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class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Sisukord</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">vii külgpaanile</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">peida</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Algus</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Elukäik" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elukäik"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Elukäik</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elukäik-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uurimistöö" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uurimistöö"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Uurimistöö</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uurimistöö-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Lülita ümber alaosa "Uurimistöö"</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uurimistöö-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enne_penitsilliini_avastamist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enne_penitsilliini_avastamist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Enne penitsilliini avastamist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enne_penitsilliini_avastamist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penitsilliini_avastamine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penitsilliini_avastamine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Penitsilliini avastamine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penitsilliini_avastamine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penitsilliini_puhastamine_ja_stabiliseerimine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penitsilliini_puhastamine_ja_stabiliseerimine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Penitsilliini puhastamine ja stabiliseerimine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penitsilliini_puhastamine_ja_stabiliseerimine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antibiootikumid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiootikumid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Antibiootikumid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibiootikumid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Surm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tunnustus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunnustus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Tunnustus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunnustus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isiklikku" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isiklikku"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Isiklikku</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isiklikku-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ekslikud_lood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ekslikud_lood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ekslikud lood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ekslikud_lood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Viited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kirjandus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kirjandus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Kirjandus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kirjandus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Sisukord" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Lülita sisukord ümber" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Lülita sisukord ümber</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander Fleming</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Mine teises keeles artiklisse. Saadaval 114 keeles" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-114" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">114 keelt</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – afrikaani" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC" title="ألكسندر فلمنج – araabia" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ألكسندر فلمنج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="araabia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – aragoni" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragoni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং – assami" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – astuuria" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="astuuria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Fleminq" title="Aleksandr Fleminq – aserbaidžaani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aleksandr Fleminq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="aserbaidžaani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – lõunaaserbaidžaani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="lõunaaserbaidžaani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – indoneesia" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indoneesia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – malai" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="অ্যালেকজান্ডার ফ্লেমিং – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যালেকজান্ডার ফ্লেমিং" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – lõunamini" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="lõunamini" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – baškiiri" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baškiiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Аляксандр Флемінг – valgevene" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аляксандр Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="valgevene" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Аляксандар Флемінг – valgevene (taraškievitsa)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аляксандар Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="valgevene (taraškievitsa)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – bosnia" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosnia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – bretooni" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="bretooni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александър Флеминг – bulgaaria" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Александър Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgaaria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – katalaani" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalaani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – tšehhi" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tšehhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – kõmri" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="kõmri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – taani" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="taani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – saksa" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="saksa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81_%CE%A6%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Αλεξάντερ Φλέμινγκ – kreeka" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλεξάντερ Φλέμινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="kreeka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – inglise" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="inglise" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – hispaania" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="hispaania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – baski" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="baski" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – pärsia" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="pärsia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – fääri" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="fääri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – prantsuse" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="prantsuse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – läänefriisi" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="läänefriisi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – iiri" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="iiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – gaeli" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaeli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – galeegi" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galeegi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%8F%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9D%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A1%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97" title="એલેક્ઝાન્ડર ફ્લેમિંગ – gudžarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="એલેક્ઝાન્ડર ફ્લેમિંગ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="gudžarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gungbe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A0%89%EC%82%B0%EB%8D%94_%ED%94%8C%EB%A0%88%EB%B0%8D" title="알렉산더 플레밍 – korea" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알렉산더 플레밍" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="korea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D6%80_%D5%96%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3" title="Ալեքսանդր Ֆլեմինգ – armeenia" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալեքսանդր Ֆլեմինգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeenia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्ज़ांडर फ्लेमिङ – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अलेक्ज़ांडर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – horvaadi" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="horvaadi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – islandi" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – itaalia" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="itaalia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="אלכסנדר פלמינג – heebrea" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלכסנדר פלמינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="heebrea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – jaava" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="jaava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್‌ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი – gruusia" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="gruusia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – kasahhi" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kasahhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – suahiili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="suahiili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – ladina" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="ladina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandrs_Flemings" title="Aleksandrs Flemings – läti" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aleksandrs Flemings" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="läti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – letseburgi" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="letseburgi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – leedu" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="leedu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – ungari" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ungari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александар Флеминг – makedoonia" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Александар Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="makedoonia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – malagassi" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malagassi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D" title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ഫ്ലെമിങ് – malajalami" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ഫ്ലെമിങ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malajalami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="अलेक्झांडर फ्लेमिंग – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अलेक्झांडर फ्लेमिंग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი – megreli" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="megreli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC" title="الكسندر فلمنج – Egiptuse araabia" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الكسندر فلمنج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egiptuse araabia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – mazandaraani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="mazandaraani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – mongoli" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongoli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%96%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အလက်ဇန္ဒား ဖလင်းမင်း – birma" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလက်ဇန္ဒား ဖလင်းမင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birma" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – hollandi" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="hollandi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ – nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ – nevari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="nevari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%AC%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="アレクサンダー・フレミング – jaapani" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アレクサンダー・フレミング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="jaapani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – norra bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norra bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – uusnorra" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="uusnorra" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – oksitaani" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="oksitaani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%99%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%97" title="ଆଲେକ୍‌ଜାଣ୍ଡର ଫ୍ଲେମିଙ୍ଗ – oria" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଲେକ୍‌ଜାଣ୍ଡର ଫ୍ଲେମିଙ୍ଗ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="oria" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – usbeki" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="usbeki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਅਲੈਗਜ਼ੈਂਡਰ ਫ਼ਲੈਮਿੰਗ – pandžabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਲੈਗਜ਼ੈਂਡਰ ਫ਼ਲੈਮਿੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="pandžabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%86%DA%88%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ – lahnda" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="lahnda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%90%D9%86%DA%AB" title="الکساندر فلمېنګ – puštu" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="الکساندر فلمېنګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="puštu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – poola" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poola" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – portugali" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – rumeenia" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="rumeenia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – ketšua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="ketšua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флеминг – russiini" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Александер Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="russiini" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Флеминг, Александр – vene" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Флеминг, Александр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="vene" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min" title="Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D" title="सर् अलेक्साण्डर् प्लेमिङ्ग् – sanskriti" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सर् अलेक्साण्डर् प्लेमिङ्ग्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="sanskriti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – šoti" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="šoti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – albaania" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82" title="ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් ෆ්ලෙමිං – singali" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් ෆ්ලෙමිං" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="singali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – lihtsustatud inglise" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="lihtsustatud inglise" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – slovaki" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – sloveeni" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="sloveeni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Fileming" title="Aleksander Fileming – somaali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Aleksander Fileming" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somaali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ئەلیکساندەر فلیمین – sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەلیکساندەر فلیمین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флеминг – serbia" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Александер Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – serbia-horvaadi" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbia-horvaadi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – sunda" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sunda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – soome" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="soome" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – rootsi" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="rootsi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – tagalogi" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalogi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D" title="அலெக்சாண்டர் பிளெமிங் – tamili" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அலெக்சாண்டர் பிளெமிங்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D2%A3" title="Александер Флемиң – tatari" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Александер Флемиң" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="అలెగ్జాండర్ ఫ్లెమింగ్ – telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అలెగ్జాండర్ ఫ్లెమింగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="อเล็กซานเดอร์ เฟลมมิง – tai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อเล็กซานเดอร์ เฟลมมิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="tai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – vietnami" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್ – tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – türgi" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="türgi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флемінг – ukraina" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Александер Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukraina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%86%DA%88%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ – urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – varai" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="varai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%8E" title="亚历山大·弗莱明 – uu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="亚历山大·弗莱明" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="uu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – joruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="joruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E8%90%8A%E6%98%8E" title="弗萊明 – kantoni" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="弗萊明" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="kantoni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – dõmli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="dõmli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%8E" title="亚历山大·弗莱明 – hiina" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="亚历山大·弗莱明" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="hiina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37064#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Muuda keelelinke" class="wbc-editpage">Muuda linke</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Nimeruumid"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Vaata sisulehekülge [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Artikkel</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="new vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eri:Lingid_siia/Alexander_Fleming" title="Kõik viki leheküljed, mis siia viitavad [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Lingid siia</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eri:Seotud_muudatused/Alexander_Fleming" rel="nofollow" title="Viimased muudatused lehekülgedel, millele on siit viidatud [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Seotud muudatused</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eri:Erilehek%C3%BCljed" title="Erilehekülgede loend [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Erileheküljed</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&oldid=6711474" title="Püsilink lehekülje sellele redaktsioonile"><span>Püsilink</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=info" title="Lisateave selle lehekülje kohta"><span>Lehekülje teave</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a 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mw-parser-output" lang="et" dir="ltr"><div class="nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6739384">.mw-parser-output th.mbox-text,.mw-parser-output td.mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.9em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output td.mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output td.mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output td.mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output table.ambox{margin:0 10%;border:1px solid #aaa;border-left:10px solid #1e90ff;background:#fbfbfb}.mw-parser-output table.ambox~table.ambox:not(.mbox-small-left){margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox th.mbox-text,.mw-parser-output .ambox td.mbox-text{padding:0.25em 0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ambox td.mbox-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ambox td.mbox-imageright{padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0}.mw-parser-output table.ambox-notice{border-left:10px solid #1e90ff}.mw-parser-output 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><b>Artiklis ei ole piisavalt <a href="/wiki/Vikipeedia:Viitamine" title="Vikipeedia:Viitamine">viiteid</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"></span> <small><i>(Aprill 2020)</i></small><span class="hide-when-compact"> <br /><small>Palun aita väiteid kontrollida ja <a class="external text" href="https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit">viiteid lisada</a></small>. <small>(<a href="/wiki/Juhend:Toimetusm%C3%A4rkuste_eemaldamine" title="Juhend:Toimetusmärkuste eemaldamine">Kuidas ja millal see märkus eemaldada?</a>)</small></span><span class="hide-when-compact"></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6347534">.mw-parser-output .infobox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-spacing:3px;background-color:#f8f9fa;color:black;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;padding:0.2em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:88%;line-height:1.5em}.mw-parser-output .infobox caption{font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .infobox td,.mw-parser-output .infobox th{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox.bordered{border-collapse:collapse}.mw-parser-output .infobox.bordered td,.mw-parser-output .infobox.bordered th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .infobox.bordered .borderless td,.mw-parser-output .infobox.bordered .borderless th{border:0}.mw-parser-output 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0.6em}.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .mergedrow td,.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .mergedrow th{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .mergedbottomrow td,.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .mergedbottomrow th{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .maptable td,.mw-parser-output .infobox.geography .maptable th{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}</style></div><table class="infobox biography vcard" style="width:22em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><span class="fn">Alexander Fleming</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/220px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/330px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/440px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3493" data-file-height="4961" /></a></span><div>Alexander Fleming (1943)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em">Sündinud</th><td> <a href="/wiki/6._august" title="6. august">6. august</a> <a href="/wiki/1881" title="1881">1881</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lochfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lochfield (pole veel kirjutatud)">Lochfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0otimaa" title="Šotimaa">Šotimaa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em">Surnud</th><td> 11. märts 1955 (73-aastaselt)<br /><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suurbritannia" title="Suurbritannia">Suurbritannia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em"><i>Alma mater</i></th><td> <a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Mary_haigla_meditsiinikool&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="St Mary haigla meditsiinikool (pole veel kirjutatud)">St Mary haigla meditsiinikool</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Teadlaskarjäär</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em">Tegevusalad</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Bakterioloogia" title="Bakterioloogia">bakterioloogia</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Immunoloogia" title="Immunoloogia">immunoloogia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em">Tuntumad tööd</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Penitsilliin" title="Penitsilliin">penitsilliin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="padding-right: 1em">Tunnustus</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Nobeli_meditsiiniauhind" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobeli meditsiiniauhind">Nobeli meditsiiniauhind</a> (1945)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Autogramm</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/100px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/150px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/200px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="103" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <b>Alexander Fleming</b> (<a href="/wiki/6._august" title="6. august">6. august</a> <a href="/wiki/1881" title="1881">1881</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lochfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lochfield (pole veel kirjutatud)">Lochfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0otimaa" title="Šotimaa">Šotimaa</a> – <a href="/wiki/11._m%C3%A4rts" title="11. märts">11. märts</a> <a href="/wiki/1955" title="1955">1955</a> <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>) oli <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0otlased" title="Šotlased">šoti</a> <a href="/wiki/Bioloog" title="Bioloog">bioloog</a> ja <a href="/wiki/Farmakoloog" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmakoloog">farmakoloog</a>. </p><p>Fleming avaldas palju <a href="/wiki/Teadusartikkel" class="mw-redirect" title="Teadusartikkel">artikleid</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakterioloogia" title="Bakterioloogia">bakterioloogiast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunoloogia" title="Immunoloogia">immunoloogiast</a> ja <a href="/wiki/Kemoteraapia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kemoteraapia">kemoteraapiast</a>. Tema tuntumad saavutused on <a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%BC%C3%BCm" title="Ensüüm">ensüüm</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCsos%C3%BC%C3%BCm" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüsosüüm">lüsosüümi</a> avastamine <a href="/wiki/1923" title="1923">1923</a> ning <a href="/wiki/Antibiootikum" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiootikum">antibiootikum</a> <a href="/wiki/Penitsilliin" title="Penitsilliin">penitsilliini</a> avastamine <a href="/wiki/Hallitusseen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallitusseen">hallitusseenest</a> <a href="/wiki/Pintselhallik" class="mw-redirect" title="Pintselhallik">pintselhallikust</a> <a href="/wiki/1928" title="1928">1928</a>, mille eest ta pälvis <a href="/wiki/1945" title="1945">1945</a> <a href="/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Walter Florey">Howard Walter Florey</a> ja <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Boris_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Boris Chain">Ernst Boris Chainiga</a> <a href="/wiki/Nobeli_f%C3%BCsioloogia-_v%C3%B5i_meditsiiniauhind" title="Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhind">Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhinna</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elukäik"><span id="Eluk.C3.A4ik"></span>Elukäik</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Muuda alaosa "Elukäik"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=1" title="Muuda alaosa "Elukäik" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:StMarys80section.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/StMarys80section.jpg/220px-StMarys80section.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/StMarys80section.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London</figcaption></figure> <p>Fleming sündis Šotimaal <a href="/wiki/East_Ayrshire" title="East Ayrshire">East Ayrshire</a>'is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Darvel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Darvel (pole veel kirjutatud)">Darveli</a> lähedal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lochfield&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lochfield (pole veel kirjutatud)">Lochfieldi</a> talus <a href="/wiki/Katoliiklus" title="Katoliiklus">katoliiklikus</a> perekonnas. Ta oli Hugh Flemingi (1816–1888) ning tema teise abikaasa Grace Stirling Mortoni (1848–1928), naabertalu peretütre neljast lapsest kolmas. Isal oli esimesest abielust neli ellujäänud last. Abielludes oli isa 59-aastane; ta suri, kui Alexander (Alec) oli seitsmeaastane. </p><p>Fleming käis Louden Moori koolis ja Darveli koolis ning õppis seejärel kaks aastat <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kilmarnock_Academy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kilmarnock Academy (pole veel kirjutatud)">Kilmarnock Academys</a>. Neli aastat töötas ta laevanduskontoris, kuni päris 20-aastaselt oma onult John Flemingilt pisut raha. Tema vanem vend Tom oli juba arst ning soovitas sama elukutset ka Alexanderile, kes <a href="/wiki/1901" title="1901">1901</a> asus õppima Londoni kliiniku <a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Mary%27s_Hospital&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="St Mary's Hospital (pole veel kirjutatud)">St Mary's Hospitali</a> juurde. Aastal <a href="/wiki/1906" title="1906">1906</a> lõpetas ta õppeasutuse kiitusega ning tal oli võimalik asuda tööle <a href="/wiki/Kirurg" title="Kirurg">kirurgina</a>. </p><p>Juhtumisi aga oli ta olnud püssiklubi liige (ta oli 1900. aastast saadik olnud <a href="/w/index.php?title=Volunteer_Force&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volunteer Force (pole veel kirjutatud)">Volunteer Force</a>'i aktiivne liige). Klubi kapten, kes ei tahtnud, et ta meeskonnast lahkuks, tegi talle ettepaneku asuda tööle St Mary's Hospitali teadusosakonnas, kus temast sai <a href="/wiki/Vaktsiin" title="Vaktsiin">vaktsiiniteraapia</a> ja <a href="/wiki/Immunoloogia" title="Immunoloogia">immunoloogia</a> pioneeri Sir <a href="/w/index.php?title=Almroth_Wright&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Almroth Wright (pole veel kirjutatud)">Almroth Wrighti</a> abi <a href="/wiki/Bakterioloogia" title="Bakterioloogia">bakterioloogia</a> alal. Fleming sai <a href="/w/index.php?title=M.B.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M.B. (pole veel kirjutatud)">M.B.</a> ning seejärel kuldmedaliga <a href="/w/index.php?title=B.Sc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="B.Sc. (pole veel kirjutatud)">B.Sc.</a> kraadi ning töötas <a href="/wiki/1914" title="1914">1914</a>. aastani St Mary's Hospitali lektorina. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Esimene_maailmas%C3%B5da" title="Esimene maailmasõda">Esimese maailmasõja</a> ajal teenis Fleming <a href="/wiki/Kapten" title="Kapten">kaptenina</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuningliku_Armee_Meditsiinikorpus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuningliku Armee Meditsiinikorpus (pole veel kirjutatud)">Kuningliku Armee Meditsiinikorpuses</a>. Ta sai autasu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mentioned_in_Despatches&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mentioned in Despatches (pole veel kirjutatud)">Mentioned in Despatches</a>. Ta töötas koos paljude oma töökaaslastega <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4nerinne_(Esimene_maailmas%C3%B5da)" title="Läänerinne (Esimene maailmasõda)">läänerinde</a> rindehospidalides <a href="/wiki/Prantsusmaa" title="Prantsusmaa">Prantsusmaal</a>. Aastal <a href="/wiki/1918" title="1918">1918</a> naasis ta oma kliinikusse. Aastal 1928 valiti ta bakterioloogia professoriks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uurimistöö"><span id="Uurimist.C3.B6.C3.B6"></span>Uurimistöö</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Muuda alaosa "Uurimistöö"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=2" title="Muuda alaosa "Uurimistöö" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enne_penitsilliini_avastamist">Enne penitsilliini avastamist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Muuda alaosa "Enne penitsilliini avastamist"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=3" title="Muuda alaosa "Enne penitsilliini avastamist" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pärast Esimest maailmasõda uuris Fleming innukalt antibakteriaalseid vahendeid, sest ta oli näinud paljusid sõdureid suremas haavanakkusest põhjustatud <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsisesse</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antiseptikum" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiseptikum">Antiseptikumid</a> halvasid patsientide immunoloogilise kaitse aga veel tõhusamalt kui bakterid. Ühes sõja ajal arstiteaduslikus ajakirjas <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> avaldatud artiklis kirjeldas Fleming teravmeelset katset, milleks ta kasutas oma <a href="/w/index.php?title=Klaasipuhumine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Klaasipuhumine (pole veel kirjutatud)">klaasipuhumisoskusi</a>. Seal ta seletas, miks sõjas suri rohkem sõdureid antiseptikumide kui nakkuse tõttu. Antiseptikumid töötasid pindmistel haavadel hästi, kuid sügavad haavad kippusid peitma anaeroobseid baktereid antiseptikumi eest ning paistis, et antiseptikumid kõrvaldasid kasulikud mõjurid, mis patsiente kaitsesid, peaaegu sama hästi, nagu nad baktereid tapsid. Kuigi Sir Almroth Wright Flemingi avastusi toetas, kasutas enamik sõjaväearste Esimeses maailmasõjas endiselt antiseptikume isegi siis, kui need patsientide seisukorda halvendasid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penitsilliini_avastamine">Penitsilliini avastamine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Muuda alaosa "Penitsilliini avastamine"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=4" title="Muuda alaosa "Penitsilliini avastamine" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg/220px-PenicillinPSAedit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg/330px-PenicillinPSAedit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Plakatil on kirjutatud: "Penitsilliin ravib <a href="/wiki/Gonorr%C3%B6a" title="Gonorröa">gonorröa</a> nelja tunniga"</figcaption></figure> <p>"Kui ma <a href="/wiki/28._september" title="28. september">28. septembril</a> 1928 kohe pärast koitu ärkasin, ei olnud mul kindlasti plaanis revolutsioneerida kogu maailma, avastades maailma esimese antibiootikumi ehk bakteritapja," ütles Fleming hiljem.<sup id="cite_ref-vTLBM_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vTLBM-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aastal 1928 uuris Fleming parajasti <a href="/wiki/Staf%C3%BClokokk" title="Stafülokokk">stafülokokkide</a> omadusi, sest temalt oli tellitud peatükk stafülokokkide kohta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medical_Research_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medical Research Council (pole veel kirjutatud)">Medical Research Councili</a> üheksaköitelisele teosele "A System of Bacteriology" (see ilmus <a href="/wiki/1929" title="1929">1929</a> 2. köites). Lugedes kirjandust stafülokokkide kohta, leidis Fleming <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublini</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trinity_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trinity College (pole veel kirjutatud)">Trinity College</a>'i teadlaste Biggeri, Bolandi ja O'Meara artikli, kus oletati, et kui stafülokokkide kultuure mitu päeva toatemperatuuril hoida, siis nende värvus muutub. Fleming tundis asja vastu huvi, sest ta oletas, et stafülokoki värvuse järgi võib otsustada tema <a href="/wiki/Virulentsus" title="Virulentsus">virulentsuse</a> üle. Sellepärast otsustas ta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Merlin_Pryce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merlin Pryce (pole veel kirjutatud)">Merlin Pryce</a>'i abiga asja katseliselt uurida. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agars%C3%B6%C3%B6tmega_Petri_tass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agarsöötmega Petri tass (pole veel kirjutatud)">Agarsöötmega Petri tassi</a> pinnale kanti <a href="/wiki/Plaatina" title="Plaatina">plaatina</a><a href="/wiki/Traat" title="Traat">traadiga</a> mõned stafülokokid ning seejärel inkubeeriti <a href="/wiki/Rakukultuur" title="Rakukultuur">kultuuri</a> sobival temperatuuril (tavaliselt 37 °C), et bakterid paljuneksid. Pärast seda jäeti Petri tassike pingile ning seda vaadeldi mõne päeva tagant, et näha, kas värvus muutub. Veebruaris 1928 Pryce lahkus töölt Flemingi laboris, Fleming aga jätkas katseid ilma temata. Juuli lõpus läks Fleming tavapärasele suvepuhkusele perekonna seltsis, jättes hulga stafülokokikultuure virna pingiotsale, et päike neile peale ei paistaks. </p><p>Septembri alguses (tõenäoliselt <a href="/wiki/3._september" title="3. september">3. septembril</a>) 1928, kui Fleming oli puhkuselt tagasi, astus laborist läbi Pryce. Fleming uuris parajasti stafülokokikultuuride virna pingil. Kõrvale jäetud Petri tassikesed kastis ta <a href="/w/index.php?title=L%C3%BCsool&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lüsool (pole veel kirjutatud)">lüsooli</a> sisse, et bakterid häviksid, Neid oli tal juba nii palju, et mõned ulatusid lüsooli seest välja. Fleming hakkas Pryce'ile kaebama, kui palju tal nüüd ilma Pryce'ita tööd on. Siis ta valis mõned Petri tassikesed välja, et neid Pryce'ile näidata. Juhuslikult oli üks neist välja praagitud, kuid polnud lüsooli sisse mahtunud. Fleming vaatas seda pisut ning ütles "See on naljakas." See oligi penitsilliinitassike. Kultuur oli saastunud seenega ning seene vahetus ümbruses olnud kultuurid oli seen hävitanud, kaugemad aga olid puutumata. Fleming ütles: "Just nii te avastasitegi <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCsos%C3%BC%C3%BCm" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüsosüüm">lüsosüümi</a>." <sup id="cite_ref-TuYzx_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TuYzx-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fleming kirjeldas juhtunut juunis 1929 ilmunud artiklis nii: "Stafülokokkidega töötamise ajal pandi hulk kultuuriplaate kõrvale laboratooriumipingile ning need vaadati arg-ajalt üle. Ülevaatuste ajal sattusid need plaadid paratamatult õhu kätte ning saastusid mitmesuguste mikroorganismidega. Täheldati, et ümber suure saastava hallitusseene koloonia muutisid stafülokokikolooniad läbipaistvaks ning ilmselt toimus nende <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC%C3%BCs" title="Lüüs">lüüs</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-NIo1y_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIo1y-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fleming tegi järelduse, et hallitusseen toodab ainet, mis kutsub esile bakterite lüüsi. Fleming määras <a href="/wiki/Hallitusseen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallitusseen">hallitusseene</a>, mis tema kultuuriplaate oli saastanud, <a href="/wiki/Perekond_(bioloogia)" title="Perekond (bioloogia)">perekonda</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penicillium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penicillium (pole veel kirjutatud)">Penicillium</a></i>. Algul arvas ta ekslikult, et tegu on liigiga <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penicillium_rubrum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penicillium rubrum (pole veel kirjutatud)">Penicillium rubrum</a></i>, hiljem osutus, et tegu on palju haruldasema liigiga <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penicillium_notatum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penicillium notatum (pole veel kirjutatud)">Penicillium notatum</a></i>. Ainet, mida see eritas, nimetas ta mõned kuud hallitusseenemahlaks (<i>mould juice</i>) ning ristis selle <a href="/wiki/7._m%C3%A4rts" title="7. märts">7. märtsil</a> 1929 <a href="/wiki/Penitsilliin" title="Penitsilliin">penitsilliiniks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-qFdcV_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qFdcV-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Hare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ronald Hare (pole veel kirjutatud)">Ronald Hare</a> (1970:54–87) püüdis reprodutseerida Flemingi algse plaadiga sarnast plaati, ning leidis oma üllatuseks, et see on päris raske. Sarnane efekt saab tekkida ainult juhul, kui nii hallitusseen kui ka stafülokokid arenevad üsna madalal temperatuuril. </p><p>Fleming uuris penitsilliini antibakteriaalset toimet paljudele organismidele. Osutus, et see aine mõjub stafülokokkidele ja paljudele teistele <a href="/wiki/Grampositiivne_bakter" class="mw-redirect" title="Grampositiivne bakter">grampositiivsetele</a> haigustekitajatele, kes põhjustavad <a href="/wiki/Sarlakid" title="Sarlakid">sarlakeid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kopsup%C3%B5letik" title="Kopsupõletik">kopsupõletikku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningiit" title="Meningiit">meningiiti</a> ja <a href="/wiki/Difteeria" title="Difteeria">difteeriat</a>, kuid mitte <a href="/wiki/Gramnegatiivne_bakter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gramnegatiivne bakter">gramnegatiivsetele bakteritele</a>, kes põhjustavad <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BC%C3%BCfus" title="Tüüfus">tüüfust</a> ja <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parat%C3%BC%C3%BCfus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paratüüfus (pole veel kirjutatud)">paratüüfust</a>, mille ravivõimalusi ta parajasti otsis. Penitsilliin mõjus ka <a href="/wiki/Gonorr%C3%B6a" title="Gonorröa">gonorröad</a> põhjustavale bakterile <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neisseria_gonorrhoeae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neisseria gonorrhoeae (pole veel kirjutatud)">Neisseria gonorrhoeae</a></i>, olgugi et ta on gramnegatiivne. </p><p>Fleming avaldas oma avastuse 1929 ajakirjas <a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Journal_of_Experimental_Pathology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Journal of Experimental Pathology (pole veel kirjutatud)">British Journal of Experimental Pathology</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid6994200_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6994200-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, kuid artiklile pöörati vähe tähelepanu. Fleming jätkas uurimistööd, kuid leidis, et <i>Penicillium</i>'i kultiveerimine on üsna raske ning pärast seene kasvatamist on antibiootikumi isoleerida raskem. Fleming ei pidanud penitsilliini nakkuste ravi seisukohast tähtsaks, sest seda oli raske suurel hulgal toota ning selle toime tundus küllaltki aeglasena. Flemingil tekkis ka veendumus, et penitsilliin ei säili inimorganismis piisavalt kaua, et baktereid tõhusalt hävitada. Paljud kliinilised katsed ei andnud selget tulemust; põhjuseks oli tõenäoliselt see, et penitsilliini kasutati pindmise antibiootikumina. 1930. aastatel osutusid katsetused mõnikord paljutõotavamaks<sup id="cite_ref-VRj6w_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VRj6w-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, ja kuni 1940. aastani otsis ta farmatseuti, kes suudaks valmistada kasutuskõlblikku penitsilliini. </p><p>Fleming jättis penitsilliini peagi sinnapaika, ja varsti hakkasid Florey ja Chain USA ja Suurbritannia riiklikul finantseerimisel penitsilliini uurima ja massiliselt tootma. Masstootmine algas pärast <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCnnak_Pearl_Harborile" title="Rünnak Pearl Harborile">Pearl Harbori ründamist</a>. Teise rinde avamise ajaks olid nad valmistanud piisavalt penitsilliini, et ravida kõiki liitlasvägede haavatuid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penitsilliini_puhastamine_ja_stabiliseerimine">Penitsilliini puhastamine ja stabiliseerimine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Muuda alaosa "Penitsilliini puhastamine ja stabiliseerimine"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=5" title="Muuda alaosa "Penitsilliini puhastamine ja stabiliseerimine" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Penicillin-G_3D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/220px-Penicillin-G_3D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/330px-Penicillin-G_3D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/440px-Penicillin-G_3D.png 2x" data-file-width="2757" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bens%C3%BC%C3%BClpenitsilliin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bensüülpenitsilliin (pole veel kirjutatud)">Bensüülpenitsilliini</a> kolmemõõtmeline mudel</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Boris_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Boris Chain">Ernst Boris Chain</a> töötas välja penitsilliini isoleerimise ja kontsentreerimise meetodi. Samuti tegi ta kindlaks penitsilliini striktuuri. Varsti pärast seda, kui Florey ja Chain <a href="/wiki/1940" title="1940">1940</a> avaldasid oma esimesed tulemused, helistas Fleming Chaini osakonnajuhatajale <a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey,_parun_Florey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Howard Florey, parun Florey (pole veel kirjutatud)">Howard Floreyle</a>, et tuleb mõne päeva pärast neid vaatama. Kui Chain sellest kuulis, ütles ta: "Oh Jumal! Ma arvasin, et ta on surnud." </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Norman_Heatley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norman Heatley (pole veel kirjutatud)">Norman Heatley</a> tegi ettepaneku viia penitsilliini toimiv komponent vette tagasi, muutes selle happesust. Nii saadi piisavalt penitsilliin, et teha loomkatseid. Oxfordis osales töös veel palju teisi, teatud hetkel kogu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dunn_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dunn School (pole veel kirjutatud)">Dunn School</a>. </p><p>Kui 1940 oli leitud viis, kuidas puhastada penitsilliin esimesele teadaolevale stabiilsele vormile, tehti veel kliinilisi katseid, mis osutusid hämmastavalt edukateks. Aastal 1945 töötati välja masstootmise meetodid. </p><p>Fleming oli tagasihoidlik oma rolli suhtes penitsilliini väljatöötamisel, nimetades oma kuulsust Flemingi müüdiks ning kiites Floreyt ja Chaini, kes muundasid pelga laboriuudishimu toimivaks ravimiks. Fleming avastas esimesena toimeaine omadused, mis andis talle õiguse ainele nime anda. Tema kultiveeris ka algset hallitusseent 12 aastat kuni 1940. aastani, lootes leida farmatseuti, kes suudab penitsilliini valmistada. Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Harris">Henry Harris</a> ütles 1998: "Ilma Flemingita poleks olnud Chaini; ilma Chainita poleks olnud Floreyt; ilma Floreyta poleks olnud Heatleyt; ilma Heatleyta poleks olnud penitsilliini."<sup id="cite_ref-Vqutt_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vqutt-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antibiootikumid">Antibiootikumid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Muuda alaosa "Antibiootikumid"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=6" title="Muuda alaosa "Antibiootikumid" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Staphylococcus_aureus_(AB_Test).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/220px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/330px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/440px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2315" data-file-height="2097" /></a><figcaption>Tänapäeval testitakse antibiootikume meetodil, mis on lähedane Flemingi avastusele. <a href="/wiki/Kirby-Baueri_meetod" title="Kirby-Baueri meetod">Kirby-Baueri meetod</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Penitsilliini juhuslik avastamine ja isoleerimine Flemingi poolt septembris 1928 märgistab tänapäeva <a href="/wiki/Antibiootikum" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiootikum">antibiootikumide</a> algust. Fleming avastas ka väga varakult, et <a href="/wiki/Bakter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakter">bakteritel</a> kujuneb <a href="/wiki/Antibiootikumiresistentsus" title="Antibiootikumiresistentsus">antibiootikumiresistentsus</a>, kui penitsilliini kasutatakse liiga vähe või liiga lühikest aega. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almroth_Wright&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Almroth Wright (pole veel kirjutatud)">Almroth Wright</a> oli antibiootikumiresistentsust ennustanud juba enne selle katselist avastamist. Fleming manitses oma paljudes kõnedes üle maailma ettevaatusele penitsilliimi kasutamisel. Ta manitses kasutama penitsilliini ainult korraliku diagnoosi korral ning vältima liiga väikseid doose ja liiga lühiajalist tarvitamist. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surm">Surm</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Muuda alaosa "Surm"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=7" title="Muuda alaosa "Surm" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fleming suri 1955. aastal oma kodus Londonis <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCokardi_infarkt" title="Müokardi infarkt">müokardi infarkti</a>. Ta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Krematsioon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krematsioon (pole veel kirjutatud)">kremeeriti</a> ja tema tuhk maeti nädal hiljem <a href="/wiki/Saint_Pauli_katedraal" title="Saint Pauli katedraal">Saint Pauli katedraali</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tunnustus">Tunnustus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Muuda alaosa "Tunnustus"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=8" title="Muuda alaosa "Tunnustus" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/220px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/330px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/440px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>Alexander Fleming Rootsi kuninga <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_V" title="Gustaf V">Gustaf V</a> käest Nobeli preemiat vastu võtmas (<a href="/wiki/10._detsember" title="10. detsember">10. detsember</a> 1945)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1943 – valiti <a href="/wiki/Londoni_Kuninglik_Selts" title="Londoni Kuninglik Selts">Londoni Kuningliku Seltsi</a> liikmeks</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Isiklikku">Isiklikku</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Muuda alaosa "Isiklikku"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=9" title="Muuda alaosa "Isiklikku" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/23._detsember" title="23. detsember">23. detsembril</a> <a href="/wiki/1915" title="1915">1915</a> abiellus Fleming väljaõppinud <a href="/wiki/Meditsiini%C3%B5de" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditsiiniõde">meditsiiniõe</a> Sarah Marion McElroyga <a href="/w/index.php?title=Killala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Killala (pole veel kirjutatud)">Killalast</a> <a href="/wiki/Iirimaa" title="Iirimaa">Iirimaalt</a>. Sarah suri <a href="/wiki/1949" title="1949">1949</a>. Nende ainsast lapsest <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Fleming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Fleming (pole veel kirjutatud)">Robert Flemingist</a> sai <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%9Cldarst&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Üldarst (pole veel kirjutatud)">üldarst</a>. </p><p>Pärast Sarah' surma abiellus Fleming <a href="/wiki/9._aprill" title="9. aprill">9. aprillil</a> <a href="/wiki/1953" title="1953">1953</a> kreeklasest arstiga St Mary's Hospitalis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amalia_Fleming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amalia Fleming (pole veel kirjutatud)">Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekasega</a>, kes suri 1986. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ekslikud_lood">Ekslikud lood</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Muuda alaosa "Ekslikud lood"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=10" title="Muuda alaosa "Ekslikud lood" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Populaarne lugu, mille kohaselt <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchilli</a> isa <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Churchill" title="Randolph Churchill">Randolph Churchill</a> olevat kinni maksnud Flemingi hariduse tasuks selle eest, et Fleming oli päästnud noore Winstoni elu, ei vasta tõele. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Brown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevin Brown (pole veel kirjutatud)">Kevin Browni</a> kirjutatud biograafia "Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution" järgi kirjutas Alexander Fleming ühes kirjas<sup id="cite_ref-r6VPY_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r6VPY-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> oma sõbrale ja kolleegile <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andre_Gratia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andre Gratia (pole veel kirjutatud)">Andre Gratiale</a>, et see on <i>a wondrous fable</i>. </p><p>Samuti ei päästnud Fleming Winston Churchilli Teise maailmasõja ajal. Churchilli päästis <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lord_Moran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lord Moran (pole veel kirjutatud)">lord Moran</a> ühe <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfonamiidid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfonamiidid (pole veel kirjutatud)">sulfonamiidi</a> abil, sest kui too <a href="/wiki/Tuneesia" title="Tuneesia">Tuneesias</a> <a href="/wiki/Kartaago" title="Kartaago">Kartaagos</a> <a href="/wiki/1943" title="1943">1943</a> haigestus, polnud tal penitsilliiniga kogemusi. <a href="/wiki/Daily_Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Daily Telegraph">Daily Telegraph</a> ja <a href="/w/index.php?title=Morning_Post&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morning Post (pole veel kirjutatud)">Morning Post</a> kirjutasid 21. detsembril 1943, et Churchill olevat päästetud penitsilliiniga. Tegelikult kasutati uut sulfonamiidi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfap%C3%BCridiin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfapüridiin (pole veel kirjutatud)">sulfapüridiini</a>. Arvatakse, et õige teave ei jõudnud ajalehtedeni sellepärast, et see ravim oli avastatud Saksamaal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viited">Viited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Muuda alaosa "Viited"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=11" title="Muuda alaosa "Viited" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-vTLBM-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-vTLBM_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kendall_F._Haven&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kendall F. Haven (pole veel kirjutatud)">Kendall F. Haven</a>. <i>Marvels of Science</i>, Libraries Unlimited 1994, lk 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TuYzx-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-TuYzx_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hare, R. <i>The Birth of Penicillin</i>, Allen & Unwin: London 1970</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIo1y-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-NIo1y_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fleming 1929</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-qFdcV-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-qFdcV_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diggins, F. The true history of the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. – <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biomedical_Scientist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biomedical Scientist (pole veel kirjutatud)">Biomedical Scientist</a></i>, märts 2003, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, London. (Algselt avaldatud väljaandes <a href="/w/index.php?title=Imperial_College_School_of_Medicine_Gazette&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Imperial College School of Medicine Gazette (pole veel kirjutatud)">Imperial College School of Medicine Gazette</a>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid6994200-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid6994200_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fleming, Alexander. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. – <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Journal_of_Experimental_Pathology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Journal of Experimental Pathology (pole veel kirjutatud)">British Journal of Experimental Pathology</a></i>, 1929, 10, lk 226–236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VRj6w-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-VRj6w_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Flemingi kaastöölist <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/331/7516/579-c/DC1">Keith Bernard Ros</a>'i raviti uurimistöö käigus penitsilliiniga.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vqutt-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Vqutt_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Harris">Henry Harris</a>, <i>Howard Florey and the development of penicillin</i>, loeng 29. septembril 1998 Florey 100. sünniaastapäeva puhul, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxfordi Ülikool (heliülesvõte) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1610017">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-r6VPY-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-r6VPY_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">14. novembril 1945; British Library Additional Manuscripts 56115; Brown, <i>Penicillin Man</i>, märkus 44 peatükile 2</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kirjandus">Kirjandus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Muuda alaosa "Kirjandus"" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>muuda</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&action=edit&section=12" title="Muuda alaosa "Kirjandus" lähteteksti"><span>muuda lähteteksti</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Maurois" title="André Maurois">André Maurois</a>, "Sir Alexander Flemingi elu" (<i>La vie de sir Alexander Fleming</i>; biograafiline romaan). Prantsuse keelest tõlkinud <a href="/w/index.php?title=H%C3%A4idi_Kolle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Häidi Kolle (pole veel kirjutatud)">Häidi Kolle</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biograafiline_sari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biograafiline sari (pole veel kirjutatud)">Biograafiline sari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eesti_Raamat" title="Eesti Raamat">Eesti Raamat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tallinn" title="Tallinn">Tallinn</a> <a href="/wiki/1979" title="1979">1979</a>, 280 lk</li> <li>Alexander Fleming. On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to Their Use in the Isolation of <i>B. Influenzae</i>. – <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Journal_of_Experimental_Pathology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Journal of Experimental Pathology (pole veel kirjutatud)">British Journal of Experimental Pathology</a></i>, 1929, 10, 226–236.</li> <li><i>The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming</i>, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André.</li> <li><i>Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1942–1962</i>, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gwyn_Macfarlane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gwyn Macfarlane (pole veel kirjutatud)">Gwyn Macfarlane</a>. <i>Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth</i>, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984.</li> <li><i>An Outline History of Medicine</i>. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip.</li> <li><i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Brown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevin Brown (pole veel kirjutatud)">Kevin Brown</a>. <i>Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution</i>, Stroud, Sutton, 2004.</li></ul> <div class="navbox" style=";;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6393697">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:2px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.15em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-collapsible-toggle{color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin:0 0.5em}</style><table class="mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr><th class="navbox-title" scope="col" colspan="3" style=";;padding:0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r6347537">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{margin:0;display:inline-block;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{white-space:nowrap;word-spacing:-0.125em;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .navbar li:not(:last-child):after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .navbar.mini li abbr[title]{border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}</style><div class="navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Mall:NobelMeditsiin" title="Mall:NobelMeditsiin"><abbr title="Vaata seda malli">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Eri:EditPage/Mall:NobelMeditsiin" title="Eri:EditPage/Mall:NobelMeditsiin"><abbr title="Redigeeri seda malli">r</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div style="margin:0 4em;"><a href="/wiki/Nobeli_f%C3%BCsioloogia-_v%C3%B5i_meditsiiniauhind" title="Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhind">Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhinna laureaadid</a></div></th></tr><tr> <th class="navbox-group" style=";;">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r5492003">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child:after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child:before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child:after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li:before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child:before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child:before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>1901 <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Behring</a></li> <li>1902 <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ross</a></li> <li>1903 <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Finsen</a></li> <li>1904 <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Pavlov</a></li> <li>1905 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Koch</a></li> <li>1906 <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Golgi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Ramón y Cajal</a></li> <li>1907 <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Laveran" title="Alphonse Laveran">Laveran</a></li> <li>1908 <a href="/wiki/Ilja_Met%C5%A1nikov" title="Ilja Metšnikov">Metšnikov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li>1909 <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Kocher</a></li> <li>1910 <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Kossel</a></li> <li>1911 <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Gullstrand</a></li> <li>1912 <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Carrel</a></li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Richet</a></li> <li>1914 <a href="/wiki/Robert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" title="Robert Bárány">Bárány</a></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1915</span></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1916</span></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1917</span></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1918</span></li> <li>1919 <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Bordet</a></li> <li>1920 <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">Krogh</a></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1921</span></li> <li>1922 <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Meyerhof</a></li> <li>1923 <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Banting</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_James_Richard_Macleod" title="John James Richard Macleod">Macleod</a></li> <li>1924 <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Einthoven</a></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1925</span></li></ul> </div></div> </td> <td class="navbox-image" style="width:1px; padding:0px 0px 0px 2px;" rowspan="5"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fail:Nobel_prize_medal.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nobel"><img alt="Nobel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nobel_prize_medal.svg/50px-Nobel_prize_medal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nobel_prize_medal.svg/75px-Nobel_prize_medal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nobel_prize_medal.svg/100px-Nobel_prize_medal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-group" style=";;">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r5492003"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>1926 <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Fibiger</a></li> <li>1927 <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Wagner-Jauregg</a></li> <li>1928 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Nicolle</a></li> <li>1929 <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Eijkman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Landsteiner</a></li> <li>1931 <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Warburg</a></li> <li>1932 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Sherrington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Adrian</a></li> <li>1933 <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Morgan" title="Thomas Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li>1934 <a href="/wiki/George_Hoyt_Whipple" title="George Hoyt Whipple">Whipple</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Richards_Minot" title="George Richards Minot">Minot</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Parry_Murphy" title="William Parry Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li>1935 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Spemann</a></li> <li>1936 <a href="/wiki/Henry_Dale" title="Henry Dale">Dale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Loewi</a></li> <li>1937 <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li>1938 <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Heymans</a></li> <li>1939 <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Domagk</a></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1940</span></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1941</span></li> <li><span style="color: darkgrey;">1942</span></li> <li>1943 <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Dam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Doisy</a></li> <li>1944 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Erlanger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Gasser</a></li> <li>1945 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fleming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Chain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Florey</a></li> <li>1946 <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Muller" title="Hermann Muller">Muller</a></li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">C. F. Cori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Theresa_Cori" title="Gerty Theresa Cori">G. T. Cori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Alberto_Houssay" title="Bernardo Alberto Houssay">Houssay</a></li> <li>1948 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Müller</a></li> <li>1949 <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Hess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">Egas Moniz</a></li> <li>1950 <a href="/wiki/Edward_Kendall" title="Edward Kendall">Kendall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Reichstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Hench" title="Philip Hench">Hench</a></li></ul> </div></div> </td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-group" style=";;">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r5492003"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>1951 <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Theiler</a></li> <li>1952 <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Waksman</a></li> <li>1953 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Adolf_Krebs" title="Hans Adolf Krebs">Krebs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Lipmann</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">Enders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Weller" title="Thomas Weller">Weller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Robbins" title="Frederick Robbins">Robbins</a></li> <li>1955 <a href="/wiki/Axel_Hugo_Theorell" title="Axel Hugo Theorell">Theorell</a></li> <li>1956 <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Cournand" title="André Cournand">Cournand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Forssmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_Richards" title="Dickinson Richards">Richards</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Bovet</a></li> <li>1958 <a href="/wiki/George_Wells_Beadle" title="George Wells Beadle">Beadle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Tatum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Lederberg</a></li> <li>1959 <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Ochoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Kornberg</a></li> <li>1960 <a href="/wiki/Frank_Burnet" title="Frank Burnet">Burnet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brian_Medawar" title="Peter Brian Medawar">Medawar</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Békésy</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Crick</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li>1963 <a href="/wiki/John_Carew_Eccles" title="John Carew Eccles">Eccles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Hodgkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li>1964 <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Bloch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Lynen</a></li> <li>1965 <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">Jacob</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lwoff" title="André Lwoff">Lwoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Monod</a></li> <li>1966 <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Rous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Huggins</a></li> <li>1967 <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Granit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Hartline" title="Haldan Hartline">Hartline</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">Wald</a></li> <li>1968 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Holley" title="Robert Holley">Holley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Khorana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Nirenberg</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Delbrück</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Hershey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Luria</a></li> <li>1970 <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Katz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Euler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Axelrod</a></li> <li>1971 <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland" title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland">Sutherland</a></li> <li>1972 <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Edelman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Porter</a></li> <li>1973 <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Frisch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Lorenz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niko_Tinbergen" title="Niko Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li> <li>1974 <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Claude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Duve</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Palade" title="George Palade">Palade</a></li> <li>1975 <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Dulbecco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Temin" title="Howard Temin">Temin</a></li></ul> </div></div> </td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-group" style=";;">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r5492003"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>1976 <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Blumberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Gajdusek</a></li> <li>1977 <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Guillemin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Schally</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Yalow">Yalow</a></li> <li>1978 <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Arber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Nathans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Smith" title="Hamilton Smith">Smith</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Allan_Cormack" title="Allan Cormack">Cormack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Hounsfield</a></li> <li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Benacerraf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Dausset</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Snell" title="George Snell">Snell</a></li> <li>1981 <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sperry" title="Roger Sperry">Sperry</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hunter_Hubel" title="David Hunter Hubel">Hubel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Wiesel</a></li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Bergström</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengt_Samuelsson" title="Bengt Samuelsson">Samuelsson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">Vane</a></li> <li>1983 <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">McClintock</a></li> <li>1984 <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Jerne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Jean_Franz_K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges Jean Franz Köhler">Köhler</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">Milstein</a></li> <li>1985 <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Goldstein</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen" title="Stanley Cohen">Cohen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Levi-Montalcini</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Tonegawa</a></li> <li>1988 <a href="/wiki/James_Black" title="James Black">Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Elion" title="Gertrude Elion">Elion</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Hitchings" title="George Hitchings">Hitchings</a></li> <li>1989 <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bishop" title="Michael Bishop">Bishop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" title="Harold Varmus">Varmus</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" title="Joseph Murray">Murray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Donnall_Thomas" title="Edward Donnall Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li>1991 <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Neher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Sakmann</a></li> <li>1992 <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Fischer" title="Edmond Fischer">Fischer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Krebs" title="Edwin Krebs">Krebs</a></li> <li>1993 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Roberts" title="Richard Roberts">Roberts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Sharp" title="Phillip Sharp">Sharp</a></li> <li>1994 <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gilman" title="Alfred Gilman">Gilman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Rodbell</a></li> <li>1995 <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lewis" title="Edward Lewis">Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Nüsslein-Volhard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wieschaus" title="Eric Wieschaus">Wieschaus</a></li> <li>1996 <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" title="Peter C. Doherty">Doherty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Zinkernagel" title="Rolf Zinkernagel">Zinkernagel</a></li> <li>1997 <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Prusiner" title="Stanley Prusiner">Prusiner</a></li> <li>1998 <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Furchgott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Ignarro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Murad</a></li> <li>1999 <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Blobel</a></li> <li>2000 <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Carlsson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Greengard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Kandel</a></li></ul> </div></div> </td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-group" style=";;">2001–2025</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;;;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r5492003"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Leland_Hartwell" title="Leland Hartwell">Hartwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Hunt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Maxime_Nurse" title="Paul Maxime Nurse">Nurse</a></li> <li>2002 <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Brenner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Horvitz" title="Robert Horvitz">Horvitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">Sulston</a></li> <li>2003 <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Lautebur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li>2004 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Axel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Buck</a></li> <li>2005 <a href="/wiki/Barry_J._Marshall" title="Barry J. Marshall">Marshall</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Robin_Warren" title="John Robin Warren">Warren</a></li> <li>2006 <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Fire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Craig_Cameron_Mello" title="Craig Cameron Mello">Mello</a></li> <li>2007 <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Capecchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Smithies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Evans</a></li> <li>2008 <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Hausen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Barré-Sinoussi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Montagnier</a></li> <li>2009 <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Blackburn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carol_Greider" title="Carol Greider">Greider</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Szostak" title="Jack Szostak">Szostak</a></li> <li>2010 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards" title="Robert Edwards">Edwards</a></li> <li>2011 <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Beutler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Hoffmann" title="Jules Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman">Steinman</a></li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">Gurdon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Yamanaka</a></li> <li>2013 <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">Rothman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Schekman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas Südhof">Südhof</a></li> <li>2014 <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe" title="John O'Keefe">O'Keefe</a>, <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></li> <li>2015 <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil_Campbell" title="William Cecil Campbell">Campbell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Ōmura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu</a></li> <li>2016 <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_%C5%8Csumi" title="Yoshinori Ōsumi">Ōsumi</a></li> <li>2017 <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Rosbash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Young</a></li> <li>2018 <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">Allison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Honjo</a></li> <li>2019 <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">Kaelin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ratcliffe" title="Peter Ratcliffe">Ratcliffe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregg_Semenza" title="Gregg Semenza">Semenza</a></li> <li>2020 <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Alter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton" title="Michael Houghton">Houghton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Rice</a></li> <li>2021 <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">Julius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Patapoutian</a></li> <li>2022 <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Pääbo</a></li> <li>2023 <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Karikó</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Weissman</a></li> <li>2024 <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Ambros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Ruvkun</a></li></ul> </div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Pärit leheküljelt "<a dir="ltr" href="https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&oldid=6711474">https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Fleming&oldid=6711474</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Eri:Kategooriad" title="Eri:Kategooriad">Kategooriad</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:%C5%A0otimaa_teadlased" title="Kategooria:Šotimaa teadlased">Šotimaa teadlased</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:Suurbritannia_bioloogid" title="Kategooria:Suurbritannia bioloogid">Suurbritannia bioloogid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:Farmakoloogid" title="Kategooria:Farmakoloogid">Farmakoloogid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:Nobeli_f%C3%BCsioloogia-_v%C3%B5i_meditsiiniauhinna_laureaadid" title="Kategooria:Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhinna laureaadid">Nobeli füsioloogia- või meditsiiniauhinna laureaadid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:S%C3%BCndinud_1881" title="Kategooria:Sündinud 1881">Sündinud 1881</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:Surnud_1955" title="Kategooria:Surnud 1955">Surnud 1955</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Peidetud kategooria: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kategooria:Ebapiisavalt_viidatud_artiklid" title="Kategooria:Ebapiisavalt viidatud artiklid">Ebapiisavalt viidatud artiklid</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> Selle lehekülje viimane muutmine: 01:31, 24. august 2024.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Tekst on kasutatav vastavalt Creative Commonsi litsentsile "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.et">Autorile viitamine + jagamine samadel tingimustel</a>"; sellele võivad lisanduda täiendavad tingimused. 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