed throughout the genome, and can reveal previously uncharacterised genetic structure (e.g. Ruegg et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Ruegg KC, Anderson EC, Paxton KL, Apkenas V, Lao S, Siegel RB, DeSante DF, Moore F, Smith TB (2014) Mapping migration in a songbird using high-resolution genetic markers. Mol Ecol 23:5726–5739" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1017">2014</a>; Saenz-Agudelo et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Saenz-Agudelo P, DiBattista JD, Piatek MJ, Gaither MR, Harrison HB, Nanninga GB, Berumen ML (2015) Seascape genetics along environmental gradients in the Arabian Peninsula: insights from ddRAD sequencing of anemonefishes. Mol Ecol 24:6241–6255" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1020">2015</a>; Barth et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Barth JMI, Damerau M, Matschiner M, Jentoft S, Hanel R (2017) Genomic differentiation and demographic histories of Atlantic and indo-pacific yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) populations. Genome Biol Evol 9:1084–1098" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1023">2017</a>; Vendrami et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Vendrami DLJ, Telesca L, Weigand H, Weiss M, Fawcett K, Lehman K, Clark MS, Leese F, McMinn C, Moore H, Hoffman JI (2017) RAD sequencing resolves fine-scale population structure in a benthic invertebrate: implications for understanding phenotypic plasticity. R Soc Open Sci 4:160548" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1026">2017</a>; Younger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Younger JL, Clucas GV, Kao D, Rogers AD, Gharbi K, Hart T, Miller KJ (2017) The challenges of detecting subtle population structure and its importance for the conservation of emperor penguins. Mol Ecol 26:3883–3897" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1029">2017</a>; Sadanandan et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Sadanandan K, Küpper C, Low GW, Yao CT, Li Y, Xu T, Rheindt FE, Wu S (2019) Population divergence and gene flow in two East Asian shorebirds on the verge of speciation. Sci Rep 9:8546" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1032">2019</a>). In doing so, genomic methods have enabled novel, high resolution identification of new management units in species of high conservation priority (Palsbøll et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Palsbøll PJ, Bérubé M, Allendorf FW (2007) Identification of management units using population genetic data. Trends Ecol Evol 22:11–16" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1036">2007</a>; Kjeldsen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Kjeldsen SR, Zenger KR, Leigh K, Ellis W, Tobey J, Phalen D, Melzer A, FitzGibbon S, Raadsma HW (2016) Genome-wide SNP loci reveal novel insights into koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population variability across its range. Conserv Genet 17:337–353" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1039">2016</a>; Peters et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Peters JL, Lavretsky P, DaCosta JM, Bielefeld RR, Feddersen JC, Sorenson MD (2016) Population genomic data delineate conservation units in mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula). Biol Conserv 203:272–281" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1042">2016</a>; Barth et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Barth JMI, Damerau M, Matschiner M, Jentoft S, Hanel R (2017) Genomic differentiation and demographic histories of Atlantic and indo-pacific yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) populations. Genome Biol Evol 9:1084–1098" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1045">2017</a>; Younger et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Younger JL, Clucas GV, Kao D, Rogers AD, Gharbi K, Hart T, Miller KJ (2017) The challenges of detecting subtle population structure and its importance for the conservation of emperor penguins. Mol Ecol 26:3883–3897" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1048">2017</a>). In addition, these methods have proven successful in corroborating previously proposed taxonomic or conservation units that were first identified using low-resolution genetic data (Mason and Taylor <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Mason NA, Taylor SA (2015) Differentially expressed genes match bill morphology and plumage despite largely undifferentiated genomes in a Holarctic songbird. Mol Ecol 24:3009–3025" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1051">2015</a>; Attard et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Attard CRM, Beheregaray LB, Sandoval-Castillo J, Jenner KCS, Gill PC, Jenner M-NM, Morrice MG, Möller LM (2018) From conservation genetics to conservation genomics: a genome-wide assessment of blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) in Australian feeding aggregations. R Soc Open Sci 5:170925" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1055">2018</a>; Doyle et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Doyle JM, Bell DA, Bloom PH, Emmons G, Fesnock A, Katzner TE, LaPré L, Leonard K, SanMiguel P, Westerman R, Andrew DeWoody J (2018) New insights into the phylogenetics and population structure of the prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus). BMC Genomics 19:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1058">2018</a>) or ecological variation (Lemay and Russello <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Lemay MA, Russello MA (2015) Genetic evidence for ecological divergence in kokanee salmon. Mol Ecol 24:798–811" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1061">2015</a>; Prince et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Prince DJ, O’Rourke SM, Thompson TQ, Ali OA, Lyman HS, Saglam IK, Hotaling TJ, Spidle AP, Miller MR (2017) The evolutionary basis of premature migration in Pacific salmon highlights the utility of genomics for informing conservation. Sci Adv 3:e1603198" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1064">2017</a>).</p><p>Once defined, the vulnerability of different conservation units to population declines can be assessed, in part, by using genetic data to reconstruct past demographic changes (e.g. Carnaval et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Carnaval AC, Hickerson MJ, Haddad CFB, Rodrigues MT, Moritz C (2009) Stability predicts genetic diversity in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest hotspot. Science 323:785–790" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1070">2009</a>; Palsbøll et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Palsbøll PJ, Peery ZM, Olsen MT, Beissinger SR, Bérubé M (2013) Inferring recent historic abundance from current genetic diversity. Mol Ecol 22:22–40" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1073">2013</a>; Garrick et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Garrick RC, Kajdacsi B, Russello MA, Benavides E, Hyseni C, Gibbs JP, Tapia W, Caccone A (2015) Naturally rare versus newly rare: demographic inferences on two timescales inform conservation of Galápagos giant tortoises. Ecol Evol 5:676–694" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1076">2015</a>; Shafer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Shafer ABA, Gattepaille LM, Stewart REA, Wolf JBW (2015) Demographic inferences using short-read genomic data in an approximate Bayesian computation framework: in silico evaluation of power, biases and proof of concept in Atlantic walrus. Mol Ecol 24:328–345" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1079">2015</a>; Stoffel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Stoffel MA, Humble E, Acevedo-Whitehouse K, Chilvers BL, Dickerson B, Galimberti F, Gemmell N, Goldsworthy S, Nichols Krüger O, Negro S, Osborne A, Paijmans AJ, Pastor T, Robertson BC, Sanvito S, Schultz J, Shafer ABA, Wolf JBW, Hoffman JI (2018) Recent demographic histories and genetic diversity across pinnipeds are shaped by anthropogenic interactions and mediated by ecology and life-history. bioRxiv. 
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" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1082">2018</a>). Importantly, the accuracy of genetic demographic reconstructions can be enhanced with data from a larger number of loci (Shafer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Shafer ABA, Gattepaille LM, Stewart REA, Wolf JBW (2015) Demographic inferences using short-read genomic data in an approximate Bayesian computation framework: in silico evaluation of power, biases and proof of concept in Atlantic walrus. Mol Ecol 24:328–345" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1086">2015</a>), as well as using multiple modelling methods to corroborate findings (Brüniche-Olsen et al<i>.</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Brüniche-Olsen A, Jones ME, Austin JJ, Burridge CP, Holland BR (2014) Extensive population decline in the Tasmanian devil predates European settlement and devil facial tumour disease. Biol Lett 10:20140619" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1091">2014</a>).</p><p>The snowy plover, <i>Charadrius nivosus</i> (Cassin, 1858; Küpper et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Küpper C, Augustin J, Kosztolányi A, Burke T, Figuerola J, Székely T (2009) Kentish versus snowy plover: phenotypic and genetic analyses of Charadrius alexandrinus reveal divergence of Eurasian and American subspecies. Auk 126:839–852" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1100">2009</a>), is one of the least abundant shorebird species endemic to the Americas, but also one of the most thoroughly studied. This iconic, partially migratory shorebird exhibits an unusual breeding system of sequential polyandry where females desert their families to re-mate with a new partner, and inhabits salt flats of alkaline lakes, coastal lagoons and sandy beaches (Warriner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Warriner J, Warriner J, Page G, Stenzel L (1986) Mating system and reproductive success of a small population of polygamous snowy plovers. Wilson Bull 98:15–37" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1103">1986</a>; Page et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Page GW, Stenzel LE, Warriner JS, Warriner JC, Paton PW (2009) Snowy plover Charadrius nivosus. In: Poole AF (ed) Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca." href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1106">2009</a>; Eberhart-Phillips et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Küpper C, Miller TEX, Cruz-López M, Maher KH, dos Remedios N, Stoffel MA, Hoffman JI, Krüger O, Székely T (2017) Sex-specific early survival drives adult sex ratio bias in snowy plovers and impacts mating system and population growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E5474–E5481" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1109">2017</a>). Coastal populations can be made up of migratory and resident individuals, however, inland breeding populations tend to migrate during the winter towards coastal habitat (Page et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Page GW, Stenzel LE, Warriner JS, Warriner JC, Paton PW (2009) Snowy plover Charadrius nivosus. In: Poole AF (ed) Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca." href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1113">2009</a>). In addition, both sexes occasionally undergo long within and between breeding season movements (50–1140 km; Stenzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Stenzel L, Warriner J, Warriner J (1994) Long-distance breeding dispersal of snowy plovers in western North America. J Anim Ecol 63:887–902" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1116">1994</a>). The snowy plover subspecies taxonomy is debated, with some authorities (Clements et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Clements JF, Schulenberg TS, Iliff MJ, Roberson D, Fredericks TA, Sullivan BL, Wood CL (2018) The eBird/clements checklist of birds of the world: v2018. 
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 . Accessed 27 June 2019" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1119">2018</a>; del Hoyo et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="del Hoyo J, Collar N, Kirwan GM (2019) Snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus). In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, Christie DA, de Juana E (eds) Handbook of the birds of the world alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 
 https://www.hbw.com/node/467301
 
 . Accessed 28 June 2019" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1122">2019</a>) recognising two subspecies (<i>Charadius nivosus nivosus</i> and <i>C. n. occidentalis</i>), whereas, a third, <i>C. n. tenuirostris</i> (American Ornithologists’ Union <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1957" title="American Ornithologist’s Union (1957) Check-list of North American birds, 5th edn. American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington, DC" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1135">1957</a>; Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1138">2007</a>), is currently recognised by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service (2011) Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; 90-day finding on a petition to list the snowy plover and reclassify the wintering population of piping plover. Federal Register. 2011-22900. 
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 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR138" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1141">2011</a>) although this subspecies shows limited phenotypic distinction from <i>C. n. nivosus</i> (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1147">2007</a>). <i>C. n. nivosus</i> (<i>nivosus</i> herein) is found within the United States and Mexico, the core distribution of <i>C. n. tenuirostris</i> (<i>tenuirostris</i> herein) comprises the Caribbean Islands and Bermuda, whereas, <i>C. n. occidentalis</i> (<i>occidentalis</i> herein) is found along the west coast of South America from Colombia to Chile (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig1">1</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="860"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Sampling locations of snowy plovers (<i>Charadrius nivosus</i>) included in each of the four genetic datasets (see legend). Deme identity is given by colour (blue: western <i>nivosus</i>, light blue: eastern <i>nivosus</i>, red: <i>tenuirostris</i>, yellow: <i>occidentalis</i>). Species range is indicated in dark grey shading. For details on sample sizes see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a> (all markers) and Table S2 (mtDNA only)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The most recent genetic analysis of snowy plovers supported the recognition of three subspecies (<i>nivosus</i>, <i>tenuirostris</i>, <i>occidentalis</i>) and updated their geographic distributions (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1223">2007</a>). Specifically, snowy plovers breeding in Florida and along the Gulf of Mexico coast, which had been previously assigned to <i>tenuirostris</i>, were more genetically similar to other populations of <i>nivosus</i> (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1233">2007</a>) than to the island populations of <i>tenuirostris</i>. However, a more recent analysis based on microsatellite loci with additional sampling of Mexican populations showed that the eastern <i>nivosus</i> snowy plover population from Florida may be differentiated from western <i>nivosus</i> snowy plovers (D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1245">2017</a>). Among the western snowy plover populations, molecular analyses did not support distinct conservation units between the Pacific coast and inland populations (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1249">2007</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1252">2017</a>). Despite this genetic evidence, the conservation status of Pacific snowy plovers as a distinct population segment under the Endangered Species Act has been maintained because available banding data have not confirmed movement between inland and coastal sites (Haig et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Haig SM, Bronaugh WM, Crowhurst RS, Delia J, Eagles Smith CA, Epps CW, Knaus B, Miller MP, Moses ML, Oyler McCance S, Robinson WD, Sidlauskas B (2011) Genetic applications in avian conservation. Auk 128:205–229" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1255">2011</a>). Genetic homogeneity of western populations may be the result of gene flow from long distance breeding dispersal of females (D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1258">2017</a>), which has been observed in Pacific populations (Stenzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Stenzel L, Warriner J, Warriner J (1994) Long-distance breeding dispersal of snowy plovers in western North America. J Anim Ecol 63:887–902" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1261">1994</a>). Overall, previous molecular studies using microsatellites and mtDNA sequences indicate low genetic diversity across all snowy plover subspecies (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1264">2007</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1268">2017</a>). Furthermore, inbreeding has been detected in a small isolated population of snowy plovers through a long-term pedigree study (Colwell and Pearson <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Colwell M, Pearson W (2011) Four cases of inbreeding in a small population of the snowy plover. Wader Study Gr Bull 118:181–183" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1271">2011</a>).</p><p>The estimated census breeding population sizes of the three subspecies are 25,869 (<i>nivosus</i> Thomas et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Thomas SM, Lyons JE, Andres BA, T-Smith EE, Palacios E, Cavitt JF, Andrew-Royle J, Fellows SD, Maty K, Howe WH, Mellink E, Melvin S, Zimmerman T (2012) Population size of snowy plovers breeding in North America. Waterbirds 35:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1280">2012</a><i>,</i>), 1000–10,000 (<i>occidentalis,</i> Wetlands International <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wetlands International (2019) Waterbird population estimates. 
 https://wpe.wetlands.org
 
 . Accessed 2 July 2019" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1288">2019</a>) and < 100 (<i>tenuirostris</i>, Elliot-Smith et al<i>.</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Elliott-Smith E, Haig SM, Ferland CL, Gorman L (2004) Winter distribution and abundance of snowy plovers in eastern North America and the West Indies. Wader Study Group Bull 104:28–33" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1297">2004</a>; Brown <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Brown AC (2012) Extirpation of the snowy plover on St. Martins. West Indies J Caribb Ornithol 25:31–34" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1300">2012</a>). Many coastal populations are declining because of habitat deterioration and human disturbance (Colwell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Colwell MA, Hurley S, Hall J, Dinsmore S (2007) Age-related survival and behavior of snowy plover chicks. Condor 109:638–647" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1303">2007</a>; Küpper et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Küpper C, Aguilar E, Gonzalez O (2011) Notas sobre la ecología reproductiva y conservación de los chorlos nevados Charadrius nivosus occidentalis en Paracas, Perú. Rev Per Biol 18:91–96" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1306">2011</a>; Powell and Collier <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Powell AN, Collier CL (2011) Habitat use and reproductive success of western snowy plovers at new nesting areas created for California. J Wildl Manag 64:24–33" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1309">2011</a>; Page et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Page GW, Stenzel LE, Warriner JS, Warriner JC, Paton PW (2009) Snowy plover Charadrius nivosus. In: Poole AF (ed) Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca." href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1313">2009</a>; Thomas et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Thomas SM, Lyons JE, Andres BA, T-Smith EE, Palacios E, Cavitt JF, Andrew-Royle J, Fellows SD, Maty K, Howe WH, Mellink E, Melvin S, Zimmerman T (2012) Population size of snowy plovers breeding in North America. Waterbirds 35:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1316">2012</a>; Cohen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Cohen JB, Durkin MM, Zdravkovic M (2014) Human distubance of snowy plovers (Charadrius nivosus) in northwest Florida during the breeding season. Florida F Nat 42:1–44" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1319">2014</a>; Galindo-Espinosa and Palacios <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Galindo-Espinosa D, Palacios E (2015) Estatus del chorlo nevado (Charadrius nivosus) en San Quintín y su disminución poblacional en la península de Baja California. Rev Mex Biodivers 86:789–798" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1322">2015</a>; Cruz-López et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Cruz-López M, Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Fernández G, Beamonte-Barrientos R, Székely T, Serrano-Meneses MA, Küpper C (2017) The plight of a plover: viability of an important snowy plover population with flexible brood care in Mexico. Biol Conserv 209:440–448" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1325">2017</a>). As a result, many populations are protected by federal and/or state-level statutes (Haig et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Haig SM, Bronaugh WM, Crowhurst RS, Delia J, Eagles Smith CA, Epps CW, Knaus B, Miller MP, Moses ML, Oyler McCance S, Robinson WD, Sidlauskas B (2011) Genetic applications in avian conservation. Auk 128:205–229" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1328">2011</a>; Cohen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Cohen JB, Durkin MM, Zdravkovic M (2014) Human distubance of snowy plovers (Charadrius nivosus) in northwest Florida during the breeding season. Florida F Nat 42:1–44" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1332">2014</a>; Galindo-Espinosa and Palacios <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Galindo-Espinosa D, Palacios E (2015) Estatus del chorlo nevado (Charadrius nivosus) en San Quintín y su disminución poblacional en la península de Baja California. Rev Mex Biodivers 86:789–798" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1335">2015</a>). Population viability models suggest that the decline of coastal populations will become more severe throughout the species’ range without intensive conservation management (Aiello-Lemmens et al<i>.</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Aiello-Lammens ME, Chu-agor MAL, Convertino M, Fischer RA, Linkov I, Akçakaya HR (2011) The impact of sea-level rise on snowy plovers in Florida: integrating geomorphological, habitat, and metapopulation models. Glob Chang Biol 17:3644–3654" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1340">2011</a>; Eberhart-Phillips and Colwell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Colwell MA (2014) Conservation challenges of a sink: the viability of an isolated population of the snowy plover. Bird Conserv Int 24:327–341" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1343">2014</a>; Cruz-López et al<i>.</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Cruz-López M, Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Fernández G, Beamonte-Barrientos R, Székely T, Serrano-Meneses MA, Küpper C (2017) The plight of a plover: viability of an important snowy plover population with flexible brood care in Mexico. Biol Conserv 209:440–448" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1348">2017</a>). Furthermore, climate change might exacerbate risks of local extinctions due to rising sea levels and changes in the dynamics of tropical cyclone events, which are important for creating suitable nesting habitats (Aiello-Lemmens et al<i>.</i><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Aiello-Lammens ME, Chu-agor MAL, Convertino M, Fischer RA, Linkov I, Akçakaya HR (2011) The impact of sea-level rise on snowy plovers in Florida: integrating geomorphological, habitat, and metapopulation models. Glob Chang Biol 17:3644–3654" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1354">2011</a>; Convertino et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Convertino M, Elsner JB, Muñoz-Carpena R, Kiker GA, Martinez CJ, Fischer RA, Linkov I (2011) Do tropical cyclones shape shorebird habitat patterns? Biogeoclimatology of snowy plovers in Florida. PLoS ONE 6:e15683" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1357">2011</a>).</p><p>Snowy plover breeding habitat includes sandy beaches, making the conservation management of this species in North America controversial, as habitat protection often conflicts with development and recreational activities (Lafferty et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Lafferty KD, Goodman D, Sandoval CP (2006) Restoration of breeding by snowy plovers following protection from disturbance. Biodivers Conserv 15:2217–2230" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1363">2006</a>). Regular reassessment of population structure in snowy plovers by implementing current methodological advances is therefore required to guide effective conservation policy. Both previous genetic analyses (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1366">2007</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1369">2017</a>) used ≤ 15 nuclear loci, which may have been insufficient to detect fine scale population structure in this highly vagile species. Here, we comprehensively re-evaluate genetic differentiation among snowy plover populations using four different genetic data sets: mtDNA, microsatellites, autosomal and Z-linked single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), respectively. We use these data to: (1) examine genetic support for the current subspecies delineation, examine population structure within the most widespread subspecies <i>nivosus</i> and identify putative distinct conservation units based on genetic data; (2) compare the sensitivity of the four different types of genetic data to detect fine scale genetic structure and spatial genetic patterns among controversial population segments; and (3) reconstruct the demographic history of snowy plover populations using three modelling methods to understand the origin of low genetic diversity.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Materials and methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Materials and methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Combining previously published (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1383">2007</a>; Küpper et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Küpper C, Augustin J, Kosztolányi A, Burke T, Figuerola J, Székely T (2009) Kentish versus snowy plover: phenotypic and genetic analyses of Charadrius alexandrinus reveal divergence of Eurasian and American subspecies. Auk 126:839–852" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1386">2009</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1389">2017</a>) and newly collected data, we gathered genetic data from all three proposed subspecies (genetic lineages herein): <i>nivosus, occidentalis,</i> and <i>tenuirostris</i>. Sampling sites represented in each genetic dataset are shown in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig1">1</a> and sample information is summarised in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>, with a more detailed description of each data set below.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Genetic diversity of snowy plover (<i>Charadrius nivosus</i>) populations using four genetic marker datasets: autosomal and Z-linked ddRAD loci, microsatellites, and mtDNA. Shaded cells indicate populations/demes with genetic data for all four markers</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">mtDNA</h3><p>We downloaded available snowy plover sequences of the mitochondrial D-loop (control region) from GenBank (<i>n</i> = 114; Table S1). In addition, we sequenced the D-loop for 67 new samples using primers and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) conditions described in Küpper et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Küpper C, Edwards SV, Kosztolányi A, Alrashidi M, Burke T, Herrmann P, Argüelles-Tico A, Amat JA, Amezian M, Rocha A, Hötker H, Ivanov A, Chernicko J, Székely T (2012) High gene flow on a continental scale in the polyandrous Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus. Mol Ecol 21:5864–5879" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1478">2012</a>). We aligned all sequences using the ClustalW alignment tool in <i>BioEdit</i> v7.2.5 (Hall <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Hall T (1999) BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic Acids Symp Ser 41:95–98" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1484">1999</a>) and trimmed the alignment to 424 base pairs (bp) for downstream analyses. For clarity, only locations with both mtDNA and additional genetic information (microsatellites or single nucleotide polymorphism markers [SNPs]) are presented in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a> and Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig1">1</a>. Details for mtDNA only samples, including GenBank accession numbers, are given in Table S1.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Microsatellites</h3><p>Additional samples from <i>occidentalis</i> (<i>n </i>= 18) and <i>tenuirostris</i> (<i>n</i> = 13) were added to those described in the microsatellite dataset for <i>nivosus</i> published by D’Urban Jackson et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1518">2017</a>, <i>n</i> = 146). We genotyped all samples at 15 microsatellite loci (including seven additional loci in comparison to D’Urban Jackson et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1524">2017</a>)) and removed first order relatives from the data set based on field records, i.e. we retained only one chick per brood. Primers, PCR conditions and reagents are described in Küpper et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Küpper C, Burke T, Székely T, Dawson DA (2008) Enhanced cross-species utility of conserved microsatellite markers in shorebirds. BMC Genomics 9:502" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1527">2008</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Küpper C, Augustin J, Kosztolányi A, Burke T, Figuerola J, Székely T (2009) Kentish versus snowy plover: phenotypic and genetic analyses of Charadrius alexandrinus reveal divergence of Eurasian and American subspecies. Auk 126:839–852" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1530">2009</a>) and D’Urban Jackson et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1533">2017</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5">Autosomal and Z-linked SNPs</h3><p>We extracted DNA from blood samples using the phenol–chloroform extraction method (Sambrook and Russell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Sambrook J, Russell D (2006) Purification of nucleic acids by extraction with phenol:chloroform. Cold Spring Harb Protoc. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/pdb.prot093450
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1544">2006</a>). We prepared a multiplexed fragment library for double digest restriction site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD) for 47 samples following the protocol described by DaCosta and Sorenson (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="DaCosta JM, Sorenson MD (2014) Amplification biases and consistent recovery of loci in a double-digest RAD-seq protocol. PLoS ONE 9:e106713" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1547">2014</a>) using <i>EcoR</i>I and <i>Sbf</i>I restriction enzymes and adaptors incorporating an individual 6 bp barcode. The multiplexed library was paired-end sequenced (100 bp reads) on one lane of an Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform in the Bauer Core Facility at Harvard University.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec6">Bioinformatics pipeline</h4><p>We discarded the paired read to simplify downstream data processing and checked the quality of the raw single-end reads using FastQC (v.0.11.5; Babraham Bioinformatics; <a href="https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/">https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/</a>). Using the ddRAD software pipeline created by DaCosta and Sorenson (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="DaCosta JM, Sorenson MD (2014) Amplification biases and consistent recovery of loci in a double-digest RAD-seq protocol. PLoS ONE 9:e106713" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1570">2014</a>; <a href="https://github.com/BU-RAD-seq/">https://github.com/BU-RAD-seq/</a>), we first de-multiplexed sequences based on their unique barcodes. For each individual, we condensed identical sequences while maintaining a count of the sequences, and then filtered low quality, singleton sequences using the UCLUST function in USEARCH v5 (Edgar <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Edgar RC (2010) Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics 26:2460–2461" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1580">2010</a>). Condensed and filtered reads across all samples were then clustered at an 85% identity level using UCLUST. We compared the highest quality sequence from each cluster to the closest available reference genome (killdeer <i>Charadrius vociferous</i> Zhang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Zhang G, Li C, Li Q, Li B, Larkin DM, Lee C, Storz JF, Antunes A, Greenwold MJ, Meredith RW, Ödeen A, Cui J, Zhou Q, Xu L, Pan H, Wang Z, Jin L, Zhang P, Hu H, Yang W, Hu J, Xiao J, Yang Z, Liu Y, Xie Q, Yu H, Lian J, Wen P, Zhang F, Li H, Zeng Y, Xiong Z, Liu S, Zhou L, Huang Z, An N, Wang J, Zheng Q, Xiong Y, Wang G, Wang B, Wang J, Fan Y, da Fonseca RR, Alfaro-Núñez A, Schubert M, Orlando L, Mourier T, Howard JT, Ganapathy G, Pfenning A, Whitney O, Rivas MV, Hara E, Smith J, Farré M, Narayan J, Slavov G, Romanov MN, Borges R, Machado JP, Khan I, Springer MS, Gatesy J, Hoffmann FG, Opazo JC, Håstad O, Sawyer RH, Kim H, Kim KW, Kim HJ, Cho S, Li N, Huang Y, Bruford MW, Zhan X, Dixon A, Bertelsen MF, Derryberry E, Warren W, Wilson RK, Li S, Ray DA, Green RE, O'Brien SJ, Griffin D, Johnson WE, Haussler D, Ryder OA, Willerslev E, Graves GR, Alström P, Fjeldså J, Mindell DP, Edwards SV, Braun EL, Rahbek C, Burt DW, Houde P, Zhang Y, Yang H, Wang J, Jarvis ED, Gilbert MT, Wang J, Avian Genome Consortium, Jarvis ED, Gilbert MT, Wang J (2014) Comparative genomics reveals insights into avian genome evolution and adaptation. Science 346:1311–1321" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR151" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1587">2014</a><i>,</i>) using BLASTN (Altschul et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1990" title="Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ (1990) Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol 215:403–410" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1592">1990</a>) and then combined clusters with identical or nearly identical hits. We aligned sequences within each cluster (i.e. putative locus) using MUSCLE v3 (Edgar <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004a" title="Edgar RC (2004a) MUSCLE: A multiple sequence alignment method with reduced time and space complexity. BMC Bioinform 5:1–19" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1595">2004a</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference b" title="Edgar RC (2004b) MUSCLE: Multiple sequence alignment with high accuracy and high throughput. Nucleic Acids Res 32:1792–1797" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1598">b</a>). Finally, we scored genotypes for each individual at each locus using the python script <i>RADgenotypes.py</i>.</p><p>We flagged individual genotypes that had: (i) fewer than three reads, (ii) an uneven ratio between two alleles, with the minor allele having a proportion less than 0.3 (if unique across all samples) or 0.2, and (iii) “extra” reads appearing with a proportion ≥ 0.1, implying the presence of more than two alleles. We removed clusters if they: (i) had more than five samples with flagged genotypes, (ii) had a length < 19 bp, (iii) had a median per-sample depth less than 9.5, or (iv) had more than five samples with missing data. Clusters with potential alignment errors (see manual at <a href="https://github.com/BU-RAD-seq/ddRAD-seq-Pipeline">https://github.com/BU-RAD-seq/ddRAD-seq-Pipeline</a>) were also removed, as were clusters with > 4 SNPs/indels, indels of length > 4 bp, and very high read depths (> 800 reads total across all individuals), as these characteristics may be indicative of multiple genomic loci being clustered together.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec7">Z-linked RAD loci</h4><p>We identified SNPs on the Z chromosome using a two-step method. First, we compared mean read depths for males and females for each quality filtered RAD locus, with the underlying expectation that sequencing depth for female samples should be about half that of male samples for loci on the Z chromosome, as females are hemizygous (ZW) and males are ZZ in birds. RAD loci with a female to male average depth ratio between 0.4 and 0.65 were then checked for alignment to the Z chromosome of the killdeer genome (Zhou et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Zhou Q, Zhang J, Bachtrog D, An N, Huang Q, Jarvis ED, Gilbert MTP, Zhang G (2014) Complex evolutionary trajectories of sex chromosomes across bird taxa. Science 346:1246338" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR152" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1622">2014</a>) using our BLASTN results. RAD loci with both read depth and alignment support for Z-linkage were assigned to the Z chromosome dataset. RAD loci that were only “Z-linked” by one of the two methods, were removed from all datasets. RAD loci only present in females (i.e., indicative of being located on the W chromosome) were excluded by the above filter (i.e., missing data in five or more samples). We assigned all other clusters/loci to an “autosomal dataset.”</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec8">SNP filtering</h4><p>For SNP based analyses we retained one randomly selected biallelic SNP per RAD locus to minimise linkage. Finally, to reduce potential biases in Bayesian clustering solutions (Linck and Battey <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Linck EB, Battey CJ (2017) Minor allele frequency thresholds strongly affect population structure inference with genomic datasets. bioRxiv. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/188623
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1633">2017</a>), singleton SNPs were excluded from population structure analyses. For all other analyses, we included singleton SNPs. For diversity, correlation tests between geographic and genetic distances, and PCA analyses of the Z-linked SNP dataset we included only (diploid) males, whereas all other analysis included all individuals.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Genetic diversity and differentiation</h3><p>For mtDNA we used <i>DNAsp</i> v6 (Librado and Rozas <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Librado P, Rozas J (2009) DnaSP v5: a software for comprehensive analysis of DNA polymorphism data. Bioinformatics 25:1451–1452" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1649">2009</a>) to calculate haplotype diversity. We calculated microsatellite allelic richness in <i>MSA</i> v4.05 (Dieringer and Schlötterer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Dieringer D, Schlötterer C (2003) MICROSATELLITE ANALYSER (MSA): a platform independent analysis tool for large microsatellite data sets. Mol Ecol Notes 3:167–169" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1655">2003</a>) and expected heterozygosity in <i>Arlequin</i> v3.5 (Excoffier and Lischer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Excoffier L, Lischer HE (2010) Arlequin suite ver 3.5: a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows. Mol Ecol Res 10:564–567" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1662">2010</a>). For microsatellite and SNP datasets we used the <i>adegenet</i> package (Jombart <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Jombart T (2008) adegenet: a R package for the multivariate analysis of genetic markers. Bioinformatics 24:1403–1405" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1668">2008</a>) in <i>R</i> to calculate inbreeding coefficient (<i>F</i><sub>IS</sub>) and the <i>PopGenome</i> (Pfeifer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Pfeifer B, Wittelsbu U, Ramos-Onsins SE, Lercher MJ (2014) PopGenome: an efficient Swiss Army knife for population genomic analyses in R. Mol Biol Evol 31:1929–1936" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1682">2014</a>) package to calculate per site Watterson’s theta (<i>ϴ</i><sub>W</sub>). Where referred to, we used <i>R</i> statistical software v3.6.0 (R Development Core Team <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="R Development Core Team (2019) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1692">2019</a>).</p><p>We calculated pairwise <i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> estimates between demes (nuclear genetic clusters identified with <i>Structure</i> Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>) for autosomal SNPs, Z chromosome SNPs, microsatellites and mtDNA datasets in <i>Arlequin</i>. We calculated diversity statistics separately for all sampling sites, demes, and genetic lineages.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="243"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Results of Bayesian clustering analyses of snowy plovers using three genetic datasets (1089 autosomal SNPs; 15 autosomal microsatellites and 52 Z-linked SNPs) estimated by <i>Structure</i>. The most likely models (<i>K</i> = 3 and <i>K</i> = 4) are shown. See Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a> for population codes and respective genetic lineages are indicated below plots. Eastern <i>nivosus</i> are represented by population FLO and western <i>nivosus</i> by populations UTA, MT, CEU, SAQ, NAY and TEX</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec10">Population structure</h3><p>For the mtDNA D-loop sequences, we constructed a haplotype network using the Templeton, Crandall and Sing (<i>TCS</i>, Templeton et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Templeton AR, Crandall KA, Sing CF (1992) A cladistic analysis of phenotypic associations with haplotypes inferred from restriction endonuclease mapping and DNA sequence data. III. Cladogram estimation. Genetics 132:619–633" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1759">1992</a>) method implemented in PopArt (Leigh and Bryant <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Leigh JW, Bryant D (2015) POPART: full-feature software for haplotype network construction. Methods Ecol Evol 6:1110–1116" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1762">2015</a>) to visually inspect the distribution of haplotypes across demes and genetic lineages.</p><p>To determine genetic structure with SNPs and microsatellites we performed Bayesian cluster analysis using the program <i>Structure</i> v2.3.4 (Pritchard et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Pritchard JK, Stephens M, Donnelly P (2000) Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155:945–959" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1771">2000</a>) automated for command line usage with <i>StrAuto</i> (Chhatre and Emerson <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Chhatre VE, Emerson KJ (2017) StrAuto: automation and parallelization of STRUCTURE analysis. BMC Bioinformatics 18:192" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1777">2017</a>). We tested <i>K</i> values between one and five for 1 million repetitions following a burn-in of 250,000 repetitions with 20 replicates for each <i>K</i> value using an admixture model. Due to an a priori expectation of limited population differentiation, we additionally ran the program with the LOCPRIOR model (Hubisz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Hubisz MJ, Falush D, Stephens M, Pritchard JK (2009) Inferring weak population structure with the assistance of sample group information. Mol Ecol Resour 9:1322–1332" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1787">2009</a>). We merged runs for each <i>K</i> value using <i>Clumpak</i> (Kopelman et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Kopelman NM, Mayzel J, Jakobsson M, Rosenberg NA, Mayrose I (2015) Clumpak: a program for identifying clustering modes and packaging population structure inferences across K. Mol Ecol Resour 15:1179–1191" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1796">2015</a>) implemented through <i>Pophelper</i> (Francis <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Francis RM (2017) pophelper: an R package and web app to analyse and visualize population structure. Mol Ecol Resour 17:27–32" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1803">2017</a>). We determined the most biologically relevant <i>K</i> value by inspecting Delta K values (Evanno et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2005" title="Evanno G, Regnaut S, Goudet J (2005) Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study. Mol Ecol 14:2611–2620" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1809">2005</a>), Ln Pr (<i>X</i>|<i>K</i>) values, as recommended by Janes et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Janes JK, Miller JM, Dupuis JR, Malenfant RM, Gorrell JC, Cullingham CI, Andrew RL (2017) The K = 2 conundrum. Mol Ecol 26:3594–3602" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1818">2017</a>), and the bar plots of ancestry proportions grouped according to geographic distance between sampling sites and populations.</p><p>As an alternative approach to visualizing population structure, we also ran a principal components analysis (PCA) based on the same set of SNPs used in the <i>Structure</i> analysis. Following the approach of Novembre and Stephens (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Novembre J, Stephens M (2008) Interpreting principal components analyses of spatial population genetic variation. Nat Genet 40:646–649" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1827">2008</a>), we scored each genotype as having 0, 1 or 2 copies of the reference allele. In the case of missing data (~ 1.5% of the data), individuals were assigned a value equal to two times the global frequency of the alternative allele at that SNP. In the case of Z-linked SNPs, females were scored as having 0 or 1 copies of the reference allele and one allele missing, such that input genotypes for females were calculated as 0 or 1 plus the global frequency of the alternative allele at each SNP. PCAs were computed in <i>R</i> using the function <i>prcomp</i>.</p><p>Finally, we analysed the full set of variable autosomal loci in fineRADstructure (Malinsky et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Malinsky M, Trucchi E, Lawson DJ, Falush D (2018) RADpainter and fineRADstructure: population inference from RADseq data. Mol Biol Evol 35:1284–1290" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1839">2018</a>), which leverages the information available in the linkage of SNPs within each RAD locus to infer patterns of recent shared ancestry. More specifically, each individual’s ancestry at a given locus is allocated to other individuals that carry either an identical haplotype (or most closely related haplotype if the focal individual has a unique allele). Rare haplotypes, which are on average of more recent origin (Kimura and Ohta <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1973" title="Kimura M, Ohta T (1973) The age of a neutral mutant persisting in a finite population. Genetics 75:199–212" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1842">1973</a>), make the greatest contribution to the resulting pairwise co-ancestry coefficients. Thus, the fineRADstructure analysis uses all of the variable sites at each locus and focuses on a different kind of information in the data than does <i>S</i><i>tructure</i> or PCA.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11">Correlation between geographic and genetic distances</h3><p>To test for a correlation between geographic and genetic distances we used Mantel tests with 9999 permutations in the <i>R</i> package <i>adegenet</i> (Jombart <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Jombart T (2008) adegenet: a R package for the multivariate analysis of genetic markers. Bioinformatics 24:1403–1405" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1864">2008</a>). For mtDNA sequences, we calculated genetic distances using the Maximum Composite Likelihood method implemented in <i>MEGAx</i> (Tamura et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2004" title="Tamura K, Nei M, Kumar S (2004) Prospects for inferring very large phylogenies by using the neighbor-joining method. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101:11030–11035" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR135" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1870">2004</a>; Kumar et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Kumar S, Stecher G, Li M, Knyaz C, Tamura K (2018) MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms. Mol Biol Evol 35:1547–1549" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1874">2018</a>). We calculated individual pairwise genetic distances from microsatellites and SNPs as 1 − kinship coefficient (Loiselle et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1995" title="Loiselle BA, Sork VL, Nason J, Graham C (1995) Spatial genetic structure of a tropical understory shrub, Psychotria officinalis (Rubiaceae ). Am J Bot 82:1420–1425" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1877">1995</a>) estimated using <i>SPAGeDi</i> v1.5 (Hardy and Vekemans <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Hardy OJ, Vekemans X (2002) spagedi: a versatile computer program to analyse spatial genetic structure at the individual or population levels. Mol Ecol Notes 2:618–620" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1883">2002</a>). We then created Euclidean distance matrices for geographic distances using <i>GenALEx</i> 6.501 (Peakall and Smouse <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Peakall R, Smouse PE (2012) GenAlEx 6.5: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research—an update. Bioinformatics 28:2537–2539" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1889">2012</a>). We performed these analyses across all populations and separately within <i>nivosus</i>, which was sampled at multiple breeding sites (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig1">1</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec12">Demography</h3><p>We used the microsatellite dataset to investigate past effective population size (<i>N</i><sub>e</sub>) changes using <i>Bottleneck</i> v1.2.02 (Piry et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Piry S, Luikart G, Cornuet JM (1999) BOTTLENECK: a computer program for detecting recent reductions in the effective size using allele frequency data. J Hered 90:502–503" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1914">1999</a>) and <i>Msvar</i> v1.3 (Beaumont <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1999" title="Beaumont MA (1999) Detecting pop. Expansion and decline using microsatellites. Genetics 153:2013–2029" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1920">1999</a>; Storz and Beaumont <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Storz JF, Beaumont MA (2002) Testing for genetic evidence of population expansion and contraction: an empirical analysis of microsatellite DNA variation using a hierarchical Bayesian model. Evolution 56:154–166" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1924">2002</a>). <i>Bottleneck</i> tests for heterozygosity excess from the observed number of alleles under the assumption that after a recent bottleneck there is higher heterozygosity under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium than under a mutation drift model (Cornuet and Luikart <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Cornuet JM, Luikart G (1996) Power analysis of two tests for detecting recent population bottlenecks from allele frequency data. Genetics 144:2001–2014" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1930">1996</a>). We used the Wilcoxon signed-rank test implemented in <i>Bottleneck</i> with a two-phase mutation model to assess the significance of the excess. Using <i>Msvar</i> we inferred the demographic history of each deme (western <i>nivosus</i>, eastern <i>nivosus</i>, <i>tenuirostris</i> and <i>occidentalis</i>) by comparing three models: bottleneck, expansion and stable population size based on the full likelihood, coalescent simulation method implemented in the software. Populations within western <i>nivosus</i> were also tested independently because of the controversial status of the Pacific coast population segment, but these analyses produced nearly indistinguishable results (Fig. S1). Therefore, we combined these populations to provide deme-wide estimates. The stable population model assumed the same <i>N</i><sub>e</sub> values for <i>N</i><sub>0</sub> (current) and <i>N</i><sub>1</sub> (ancestral). For the bottleneck, we specified the priors for <i>N</i><sub>1</sub> to be wider than at <i>N</i><sub>0</sub> (bottleneck), whereas, we assumed the opposite (priors for <i>N</i><sub>0</sub> wider than <i>N</i><sub>1</sub>) for the expansion model. We set the microsatellite mutation rate (<i>μ</i>) to 5 × 10<sup>–4</sup> substitutions per site per generation (Peery et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Peery ZM, Kirby R, Reid BN, Stoelting R, Doucet-Bëer E, Robinson S, Vásquez-Carrillo C, Pauli JN, Palsboll PJ (2012) Reliability of genetic bottleneck tests for detecting recent population declines. Mol Ecol 21:3403–3418" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e1990">2012</a>), with a range of 10<sup>–3</sup> to 10<sup>–5</sup>. We ran each model with 1 × 10<sup>10</sup> MCMC iterations, thinning every 100,000 steps to end with 100,000 thinned updates. The initial 20% were discarded as burn-in. We performed multiple runs with broad priors (Table S3) to influence posterior distributions as little as possible. We assessed convergence of the MCMC simulations for each model with the Gelman and Rubin’s diagnostic (Gelman and Rubin <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1992" title="Gelman A, Rubin D (1992) Inference from iterative simulation using multiple sequences. Stat Sci 7:457–511" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2000">1992</a>; Brooks and Gelman <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1998" title="Brooks SP, Gelman A (1998) General methods for monitoring convergence of iterative simulations. J Comput Graph Stat 7:434–455" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2003">1998</a>) calculated using the <i>Boa</i> package v1.1.7 (Smith <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Smith BJ (2007) boa: an R package for MCMC output convergence. J Stat Softw 21:1–37" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR127" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2010">2007</a>) in <i>R</i>.</p><p>To examine population demography with the autosomal SNPs we applied Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC, Beaumont et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Beaumont MA, Zhang W, Balding DJ (2002) Approximate Bayesian computation in population genetics. Genetics 162:2025–2035" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2019">2002</a>) in <i>ABCtoolbox</i> v2 (Wegmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Wegmann D, Leuenberger C, Neuenschwander S, Excoffier L (2010) ABCtoolbox: a versatile toolkit for approximate Bayesian computations. BMC Bioinform 11:116" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR146" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2025">2010</a>) to compare our empirical data to simulated results from three different demographic models (stable, bottleneck and expansion). ABC was conducted for single demes independently: western <i>nivosus</i> (California (USA)<i>,</i> Utah (USA) and Ceuta (Mexico) combined), eastern <i>nivosus</i> (Florida (USA)), <i>occidentalis</i> (Peru) and <i>tenuirostris</i> (Puerto Rico).</p><p>ABC uses the following logic (reviewed by Beaumont <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Beaumont MA (2010) Approximate Bayesian computation in evolution and ecology. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 41:379–406" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2047">2010</a>). First, summary statistics are calculated from the empirical dataset in addition to a set of simulated datasets created based on pre-defined demographic models (involving, for example, population divergence, bottlenecks, expansions, migration). Second, summary statistics from the empirical dataset are compared with those from the simulated datasets to reveal the best fitting demographic model. Finally, differences between the empirical and best fitting model are used to predict the posterior distributions of model parameters (e.g. past/current effective population size and time of divergence; Beaumont et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Beaumont MA, Zhang W, Balding DJ (2002) Approximate Bayesian computation in population genetics. Genetics 162:2025–2035" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2050">2002</a>).</p><p>We specified wide priors (Table S4) with uniform distributions, and modelled effective population sizes with log<sub>10</sub> transformed values. Our dataset contained 1288 individual independent autosomal SNPs (see “<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Sec13">Results</a>”: SNP filtering). To simulate 1 million datasets for model optimisation we used <i>fastsimcoal</i> v2.6 (Excoffier and Foll <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Excoffier L, Foll M (2011) Fastsimcoal: a continuous-time coalescent simulator of genomic diversity under arbitrarily complex evolutionary scenarios. Bioinformatics 27:1332–1334" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2064">2011</a>; Excoffier et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Excoffier L, Dupanloup I, Huerta-Sánchez E, Sousa VC, Foll M (2013) Robust demographic inference from genomic and SNP data. PLoS Genet 9:1003905" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2067">2013</a>). We computed summary statistics (total heterozygosity, mean and standard deviation (SD) for the heterozygosity over SNP loci, number of alleles over all SNP loci, mean and s.d. for the number of alleles over SNP loci) for each dataset (simulated and observed SNPs) with the console version of <i>Arlequin</i> v3.5, <i>arlsumstat</i> (Excoffier and Lischer <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Excoffier L, Lischer HE (2010) Arlequin suite ver 3.5: a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows. Mol Ecol Res 10:564–567" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2077">2010</a>).</p><p>To infer the demographic model providing the best fit to our observed data we calculated the Euclidean distance between observed and simulated datasets, and carried forward the closest 5000 simulations for model fitting and posterior estimations. For each model we used the general linear post-sampling adjustment step within <i>ABCtoolbox</i> to calculate posterior probabilities and marginal densities. We evaluated the best fitting demographic scenario by pairwise comparisons of the marginal densities and <i>p</i> values of each model (Wegmann et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Wegmann D, Leuenberger C, Neuenschwander S, Excoffier L (2010) ABCtoolbox: a versatile toolkit for approximate Bayesian computations. BMC Bioinform 11:116" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR146" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2090">2010</a>). Spearman’s Rho statistics to assess pairwise correlation between summary statistics were calculated, and highly correlated statistics were removed before model comparisons. The uncorrelated summary statistics used in model comparisons were the total number of alleles over loci and the mean heterozygosity. We considered models with <i>p</i>-values greater than 0.05 as possible and the best fitting demographic scenario was required to have a Bayes Factor (BF) ≥ 3. We tested for stable, expansion, or bottleneck models within the last 1000 years as this focused our analysis on the period of intensive human induced change to coastal habitats (Lotze et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Lotze HK, Lenihan HS, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke RG, Kay MC, Kidwell SM, Kirby MX, Peterson CH, Jackson JBC (2006) Depletion, degradation, and recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science 312:1806–1810" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2096">2006</a>; Spatz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Spatz DR, Zilliacus KM, Holmes ND, Butchart SHM, Genovesi P, Ceballos G, Tershy BR, Croll DA (2017) Globally threatened vertebrates on islands with invasive species. Sci Adv 3:e1603080" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2100">2017</a>). The generation time for <i>ABCtoolbox</i> and <i>Msvar</i> was set to one year based on monitoring data from natural populations (e.g. Eberhart-Phillips et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Küpper C, Miller TEX, Cruz-López M, Maher KH, dos Remedios N, Stoffel MA, Hoffman JI, Krüger O, Székely T (2017) Sex-specific early survival drives adult sex ratio bias in snowy plovers and impacts mating system and population growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E5474–E5481" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2109">2017</a>).</p><p>In addition, we generated recent migration estimates between demes using the 1288 autosomal SNP dataset with a modified version of <i>BayesAss</i> v3 (Wilson and Rannala <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Wilson GA, Rannala B (2003) Bayesian inference of recent migration rates using multilocus genotypes. Genetics 163:1177–1191" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2118">2003</a>; available from <a href="https://github.com/smussmann82/BayesAss3-SNPs">https://github.com/smussmann82/BayesAss3-SNPs</a>), which allows the analysis of large SNP datasets. To optimise acceptance rates, we first explored migration mixing parameter combinations (migration rates <i>m</i> ranging from 0.1 to 0.6, allele frequencies <i>a</i> ranging from 0.1 to 0.6; inbreeding coefficients <i>f</i> ranging from 0.1 to 0.5) with short default numbers of MCMC steps, burn-in, and sampling values as recommended by Rannala (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Rannala B (2015) BayesAss edition 3.0 user’s manual. University of California, Davis" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2138">2015</a>). Once the acceptance rates fell between 20 and 60% (Rannala <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Rannala B (2015) BayesAss edition 3.0 user’s manual. University of California, Davis" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2141">2015</a>) we conducted three longer runs with different seeds, with the following parameter combination: <i>m</i> = 0.4, <i>a</i> = 0.6, <i>f</i> = 0.4, for 10 million MCMC steps, 1 million burn-in and sampling every 500 iterations. We visualised the results and determined the convergence of the three runs using <i>TRACER</i> v1.7 (Rambaut et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Xie D, Baele G, Suchard MA (2018) Posterior summarisation in Bayesian phylogenetics using Tracer 1.7. Syst Biol. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syy032
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2157">2018</a>) and averaged the results of the runs to provide migration rate estimates.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec13-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec13">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec13-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec14">SNP generation with ddRAD</h3><p>We obtained a total of 62.5 million sequence reads from 47 individuals. After initial filtering and de-multiplexing, read coverage ranged from 0.46 to 1.4 million reads per individual with a mean (± SD) of 1.1 (± 0.15) million reads. From these we identified 23,026 putative RAD loci, including 4859 loci that passed quality filters (4582 putative autosomal and 277 putative Z-linked). Of these, 1338 autosomal and 65 Z-linked RAD loci included between 1–4 SNPs and/or indels. Selection of one bi-allelic SNP per locus resulted in datasets comprising 1288 autosomal, and 65 Z-linked SNPs. Excluding singletons (for <i>Structure</i> runs and PCA), the dataset were reduced to 1089 autosomal SNPs and 52 Z-linked SNPs.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec15">Genetic diversity</h3><p>Overall, we identified 25 unique haplotypes for a 424 bp section of the mtDNA control region (D-loop). MtDNA haplotype diversity was highest in <i>occidentalis</i>, followed by <i>nivosus</i> (eastern and western combined)<i>,</i> and <i>tenuirostris</i> (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>). Microsatellite mean allelic richness was low and ranged from 1.8 in <i>tenuirostris</i> up to 2.5 in western <i>nivosus</i> populations (Utah and Ceuta; Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>). Similarly, per site genetic diversity (Watterson’s theta) across all quality filtered autosomal RAD loci (<i>n</i> = 4582 loci) was low overall but highest in <i>nivosus</i> (eastern and western combined, 0.0008), followed by <i>tenuirostris</i> (0.00048) and <i>occidentalis</i> (0.00045) (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>). The highest diversity of Z-linked loci was found in <i>nivosus</i> (eastern and western combined), followed by <i>occidentalis</i> and lastly <i>tenuirostris</i> (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>). No substantial level of inbreeding was detected, however, comparing between populations, eastern <i>nivosus</i> consistently had the greatest mean inbreeding coefficient ranging from 0.02 (± 0.32) based on autosomal SNPs to 0.08 (± 0.12) based on microsatellites (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab1">1</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec16">Population structure</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec17">mtDNA</h4><p>Based on mtDNA haplotype data, the three genetic lineages were not strictly distinct. We observed multiple shared haplotypes between <i>nivosus</i> and <i>tenuirostris,</i> whereas, only one haplotype was shared between <i>occidentalis</i> and <i>tenuirostris</i> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig3">3</a>). On the other hand, haplotypes from <i>occidentalis</i> and <i>tenuirostris</i> appear to be more closely related (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig3">3</a>). Eastern <i>nivosus</i> had one exclusive haplotype, whereas, we detected twelve exclusive haplotypes in western <i>nivosus,</i> three in <i>occidentalis,</i> and four in <i>tenuirostris</i> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig3">3</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="409"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Haplotype network of snowy plover D-loop mtDNA sequences constructed using the statistical parsimony method (<i>TCS</i>). Samples were collected from localities representing all previously identified genetic lineages. Colour coding follows Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig1">1</a></p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec18">Microsatellites and SNPs</h4><p>The Bayesian structure analysis conducted with SNP and microsatellite datasets all split <i>occidentalis</i> from the remaining two genetic lineages at <i>K</i> = 2 (data not shown). At <i>K</i> = 3, the SNP datasets, but not the microsatellite dataset, suggest three distinct clusters that are consistent with the updated delineation of the three subspecies proposed by Funk et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2337">2007</a>) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>). Without location prior information, the microsatellite dataset showed high levels of estimated admixture between <i>tenuirostris</i> the <i>nivosus</i> at <i>K</i> = 3 (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>). However, with location prior information the three genetic lineages could be clearly discriminated with microsatellites (Fig. S2). At <i>K</i> = 4, <i>Structure</i> analysis further split the <i>nivosus</i> lineage into eastern <i>nivosus</i> (Florida) and western <i>nivosus</i> (all other <i>nivosus</i> sampling sites) for both SNP datasets (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>). Furthermore, the autosomal SNP dataset showed minimal apparent admixture between <i>tenuirostris</i> and eastern <i>nivosus</i>. Increasing <i>K</i> to 5 did not result in further meaningful clustering consistent with geographic information. The eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> distinction was most pronounced with Z-linked SNPs compared to autosomal SNPs, and the microsatellite dataset only showed weak distinction between eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>) but improved when location information was added as a prior (Fig. S2).</p><p>The three genetic lineages were separated in the PCAs using autosomal and Z-linked SNPs (Fig. S3). Separation of eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> became clear when plotting PC1 against PC3 (Fig. S3B). Fine scale structuring was less pronounced within Z-linked SNP dataset (Fig. S3C).</p><p>The co-ancestry matrix of individuals using the autosomal RAD loci further supported the clear distinction of the three genetic lineages and additional sub-structuring within <i>nivosus</i> to recover eastern and western demes (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig4">4</a>). <i>Occidentalis</i> was consistently the most distinct lineage from <i>Structure</i>, PCA (Fig. S3), and fineRADstructure (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig4">4</a>) analyses compared to <i>tenuirostris</i> and <i>nivosus</i>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="871"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Pairwise co-ancestry matrix and dendrogram from fineRADstructure analysis of snowy plover demes. The co-ancestry coefficients, ranging from low (yellow) to high (blue), provide a relative index of recent shared ancestry between the focal individual (along the vertical axis) and other all other individuals in the analysis (along the horizontal axis). The co-ancestry matrix was created from 1338 autosomal RAD loci</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec19">Pairwise differentiation</h3><p>Between genetic lineages we found high and significant pairwise population differentiation with all markers (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab2">2</a>). The <i>occidentalis</i> lineage was most differentiated from all other demes/lineages (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab2">2</a>). Pairwise differentiation between eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> demes showed significant differentiation (<i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.04–0.11) in microsatellites as well as autosomal and Z-linked SNPs, but not in mtDNA (<i>Φ</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.03).</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Pairwise <i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> (and <i>Φ</i><sub>ST</sub> mtDNA) comparisons between demes of snowy plover (<i>Charadrius nivosus</i>), see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a> for population clustering</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec20">Correlation between geographic and genetic distances</h3><p>We found significant correlation between geographic and genetic distances for autosomal and Z chromosome datasets across all lineages and within <i>nivosus</i> individuals only (all lineages/<i>nivosus</i> only: autosomal SNPs <i>r</i> (mantel test statistic) = 0.70/0.61, Z chromosome SNPs <i>r</i> = 0.75/0.45, microsatellites <i>r</i> = 0.38/0.11, all <i>p</i> < 0.05; Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig5">5</a>). For mtDNA, the correlation between geographic and genetic distances was only significant for the dataset that included all genetic lineages (all lineages <i>r</i> = 0.52, <i>p</i> < 0.05, Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig5">5</a>a; <i>nivosus</i> only <i>r</i> = -0.02, <i>p</i> = 0.73, Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig5">5</a>b). For nuclear markers, the correlation between geographic and genetic distances was weakest for microsatellites and strongest for Z chromosome SNPs across all subspecies (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig5">5</a>a). Within <i>nivosus</i> only, we detected the strongest correlation between geographic and genetic distances with autosomal SNPs, followed by Z chromosome SNPs, and a weak but significant correlation with microsatellites (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig5">5</a>b).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig5_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig5_HTML.png" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy" width="685" height="1044"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>Pairwise individual-based correlation between geographic and genetic distances across snowy plover breeding populations (<b>a</b>) across all lineages, and (<b>b</b>) within <i>C. n. nivosus</i> only, assessed with four genetic datasets. Regression lines are provided where the correlation is significant (p < 0.05)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec21">Demography</h3><p>Overall our demographic analyses provided strong evidence for population bottlenecks in all genetic lineages during the past 1000 years. Specifically, <i>Msvar</i> predicted bottlenecks occurring between 56 and 445 years ago (YA) when the effective population size decreased from an average of 5983 (± 581) to 33 (± 19) (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab3">3</a>). We found the largest effective population decline in western <i>nivosus</i> and <i>tenuirostris</i> and the least decline in <i>occidentalis</i> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig6">6</a> and Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab3">3</a>; Table S5). According to the ABC analysis, the population bottleneck model fitted our autosomal SNP datasets best for eastern <i>nivosus</i>, <i>tenuirostris</i> and <i>occidentalis</i> with Bayes Factors of > 5. However, none of the three tested scenarios received sufficient support in western <i>nivosus</i> (Table S6). ABC estimated that the bottlenecks occurred most recently in <i>tenuirostris</i> and <i>occidentalis</i> (221 YA and 302 YA respectively) than in eastern <i>nivosus</i> (784 YA) (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Tab3">3</a>). Posterior and prior distributions of the ABCtoolbox bottleneck scenario are presented in Supplementary Material (Fig. S4). Only <i>tenuirostris</i> showed statistical support for a bottleneck based on heterozygosity excess with the program <i>Bottleneck</i> (Wilcoxon test: <i>p</i> = 0.04).</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Effective population size (<i>N</i><sub>e</sub>) and time of bottleneck of snowy plover (<i>Charadrius nivosus</i>) demes estimated with <i>Msvar</i> and <i>ABCtoolbox</i> (shaded cells) with 95% highest posterior densities (HPD)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-6" data-title="Fig. 6"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig6" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 6</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/6" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig6_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig6" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10592-020-01256-8/MediaObjects/10592_2020_1256_Fig6_HTML.png" alt="figure 6" loading="lazy" width="685" height="329"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-6-desc"><p>Effective population size (current and ancestral) of Eastern <i>nivosus</i>, <i>tenuirostris,</i> and <i>occidentalis</i> snowy plover genetic lineages estimated by <i>Msvar</i> and ABCtoolbox. Density is normalised for comparison of the methods. <i>ABCtoolbox</i> posteriors are restricted by prior parameter values. Effective population size is reported on log<sub>10</sub> scale. Western <i>nivosus</i> did not fit any of the modelled demographic scenarios tested with <i>ABCtoolbox</i> and is therefore not shown</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8/figures/6" data-track-dest="link:Figure6 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 6" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>We found low but significant levels of recent migration (<i>m</i> = 0.02–0.03) between lineages in the <i>BayesAss</i> analyses (Table S7). Among demes, there was one notable exception of high migration (<i>m</i> = 0.26, s.d. 0.04) indicating gene flow from western to eastern <i>nivosus</i>. However, given the low sample sizes and the weak population differentiation between eastern and western <i>nivosus</i><i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> ~ 0.05, these results should be interpreted with caution (Meirmans <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Meirmans PG (2014) Nonconvergence in Bayesian estimation of migration rates. Mol Ecol Resour 14:726–733" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2775">2014</a>).</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec22-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec22">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec22-content"><p>Examining population structure based on a comprehensive assessment that included four types of genetic data, we find genetic support for the three genetic lineages delineated previously as subspecies (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2787">2007</a>). These genetic lineages largely correspond to the proposed geographic ranges of the subspecies: <i>nivosus</i> (Mexico and USA), <i>tenuirostris</i> (Bermuda and Caribbean), and <i>occidentalis</i> (South America). The level of genetic divergence among the snowy plover genetic lineages/demes in microsatellite (<i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.04–0.47), autosomal SNPs (<i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.05–0.58), Z-linked SNPs (<i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.12–0.71) and mtDNA data (<i>Φ</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.03–0.79) is similar to that observed among other plover subspecies, such as the piping plover (<i>Charadrius melodus</i>, Miller et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Miller MMP, Haig SSM, Gratto-Trevor CLC, Mullins TDT (2010) Subspecies status and population genetic structure in Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus). Auk 127:57–71" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2820">2010</a>) and the chestnut banded plover (<i>Charadrius pallidus</i> dos Remedios et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="dos Remedios N, Kupper C, Szekely T, Baker N, Versfeld W, Lee PLM (2017) Genetic isolation in an endemic African habitat specialist. Ibis 159:792–802" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2826">2017</a>). Genetically, the three snowy plover lineages are more differentiated than the subspecies of some other shorebirds such as dunlin, <i>Calidris alpina</i>, Miller et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Miller MP, Haig SM, Mullins TD, Ruan L, Casler B, Dondua A, Gates HR, Johnson JM, Kendall S, Tomkovich PS, Tracy D, Valchuk OP, Lanctot RB (2015) Intercontinental genetic structure and gene flow in Dunlin (Calidris alpina), a potential vector of avian influenza. Evol Appl 8:149–171" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2832">2015</a>) or redshank, <i>Tringa tetanus</i>, Ottvall et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2005" title="Ottvall R, Höglund J, Bensch S, Larsson K (2005) Population differentiation in the redshank (Tringa totanus) as revealed by mitochondrial DNA and amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. Conserv Genet 6:321–331" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2839">2005</a>). The differences at microsatellites and mtDNA are also more pronounced than between white-faced plover (<i>Charadrius alexandrinus dealbatus</i>) and Kentish plover (<i>Charadrius alexandrinus</i>), <i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> = 0.01, Rheindt et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Rheindt FE, Székely T, Edwards SV, Lee PLM, Burke T, Kennerley PR, Bakewell DN, Alrashidi M, Kosztolányi A, Weston MA, Liu W-TT, Lei W-PP, Shigeta Y, Javed S, Zefania S, Küpper C, Peter R, Rheindt FE, Székely T, Edwards SV, Lee PLM, Burke T, Kennerley PR, Bakewell DN, Alrashidi M, Kosztolányi A, Weston MA, Liu W-TT, Lei W-PP, Shigeta Y, Javed S, Zefania S, Küpper C (2011) Conflict between genetic and phenotypic differentiation: the evolutionary history of a “lost and rediscovered” shorebird. PLoS ONE 6:e26995" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2852">2011</a>). The latter two taxa are considered separate species by some authorities based on phenotypic differences (del Hoyo et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="del Hoyo J, Collar N, Kirwan GM, Sharpe CJ (2018) White-faced Plover (Charadrius dealbatus). In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, Christie DA, de Juana E (eds) Handbook of the birds of the world alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 
 https://www.hbw.com/node/467300
 
 . Accessed 28 July 2018" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2856">2018</a>; but see Clements et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Clements JF, Schulenberg TS, Iliff MJ, Roberson D, Fredericks TA, Sullivan BL, Wood CL (2018) The eBird/clements checklist of birds of the world: v2018. 
 https://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/
 
 . Accessed 27 June 2019" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2859">2018</a>; Gill and Donsker <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Gill FB, Donsker D (2018) IOC world bird list (v8.2). 
 https://doi.org/10.14344/IOC.ML.8.2
 
 . 
 https://www.worldbirdnames.org/
 
 . Accessed 28 July 2018" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2862">2018</a>) and recent analyses have described further genomic differences between both taxa (Sadanandan et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Sadanandan K, Küpper C, Low GW, Yao CT, Li Y, Xu T, Rheindt FE, Wu S (2019) Population divergence and gene flow in two East Asian shorebirds on the verge of speciation. Sci Rep 9:8546" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2865">2019</a>; Wang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wang X, Maher KH, Zhang N, Que P, Zheng C, Liu S, Wang B, Huang Q, Chen D, Yang X, Zhang Z, Székely T, Urrutia A, Liu Y (2019) Demographic histories and genome-wide patterns of divergence in incipient species of shorebirds. BioRixv. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/559633
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2868">2019</a>). We found that <i>occidentalis</i> is the most distinct lineage of snowy plovers with consistently the greatest level of differentiation across all analyses. We suggest the uniqueness of this lineage should be considered when prioritising conservation efforts for South American shorebirds.</p><p>By combining new data with those from two studies (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2877">2007</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2880">2017</a>) we have substantially increased the number of genetic markers, individuals and sampling locations assessed. The SNP results corroborate previous findings (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2883">2007</a>) that <i>tenuirostris</i> lineage is distinct from <i>nivosus</i> and should be considered as a separate conservation unit. At the same time, individuals sampled from Florida (eastern <i>nivosus</i>) are more closely related to other <i>nivosus</i> populations, rather than the earlier delineation which grouped it with Caribbean <i>tenuirostris</i> (American Ornithologist’s Union <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1957" title="American Ornithologist’s Union (1957) Check-list of North American birds, 5th edn. American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington, DC" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2902">1957</a>)<i>.</i> This finding supports the current state-wide protection of Florida snowy plovers as a separate management unit. Avian subspecies are defined by phenotypic differences between geographically distinct populations. So far, such differences between Caribbean <i>tenuirostris</i> and eastern <i>nivosus</i> have not been reported, preventing the delineation of a separate subspecies for either <i>tenuirostris</i> or eastern <i>nivosus</i>. The exact geographic ranges of the two <i>nivosus</i> demes (eastern and western) are currently unknown. Our study lacked samples from existing intermediate breeding populations such as Kansas, Texas, Alabama and Lousiana, which are needed to fully characterise the boundaries of eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> demes. Previously, the American Ornithologist’s Union assigned all mainland snowy plovers east of Louisiana to <i>tenuirostris</i> and all western snowy plovers to <i>nivosus</i>. This delineation may serve as a useful primer for further work that aims to characterize the geographic ranges of the demes in detail. Our estimates of recent migration suggest that eastern snowy plover populations receive gene flow from western populations, whereas gene flow in the opposite direction is minimal. This directional bias maybe the result of wintering western migrants occasionally remaining to breed within the breeding distribution of the eastern snowy plover.</p><p>Snowy plovers have been the subject of several movement and demographic studies, though none so far have encompassed the entire range (Warriner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Warriner J, Warriner J, Page G, Stenzel L (1986) Mating system and reproductive success of a small population of polygamous snowy plovers. Wilson Bull 98:15–37" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2937">1986</a>; Stenzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Stenzel L, Warriner J, Warriner J (1994) Long-distance breeding dispersal of snowy plovers in western North America. J Anim Ecol 63:887–902" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2940">1994</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Stenzel LE, Page GW, Warriner JC, Warriner JS, George DE, Eyster CR, Ramer BA, Neuman KK (2007) Survival and natal dispersal of juvenile snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in central coastal California. Auk 124:1023–1036" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2943">2007</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Stenzel LE, Page GW, Warriner JC, Warriner JS, Neuman KK, George DE, Eyster CR, Bidstrup FC (2011) Male-skewed adult sex ratio, survival, mating opportunity and annual productivity in the snowy plover Charadrius alexandrinus. Ibis 153:312–322" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2946">2011</a>; Eberhart-Phillips and Colwell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Colwell MA (2014) Conservation challenges of a sink: the viability of an isolated population of the snowy plover. Bird Conserv Int 24:327–341" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2949">2014</a>; Aiello-Lammens and Akcakaya <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Aiello-Lammens ME, Akcakaya HR (2016) Using global sensitivity analysis of demographic models for ecological impact assessment. Conserv Biol 31:116–125" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2953">2016</a>; Cruz-López et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Cruz-López M, Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Fernández G, Beamonte-Barrientos R, Székely T, Serrano-Meneses MA, Küpper C (2017) The plight of a plover: viability of an important snowy plover population with flexible brood care in Mexico. Biol Conserv 209:440–448" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2956">2017</a>; Eberhart-Phillips et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Küpper C, Miller TEX, Cruz-López M, Maher KH, dos Remedios N, Stoffel MA, Hoffman JI, Krüger O, Székely T (2017) Sex-specific early survival drives adult sex ratio bias in snowy plovers and impacts mating system and population growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E5474–E5481" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2959">2017</a>). Therefore, the long distance dispersal behaviour of this species remains poorly described and anecdotal. We currently lack sighting data to support or reject the genetic inference of unidirectional gene flow from western <i>nivosus</i> populations in Florida. Such gene flow from larger western to smaller eastern <i>nivosus</i> populations may provide a crucial bolstering effect against population declines in the more vulnerable eastern deme (Lamonte et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Lamonte KM, Douglass NJ, Himes JG, Wallace GE (2002) Status and distribution of the snowy plover in Florida. 2002 study final report. Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission, Tallahassee. 
 https://www.flshorebirdalliance.org/media/11444/Lamonte_Douglass-2002_SNPL_Report.pdf
 
 . Accessed 28 July 2018" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2968">2002</a>).</p><p>Despite the significant differentiation between the eastern and western <i>nivosus</i> demes, we observed only a weak correlation between geographic and genetic distances within the entire <i>nivosus</i> subspecies. At first, this appears surprising given the large distance between sampled sites (> 3000 km). However, weak clinal structure or genetic homogeneity is common in shorebird populations, including Temminck’s stint <i>Calidris temminckii</i> (Rönkä et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rönkä N, Kvist L, Pakanen V-M, Rönkä A, Degtyaryev V, Tomkovich P, Tracy D, Koivula K (2012) Phylogeography of the Temminck’s Stint (Calidris temminckii): historical vicariance but little present genetic structure in a regionally endangered Palearctic wader. Divers Distrib 18:704–716" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2983">2012</a>), ruff, <i>Philomachus pugnax</i> (Verkuil et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Verkuil YI, Piersma T, Jukema J, Hooijmeijer JCEW, Zwarts L, Baker AJ (2012) The interplay between habitat availability and population differentiation: a case study on genetic and morphological structure in an inland wader (Charadriiformes). Biol J Linn Soc 106:641–656" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR140" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2990">2012</a>), mountain plover <i>Charadrius montanus</i> (Oyler-McCance et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2008" title="Oyler-McCance SJ, John JS, Kysela RF, Knopf FL (2008) Population structure of mountain plover as determined using nuclear microsatellites. Condor 110:493–499" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e2996">2008</a>) and the closely related Kentish plover, <i>C. alexandrinus</i> (Küpper et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Küpper C, Edwards SV, Kosztolányi A, Alrashidi M, Burke T, Herrmann P, Argüelles-Tico A, Amat JA, Amezian M, Rocha A, Hötker H, Ivanov A, Chernicko J, Székely T (2012) High gene flow on a continental scale in the polyandrous Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus. Mol Ecol 21:5864–5879" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3002">2012</a>). Interestingly, across the entire range of snowy plovers, we find that Z-linked markers show the strongest correlation between geographic and genetic distances compared to autosomal SNPs, microsatellites, and maternally inherited mtDNA. This result is consistent with male philopatry and female biased dispersal. Female biased dispersal is generally common across avian families regardless of mating system (Greenwood <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1980" title="Greenwood P (1980) Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. Anim Behav 28:1140–1162" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3005">1980</a>; Clarke et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1997" title="Clarke AL, Saether B-E, Roskaft E (1997) Sex biases in avian dispersal: a reappraisal. Oikos 79:429–438" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3009">1997</a>). Field observations suggest strong female biased dispersal in snowy plovers (Stenzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Stenzel L, Warriner J, Warriner J (1994) Long-distance breeding dispersal of snowy plovers in western North America. J Anim Ecol 63:887–902" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3012">1994</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Stenzel LE, Page GW, Warriner JC, Warriner JS, George DE, Eyster CR, Ramer BA, Neuman KK (2007) Survival and natal dispersal of juvenile snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in central coastal California. Auk 124:1023–1036" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3015">2007</a>; Paton and Edwards <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1996" title="Paton PWC, Edwards TC (1996) Factors affecting interannual movements of snowy plovers. Auk 113:534–543" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3018">1996</a>; Colwell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Colwell MA, Hurley S, Hall J, Dinsmore S (2007) Age-related survival and behavior of snowy plover chicks. Condor 109:638–647" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3021">2007</a>; Pearson and Colwell <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Pearson WJ, Colwell MA (2014) Effects of nest success and mate fidelity on breeding dispersal in a population of snowy plovers Charadrius nivosus. Bird Conserv Int 24:342–353" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3024">2014</a>), a pattern that may be explained by the “dispersal-to-mate” hypothesis. The “dispersal-to-mate’ hypothesis predicts that polygamous females disperse to access more mates and consequently achieve higher breeding success (Küpper et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Küpper C, Edwards SV, Kosztolányi A, Alrashidi M, Burke T, Herrmann P, Argüelles-Tico A, Amat JA, Amezian M, Rocha A, Hötker H, Ivanov A, Chernicko J, Székely T (2012) High gene flow on a continental scale in the polyandrous Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus. Mol Ecol 21:5864–5879" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3028">2012</a>; D’Urban Jackson et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="D’Urban Jackson J, dos Remedios N, Maher KH, Zefania S, Haig S, Oyler-Mccance S, Blomqvist D, Burke T, Bruford MW, Székely T, Küpper C (2017) Polygamy slows down population divergence in shorebirds. Evolution 71:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3031">2017</a>).</p><p>Autosomal polymorphic SNPs showed strong support for four conservation units in population structure analyses (Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig2">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#Fig4">4</a>, S3). This highlights the advantages of using as many independent genetic markers as possible when investigating potentially controversial fine scale population structure, especially in high gene flow species such as the snowy plover (e.g. Ruegg et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Ruegg KC, Anderson EC, Paxton KL, Apkenas V, Lao S, Siegel RB, DeSante DF, Moore F, Smith TB (2014) Mapping migration in a songbird using high-resolution genetic markers. Mol Ecol 23:5726–5739" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3044">2014</a>; Vendrami et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Vendrami DLJ, Telesca L, Weigand H, Weiss M, Fawcett K, Lehman K, Clark MS, Leese F, McMinn C, Moore H, Hoffman JI (2017) RAD sequencing resolves fine-scale population structure in a benthic invertebrate: implications for understanding phenotypic plasticity. R Soc Open Sci 4:160548" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3047">2017</a>). Differences in effective population size between mitochondrial, autosomal and sex-linked loci might also contribute to differences in level of genetic structure observed between genetic data sets. Assuming similar variance in male and female reproductive success, autosomal loci have the highest effective population size, followed by Z-linked loci and then mtDNA. Relatively high Z chromosome divergence is commonly observed in birds (Irwin <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Irwin DE (2018) Sex chromosomes and speciation in birds and other ZW systems. Mol Ecol 00:1–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14537
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3050">2018</a>), which may be enhanced by “Fast-Z” evolution (Mank et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Mank JE, Axelsson E, Ellegren H (2007) Fast-X on the Z: rapid evolution of sex-linked genes in birds. Genome Res 17:618–624" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3054">2007</a>; Meisel and Connallon <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Meisel RP, Connallon T (2013) The faster-X effect: integrating theory and data. Trends Genet 29:537–544" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3057">2013</a>) in addition to differences in effective population size. In snowy plovers, Z chromosome differentiation based on <i>F</i><sub>ST</sub> values was greater than for autosomal SNPs. The ability of a relatively small number of Z-linked SNPs to distinguish between eastern and western snowy plovers in Bayesian cluster analysis was higher than that of the autosomal SNPs, although the Z-linked SNP PCA indicated weak distinction between the two <i>nivosus</i> demes. Furthermore, Z-linked SNPs and autosomal SNPs produced similar correlations between geographic and genetic distances. The similarity of general spatial patterns produced by the two SNP datasets is striking given the difference in number of polymorphic markers (Z-linked: <i>n</i> = 52/65 excluding/including singletons; autosomal: <i>n</i> = 1089/1288 excluding/including singletons).</p><p>Consistent with previous findings (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3077">2007</a>), we find no evidence of genetic differentiation between coastal and interior western <i>nivosus</i> populations and no differentiation among coastal Pacific populations. This is not surprising given the high dispersal observed in this species (Stenzel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1994" title="Stenzel L, Warriner J, Warriner J (1994) Long-distance breeding dispersal of snowy plovers in western North America. J Anim Ecol 63:887–902" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3083">1994</a>). To detect putative fine scale differentiation within this deme, substantially greater sampling of the genome might be required, with the most fruitful approach being an analysis of whole genome sequences (WGS). Combining a WGS approach with improved sampling strategy to encompass the entire range of the species would enable not only the delineation of deme boundaries but also allow for an investigation of adaptive variation (Kjeldsen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Kjeldsen SR, Zenger KR, Leigh K, Ellis W, Tobey J, Phalen D, Melzer A, FitzGibbon S, Raadsma HW (2016) Genome-wide SNP loci reveal novel insights into koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population variability across its range. Conserv Genet 17:337–353" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3086">2016</a>).</p><p>Also supporting previous studies, we found that the current effective population sizes of snowy plover subspecies and demes are low (Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Funk WC, Mullins TD, Haig SM, Mullins TD (2007) Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies. Conserv Genet 8:1287–1309" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3092">2007</a>). Our demographic models suggest that this is most likely the result of strong population bottlenecks in all genetic lineages/demes that have occurred within the last 1000 years. As a result of these bottlenecks, the effective population sizes of the genetic lineages/demes have been reduced by at least 98%. Overall there was remarkable similarity between the full likelihood (<i>Msvar</i>, microsatellites) and ABC (<i>ABCtoolbox</i>, autosomal SNPs) methods, with the exception of a lack of fit between any of the tested ABC demographic scenarios and data for the western <i>nivosus</i> deme. This may have been caused by conflicting demographic trends across the vast breeding range. The western <i>nivosus</i> range spans large latitudinal and longitudinal gradients (more than 30 and 40 degrees, respectively), and encompasses populations that have likely experienced episodes of both growth and contraction. For example, western <i>nivosus</i> populations at the Pacific coast declined in the 1980s (Page et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1991" title="Page GW, Stenzel LE, Shuford WD, Bruce CR (1991) Distribution and abundance of the snowy plover on its western North American breeding grounds. J Field Ornithol 62:245–255" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3111">1991</a>) but due to intensive conservation effort they have stabilised or even increased over the last 20 years based on census results (Mullin et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Mullin SM, Colwell MA, McAllister SE, Dinsmore SJ (2010) Apparent survival and population growth of snowy plovers in coastal Northern California. J Wildl Manag 74:1792–1798" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3114">2010</a>; Colwell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Colwell MA, Feucht EJ, Lau MJ, Orluck DJ, Mcallister SE, Transou AN (2017) Recent snowy plover population increase arises from high immigration rate in coastal northern California. Wader Study 124:1–9" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3117">2017</a>; Feucht et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Feucht EJ, Colwell MA, Orluck NC et al (2017) Snowy plover breeding in coastal Northern California, Recovery Unit 2. Fish and wildlife service final report: 2017. 
 https://www.fws.gov/arcata/es/birds/WSP/documents/siteReports/California/2017%20SNPL%20Final%20Report%20RU2.pdf
 
 . Accessed 28 July 2018" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3120">2017</a>). In contrast, Pacific populations in Mexico appear to be rapidly declining (Galindo-Espinosa and Palacios <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Galindo-Espinosa D, Palacios E (2015) Estatus del chorlo nevado (Charadrius nivosus) en San Quintín y su disminución poblacional en la península de Baja California. Rev Mex Biodivers 86:789–798" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3123">2015</a>; Cruz-López et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Cruz-López M, Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Fernández G, Beamonte-Barrientos R, Székely T, Serrano-Meneses MA, Küpper C (2017) The plight of a plover: viability of an important snowy plover population with flexible brood care in Mexico. Biol Conserv 209:440–448" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3127">2017</a>).</p><p>Both ABC and <i>Msvar</i> models inferred effective population sizes far smaller than the census sizes of breeding snowy plover populations (Thomas et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Thomas SM, Lyons JE, Andres BA, T-Smith EE, Palacios E, Cavitt JF, Andrew-Royle J, Fellows SD, Maty K, Howe WH, Mellink E, Melvin S, Zimmerman T (2012) Population size of snowy plovers breeding in North America. Waterbirds 35:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3136">2012</a>). For example, the census size of eastern snowy plovers has been estimated between 683 and 1022 (Thomas et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Thomas SM, Lyons JE, Andres BA, T-Smith EE, Palacios E, Cavitt JF, Andrew-Royle J, Fellows SD, Maty K, Howe WH, Mellink E, Melvin S, Zimmerman T (2012) Population size of snowy plovers breeding in North America. Waterbirds 35:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3139">2012</a>), whereas, our effective population size estimate was between 47 (<i>Msvar</i>) and 59 (ABC) albeit with wide confidence intervals (CI) of < 1–1455 (<i>Msvar</i>) and 10–5941 (ABC). Even more surprisingly, the western <i>nivosus</i> population size was estimated at 17 (<i>Msvar</i>, CI: < 1–576), whereas, the census size is over 8000 (Thomas et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Thomas SM, Lyons JE, Andres BA, T-Smith EE, Palacios E, Cavitt JF, Andrew-Royle J, Fellows SD, Maty K, Howe WH, Mellink E, Melvin S, Zimmerman T (2012) Population size of snowy plovers breeding in North America. Waterbirds 35:1–14" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3155">2012</a>). These discrepancies may either have technical or biological explanations. Shafer et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Shafer ABA, Gattepaille LM, Stewart REA, Wolf JBW (2015) Demographic inferences using short-read genomic data in an approximate Bayesian computation framework: in silico evaluation of power, biases and proof of concept in Atlantic walrus. Mol Ecol 24:328–345" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3158">2015</a>) found that a larger number of genetic markers/loci yielded more power in estimating the parameters of demographic models using ABC, with over 50,000 loci being needed for accurate effective population size estimations. The accuracy of ABC compared to other methods in estimating effective population size is largely unknown (Wang et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Wang J, Santiago E, Caballero A (2016) Prediction and estimation of effective population size. Heredity 117:193–206" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR142" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3161">2016</a>), and ascertainment bias in SNP datasets can lead to erroneous temporal estimates (Quinto-Cortés et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Quinto-Cortés CD, Woerner AE, Watkins JC, Hammer MF (2018) Modeling SNP array ascertainment with approximate Bayesian computation for demographic inference. Sci Rep 8:1–10" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3164">2018</a>). Furthermore, the large confidence intervals of all the estimated parameters should be considered when interpreting these results. Snowy plover reproductive behaviour and population ecology may further contribute to the discrepancy between effective and census population sizes and reduce genetic diversity. These populations are highly male-biased (Carmona-Isunza et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Carmona-Isunza MC, Ancona S, Székely T, Ramallo-González A, Cruz-López M, Serrano-Meneses MA, Küpper C (2017) Adult sex ratio and operational sex ratio exhibit different temporal dynamics in the wild. Behav Ecol 28:523–532" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3168">2017</a>; Eberhart-Phillips et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Küpper C, Miller TEX, Cruz-López M, Maher KH, dos Remedios N, Stoffel MA, Hoffman JI, Krüger O, Székely T (2017) Sex-specific early survival drives adult sex ratio bias in snowy plovers and impacts mating system and population growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E5474–E5481" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3171">2017</a>), deviating from the basic model of unbiased sex ratios. The polyandrous mating system will further reduce the effective population size in comparison to the census population (Nunney <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1993" title="Nunney L (1993) The influence of mating system and overlapping generations on effective population size. Evolution 47:1329–1341" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3174">1993</a>), especially in the <i>nivosus</i> subspecies, which shows the highest rates of observed polygamy (Warriner et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1986" title="Warriner J, Warriner J, Page G, Stenzel L (1986) Mating system and reproductive success of a small population of polygamous snowy plovers. Wilson Bull 98:15–37" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3180">1986</a>; Eberhart-Phillips et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Eberhart-Phillips LJ, Küpper C, Miller TEX, Cruz-López M, Maher KH, dos Remedios N, Stoffel MA, Hoffman JI, Krüger O, Székely T (2017) Sex-specific early survival drives adult sex ratio bias in snowy plovers and impacts mating system and population growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114:E5474–E5481" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3183">2017</a>).</p><p>Overall, our results indicate a recent and substantial reduction in population size across snowy plover populations. Two of the demographic estimation methods we implemented (<i>Msvar</i> and <i>Bottleneck</i>) indicated that population size reduction has been pronounced in <i>tenuirostris</i>. This finding is supported by current population extirpations of <i>tenuirostris</i> on Caribbean islands (Brown <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Brown AC (2012) Extirpation of the snowy plover on St. Martins. West Indies J Caribb Ornithol 25:31–34" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3201">2012</a>). <i>Bottleneck</i> did not find evidence of population reduction in <i>occidentalis</i> or <i>nivosus</i> subspecies, which could be because the program is best suited for detecting low magnitude population bottlenecks (Peery et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Peery ZM, Kirby R, Reid BN, Stoelting R, Doucet-Bëer E, Robinson S, Vásquez-Carrillo C, Pauli JN, Palsboll PJ (2012) Reliability of genetic bottleneck tests for detecting recent population declines. Mol Ecol 21:3403–3418" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3214">2012</a>). Again, the power to detect bottlenecks depends on the number of loci analysed (Hoban et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Hoban SM, Gaggiotti OE, Bertorelle G (2013) The number of markers and samples needed for detecting bottlenecks under realistic scenarios, with and without recovery: a simulation-based study. Mol Ecol 22:3444–3450" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3217">2013</a>).</p><p>During the past 1000 years, humans have dominated and profoundly altered global ecosystems (Vitousek et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1997" title="Vitousek PM, Mooney HA, Lubchenco J, Melillo JM (1997) Human domination of earth’ s ecosystems. Science 277:494–499" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3223">1997</a>; Barnosky et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2011" title="Barnosky AD, Matzke N, Tomiya S, Wogan GOU, Swartz B, Quental TB, Marshall C, McGuire JL, Lindsey EL, Maguire KC, Mersey B, Ferrer EA (2011) Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature 471:51–57" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3226">2011</a>; Ceballos et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD, García A, Pringle RM, Palmer TM (2015) Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: entering the sixth mass extinction. Sci Adv 1:e1400253" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3229">2015</a>) especially in coastal and island environments (Lotze et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Lotze HK, Lenihan HS, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke RG, Kay MC, Kidwell SM, Kirby MX, Peterson CH, Jackson JBC (2006) Depletion, degradation, and recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science 312:1806–1810" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3232">2006</a>; Spatz et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Spatz DR, Zilliacus KM, Holmes ND, Butchart SHM, Genovesi P, Ceballos G, Tershy BR, Croll DA (2017) Globally threatened vertebrates on islands with invasive species. Sci Adv 3:e1603080" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3235">2017</a>). The introduction of predators such as the non-native red fox (<i>Vulpes vulpes</i>) and feral cats (<i>Felis catus</i>) plus other forms of human disturbance in coastal environments have led to reduced snowy plover breeding productivity and survival (Lafferty <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Lafferty KD (2001) Disturbance to wintering western snowy plovers. Biol Conserv 101:315–325" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3245">2001</a>; Ruhlen et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2003" title="Ruhlen TD, Abbott S, Stenzel LE, Page GW (2003) Evidence that human disturbance reduces snowy plover chick survival. F Ornithol 74:300–304" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3248">2003</a>; Colwell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Colwell MA, Hurley S, Hall J, Dinsmore S (2007) Age-related survival and behavior of snowy plover chicks. Condor 109:638–647" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3251">2007</a>; Webber et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Webber AF, Heath JA, Fischer RA (2013) Human disturbance and stage-specific habitat requirements influence snowy plover site occupancy during the breeding season. Ecol Evol 3:853–863" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR145" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3254">2013</a>; Dinsmore et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Dinsmore SJ, Gaines EP, Pearson SF, Lauten DJ, Kathleen A, Dinsmore SJ, Gaines EP, Pearson SF, Lauten DJ, Castelein KA (2017) Factors affecting snowy plover chick survival in a managed population. Condor 119:34–43" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3258">2017</a>). Therefore, we hypothesise that reductions in snowy plover population size may have resulted from the combined impacts of increasing anthropogenic modification of habitats. Estimating demographic histories is becoming more common in conservation genetic studies (Carnaval et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2009" title="Carnaval AC, Hickerson MJ, Haddad CFB, Rodrigues MT, Moritz C (2009) Stability predicts genetic diversity in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest hotspot. Science 323:785–790" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3261">2009</a>; Palsbøll et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Palsbøll PJ, Peery ZM, Olsen MT, Beissinger SR, Bérubé M (2013) Inferring recent historic abundance from current genetic diversity. Mol Ecol 22:22–40" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3264">2013</a>; Shafer et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Shafer ABA, Gattepaille LM, Stewart REA, Wolf JBW (2015) Demographic inferences using short-read genomic data in an approximate Bayesian computation framework: in silico evaluation of power, biases and proof of concept in Atlantic walrus. Mol Ecol 24:328–345" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3267">2015</a>; Stoffel et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Stoffel MA, Humble E, Acevedo-Whitehouse K, Chilvers BL, Dickerson B, Galimberti F, Gemmell N, Goldsworthy S, Nichols Krüger O, Negro S, Osborne A, Paijmans AJ, Pastor T, Robertson BC, Sanvito S, Schultz J, Shafer ABA, Wolf JBW, Hoffman JI (2018) Recent demographic histories and genetic diversity across pinnipeds are shaped by anthropogenic interactions and mediated by ecology and life-history. bioRxiv. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/293894
 
 
" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3270">2018</a>) and can be used among other to prioritize conservation units (Stockwell et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Stockwell CA, Heilveil JS, Purcell K (2013) Estimating divergence time for two evolutionarily significant units of a protected fish species. Conserv Genet 14:215–222" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3273">2013</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec23">Implications for snowy plovers and future work</h3><p>Evidence of low and declining effective population size, combined with continued threats to snowy plovers highlight the vulnerable status of this species. Our understanding of this species is strongly reliant on studies from the <i>nivosus</i> subspecies, with little dedicated monitoring programs for <i>tenuirostris</i> and <i>occidentalis</i> populations<i>.</i> The demographic findings we present here and recent population extirpations occurring in <i>tenuirostris</i> (Brown <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Brown AC (2012) Extirpation of the snowy plover on St. Martins. West Indies J Caribb Ornithol 25:31–34" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3300">2012</a>), provide strong justification for increased efforts at the Caribbean subspecies to halt the loss of genetic diversity and adaptive potential (Willi et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2006" title="Willi Y, Van Buskirk J, Hoffmann AA (2006) Limits to the adaptive potential of small populations. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 37:433–458" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR148" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3303">2006</a>). In addition, basic monitoring of <i>occidentalis</i> breeding populations, such as those conducted by Wetlands International (Wetlands International <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wetlands International (2019) Waterbird population estimates. 
 https://wpe.wetlands.org
 
 . Accessed 2 July 2019" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3309">2019</a>), are required to obtain reliable information on population trends.</p><p>Due to the high vagility and potential for gene flow among snowy plover populations, future work may benefit from population genomics based on whole genome sequence information with comprehensive sampling to focus on adaptive diversity in combination with actual movement data (e.g. GPS tagging) and range-wide demographic studies. This would allow us to fully characterise population connectivity and thus, infer conservation management units (Crandall et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2000" title="Crandall KA, Bininda-Emonds ORP, Mace GM, Wayne RK (2000) Considering evolutionary processess in conservation biology. Trends Ecol Evol 15:290–295" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3315">2000</a>; Fraser and Bernatchez <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2001" title="Fraser D, Bernatchez L (2001) Adaptive evolutionary conservation: towards a unified concept for defining conservation units. Mol Ecol 10:2741–2752" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3318">2001</a>; Palsbøll et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Palsbøll PJ, Bérubé M, Allendorf FW (2007) Identification of management units using population genetic data. Trends Ecol Evol 22:11–16" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3321">2007</a>; Lowe and Allendorf <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Lowe WH, Allendorf FW (2010) What can genetics tell us about population connectivity? Mol Ecol 19:3038–3051" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3324">2010</a>; Funk et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Funk WC, McKay JK, Hohenlohe PA, Allendorf FW (2012) Harnessing genomics for delineating conservation units. Trends Ecol Evol 27:489–496" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3327">2012</a>; Flanagan et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Flanagan SP, Forester BR, Latch EK, Aitken SN, Hoban S (2018) Guidelines for planning genomic assessment and monitoring of locally adaptive variation to inform species conservation. Evol Appl 11:1035–1052" href="/article/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d68830465e3331">2018</a>). Our results suggest that eastern snowy plovers deserve a continuation of distinct conservation management, whereas we caution against immediate changes in management actions of the western <i>nivosus</i> deme such as delisting of the threatened Pacific distinct population segment. 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Susan Haig kindly provided the single sample from California. Scott Edwards provided valuable advice during the conception of this study. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback which greatly improved our manuscript. This work was funded by a NERC GW4 + studentship NE/L002434/1 awarded to JDJ. Additional microsatellite genotyping of previously unpublished data sets was done at NBAF-Sheffield supported by grants (NBAF547, NBAF933, NBAF441). KHM was supported by a NERC GW4 + studentship NE/L002434/1. TS was funded by a Royal Society Wolfson Merit Award (WM170050) and by the National Research, Development and Innovation Office of Hungary (ÉLVONAL KKP-126949, K-116310). CK was funded by the Max Planck Society. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Josephine D’Urban Jackson, Tamás Székely & Kathryn H. Maher</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Organisms and Environment Division, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Josephine D’Urban Jackson, Michael W. Bruford & Isa-Rita M. Russo</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Maio Biodiversity Foundation, Maio, Republic of Cabo Verde</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Tamás Székely</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jeffrey M. DaCosta</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jeffrey M. DaCosta & Michael D. Sorenson</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">NERC-Biomolecular Analysis Facility, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Kathryn H. Maher & Terry Burke</p></li><li id="Aff7"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Posgrado de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Medardo Cruz-López</p></li><li id="Aff8"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Departamento Académico de Ciencias Marinas y Costeras, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Baja California Sur, A.P. 19-B, 23080, La Paz, Mexico</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Daniel Galindo-Espinosa</p></li><li id="Aff9"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California Sur, Unidad La Paz, Miraflores 334, Col. Bella Vista, 23050, La Paz, Mexico</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Eduardo Palacios</p></li><li id="Aff10"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Laboratorio de Zoología, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, Mexico</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Atahualpa Eduardo De Sucre-Medrano</p></li><li id="Aff11"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Avian Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Weber State University, Ogden, UT, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">John Cavitt</p></li><li id="Aff12"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Panama City, FL, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Raya Pruner</p></li><li id="Aff13"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Fideicomiso de Conservación de Puerto Rico, Para La Naturaleza, P.O. 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Morales</p></li><li id="Aff14"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Grupo Aves del Perú, Gómez del Carpio 135, Barrio Medico, Lima 34, Peru</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Oscar Gonzalez</p></li><li id="Aff15"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Natural Sciences, Emmanuel College, Franklin Springs, GA, 30369, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Oscar Gonzalez</p></li><li id="Aff16"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard Gwinner Str., 82319, Seewiesen, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Clemens Küpper</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Josephine-D_Urban_Jackson-Aff1-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Josephine D’Urban Jackson</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Josephine%20D%E2%80%99Urban%20Jackson" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Josephine%20D%E2%80%99Urban%20Jackson" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Josephine%20D%E2%80%99Urban%20Jackson%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Michael_W_-Bruford-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Michael W. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">D’Urban Jackson, J., Bruford, M.W., Székely, T. <i>et al.</i> Population differentiation and historical demography of the threatened snowy plover <i>Charadrius nivosus</i> (Cassin, 1858). <i>Conserv Genet</i> <b>21</b>, 387–404 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s10592-020-01256-8?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" 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