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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"> <p>The <b>culture of <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a></b> is based on local tradition and common influence with its neighbors. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#People"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">People</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Pre-colonial_society"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Pre-colonial society</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Colonial_society"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial society</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Post-colonial_society"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Post-colonial society</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Music"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Music</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Media"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Media</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Literature_and_oral_tradition"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Literature and oral tradition</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Sports"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Sports</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Cuisine"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Cuisine</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Education_and_language"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Education and language</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Visual_arts"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Visual arts</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="People">People</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: People" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Although referred to as ethnic groups the <a href="/wiki/Hutu" title="Hutu">Hutu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Twa" title="Twa">Twa</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ganwa" title="Ganwa">Ganwa</a> all share the same culture, language and land. In Kirundi, the national language of Burundi, these ethnic groups are called miryango, which can be translated to clans or tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sentamba-2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-colonial_society">Pre-colonial society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-colonial society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Before colonization Burundi and Rwanda formed one kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi" title="Ruanda-Urundi">Ruanda-Urundi</a>. The Burundian part of society was ruled by Kings also called <a href="/wiki/Mwami" title="Mwami">Mwami</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Albert-1964_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albert-1964-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no records of discrimination during this time. Every clan was involved in royal duties, for inclusion purposes. While there were physical differences between clans, they all shared to same customs and beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maguire-1995-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_society">Colonial society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Colonial society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Burundi's colonization started in the early 19th century, which is later than most African countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maguire-1995-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First, German colonizers were assigned Rwanda and Burundi at the Berlin Conference of 1884/1885.<sup id="cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sentamba-2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belgians than took over the colony after the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Both colonizers implemented Christianity and a new hierarchical order, by making traditional ceremonies illegal and by creating a hierarchical order between clans.<sup id="cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maguire-1995-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-colonial_society">Post-colonial society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-colonial society" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Burundi and Rwanda experienced multiple civil wars after their independence, and policies that were put in place by colonizers were kept. Hutus were subjugated to forced labor controlled by Tutsi clans. This created persistent underdevelopment of the clans and tensions that created civil wars.<sup id="cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falola-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burundi gained its independence in 1962,<sup id="cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falola-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there are still post-colonial institutions present in a variety of traditional cultural and political centers.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Juan-2017_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Juan-2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christianism is the main religion in the country, there are two main groups catholic and protestant, but there is also Islam, and different types of animism.<sup id="cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falola-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Burundian population all clans still mainly speak Kirundi, and colonialism brought French and English. French is used by society in private and government institutions for communication, knowledge acquisition, and cultural production. Which undermines the local language and limits the population that can access these institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Music">Music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Music" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Burundi" title="Music of Burundi">Music of Burundi</a></div> <p>Burundi has a wide range of music, from traditional percussions to modern music. Drums are the main instruments in Burundi, because of the heritage of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Drummers_of_Burundi" title="Royal Drummers of Burundi">Royal Drummers of Burundi</a>, a group of musicians that play the instrument, sing and dance. In the precolonial period, the drummers would often play for the Kings and royal families, Royal drummers would announce the beginning of the day and the ending of the day. They would also play during special spiritual events such as enthronements or the beginning of the agricultural season. To this day, Burundians still celebrate important events with drummers.<sup id="cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falola-2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">Intangible Cultural Heritage</a> of UNESCO in 2014 added the drummers' practices to their list.<sup id="cite_ref-Mbonyingingo-2020_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mbonyingingo-2020-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burundi_tradition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Burundi_tradition.jpg/220px-Burundi_tradition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="720"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Burundi_tradition.jpg/220px-Burundi_tradition.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Burundi_tradition.jpg/330px-Burundi_tradition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Burundi_tradition.jpg/440px-Burundi_tradition.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Burundian Drummers</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2017, a decree was passed by the government, legally banned women from beating drums as it was explained to be a men's activity, despite the centuries-long tradition of female drum-players in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Mbonyingingo-2020_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mbonyingingo-2020-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burundian women greet each other in an interlocking rhythmic vocal form called <a href="/wiki/Akazehe" title="Akazehe">akazehe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Media">Media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Media" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>In the 1990s, Burundi had several private media companies that started broadcasting government events and started to publish subjects considered taboo like political violence and corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-Ntiyanogeye-2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ntiyanogeye-2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It started a liberation movement that resulted in tensions between the government and the media. As most private media companies were and are funded by foreign aid, the government tried to exercise control by cutting the maximum funds that these companies could receive, obligating the companies to monitor the population, and making it legally difficult to have freedom of speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Kane-2016_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kane-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Literature_and_oral_tradition">Literature and oral tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Literature and oral tradition" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from Burundi">List of writers from Burundi</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Burundi#Genocide_and_mass_killings" title="Burundi">1972 genocide</a>, many Burundians involved in <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> were killed, stalling written culture. This combined with the lower <a href="/wiki/Literacy_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy rate">literacy rate</a> have encouraged an adherence to Burundi's strong oral tradition, which relays history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry, and song. This is evident in <i>kivivuga amazina</i>, an improvisational poetry contest played by cattle herders, in which they boast their abilities or accomplishments. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Sports">Sports</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sports" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Match.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Match.jpg/250px-Le_Match.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Match.jpg/250px-Le_Match.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Match.jpg/375px-Le_Match.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Match.jpg/500px-Le_Match.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Football in Burundi</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Football_in_Burundi" title="Football in Burundi">Football in Burundi</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Football_(soccer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a> is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are <a href="/wiki/Mancala" title="Mancala">mancala</a> games. Many Burundians celebrate Christian holidays and Burundian Independence Day, though the largest celebration occurs on <a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day" title="New Year's Day">New Year's Day</a> with feasting and traditional drumming and dancing. </p><p>Burundi's women's national volleyball team lastly qualified for the <a href="/wiki/2021_Women%27s_African_Nations_Volleyball_Championship" title="2021 Women's African Nations Volleyball Championship">2021 Women's African Nations Volleyball Championship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cuisine" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Burundian_cuisine" title="Burundian cuisine">Burundian cuisine</a></div> <p>Burundian cuisine utilises maize and bananas as staple foods and often contains <a href="/wiki/Kidney_bean" title="Kidney bean">red kidney beans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-maizegrace_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maizegrace-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meals are not usually accompanied by sweet foods or dessert. During celebrations and gatherings, Burundians drink homemade banana wine and beer, sometimes drinking through straws from a single large container. </p><p>In some areas, <a href="/wiki/Brochette" class="mw-redirect" title="Brochette">brochettes</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_fries" title="French fries">frites</a> are a popular remnant of the <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> colonial period. The presence of Lake Tanganyika <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika" title="Lake Tanganyika">Lake Tanganyika</a> adds fish such as <i>ngangara</i> and <i>mukeke</i> to Burundian cuisine. A national brewery produces <a href="/wiki/Bralima_Brewery#Primus_beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bralima Brewery">Primus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amstel" title="Amstel">Amstel</a> beers.<sup id="cite_ref-lonely_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lonely-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Education_and_language">Education and language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Education and language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg/220px-BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg/220px-BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg/330px-BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg/440px-BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption>Central Bujumbura, capital of Burundi</figcaption></figure> <p>In the public education system of Burundi, only one student out of 100 will be able to attend university. The public elementary schools are mostly taught in Kirundi with a few French classes, and secondary schools and universities are taught in French. It creates difficulties that result in the alienation of local communities, affecting girls more than boys. Recently Burundi has added Kiswahili and English to the curriculum, creating an even wider gap in the population. For the past decade, there has been a shortage of staff, faculty, and material in the public sector as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-2000_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-2000-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Visual arts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 32px;height: 23px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="32" data-height="23" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_cuisines" title="List of African cuisines">List of African cuisines</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li>Marsh, Ian (2015). <i>Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society</i>: Bloomsbury Academic.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This is an encyclopedia book that was published by an independent publisher. It should be reliable. It covers the topic of Burundian culture and music and dance, it can be used to establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Mbonyingingo, Audace; Ntiranyibagira, Constantin (2020). <i>Beating Drums or Beating Women? An Analysis of the Drum Universe in Burundi. (2020). Journal of Postcolonial Writing and World Literatures, 1(1), 15–30. https://royalliteglobal.com/world-literatures/article/view/50</i><sup id="cite_ref-Mbonyingingo-2020_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mbonyingingo-2020-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This scholarly article was published in an academic journal. It should be reliable. The article debates about the culture of music in Burundi and how it can be discriminatory against women.</li></ul></li> <li>Maguire, L. (1995). Power ethnicized: the pursuit of protection and participation in Rwanda and Burundi. Buffalo Journal of International Law, 2(1), 49–90.<sup id="cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maguire-1995-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This is an article that was published by an academic law journal, so it should be reliable. This article talks about the power of concepts and words like ethnicity in Burundi, So it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Sentamba, E., & Kilonzo, Susan M. (2023). The palgrave handbook of religion, peacebuilding, and development in Africa. In <i>Country case studies on religion, peacebuilding and development in Africa</i> (pp. 199–216). essay, Springer International Publishing.<sup id="cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sentamba-2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This is a section in a book published by a scientific publishing company, so it should be reliable. This section discusses the impact of colonization on Burundi and the population's religious systems, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Albert, E. M. (1964). “Rhetoric,” “Logic,” and “Poetics” in Burundi: Culture Patterning of Speech Behavior. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <i>66</i>(6), 35–54. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/668160">668160</a><sup id="cite_ref-Albert-1964_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Albert-1964-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the traditional culture of Burundi culture of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Blouin, A. (2021). CULTURE AND CONTRACTS: THE HISTORICAL LEGACY OF FORCED LABOUR. <i>The Economic Journal.</i><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the historical inequalities of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Jackson, T. (2000). Equal Access to Education: A Peace Imperative for Burundi. <i>International Alert</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson-2000_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-2000-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the access to education of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Juan, A. D. (2017). Traditional” Resolution of Land Conflicts: The Survival of Precolonial Dispute Settlement in Burundi. <i>Comparative Political Studies Volume 50, Issue 13</i>. <i>Peace and Conflict Management Review</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Juan-2017_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Juan-2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the traditional resolution systems of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Oumar Kane, A.-J. B. (2016). MEDIA–STATE RELATIONS IN BURUNDI: Overview of a Post Traumatic Media Ecology. <i>Communication.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Kane-2016_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kane-2016-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the media culture of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Rwantabagu, H. (2011). Tradition, globalisation and language dilemma in education: African options for the 21st century. <i>Int Rev Educ</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the traditional language culture of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Mabweazara, H. M. (2018). <i>Newsmaking Cultures in Africa.</i> Penryn, UK: palgarve macmillan.<sup id="cite_ref-Jamar_73–95_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jamar_73%E2%80%9395-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the media culture of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Ntiyanogeye, A. (2008). Burundi Media and Good Governance. <i>Peace and Conflict Management Review</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ntiyanogeye-2012_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ntiyanogeye-2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the media culture of Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li> <li>Jamar, A. (2022). Accounting for which violent past? transitional justice, epistemic violence, and colonial durabilities in Burundi. Critical African Studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Jamar_73–95_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jamar_73%E2%80%9395-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>This article was published by a peer-reviewed journal, it should be reliable. This article takes a deep look into the colonial effects on Burundi, it should help establish notability.</li></ul></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Burundi&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Sentamba-2023-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sentamba-2023_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSentamba2023" class="citation cs2">Sentamba, Elias (2023), Kilonzo, Susan M.; Chitando, Ezra; Tarusarira, Joram (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36829-5_12">"Ethnic and Political Conflicts Resolution in Burundi: The Contribution of Religious Organisations"</a>, <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Religion, Peacebuilding, and Development in Africa</i>, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 199–216, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-36829-5_12">10.1007/978-3-031-36829-5_12</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-36829-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-36829-5"><bdi>978-3-031-36829-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-12</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Palgrave+Handbook+of+Religion%2C+Peacebuilding%2C+and+Development+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Ethnic+and+Political+Conflicts+Resolution+in+Burundi%3A+The+Contribution+of+Religious+Organisations&rft.pages=199-216&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-36829-5_12&rft.isbn=978-3-031-36829-5&rft.aulast=Sentamba&rft.aufirst=Elias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-36829-5_12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albert-1964-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Albert-1964_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Albert-1964_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert1964" class="citation journal cs1">Albert, Ethel M. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/668160">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Rhetoric," "Logic," and "Poetics" in Burundi: Culture Patterning of Speech Behavior"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>66</b> (6): 35–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00020">10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00020</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/668160">668160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=%22Rhetoric%2C%22+%22Logic%2C%22+and+%22Poetics%22+in+Burundi%3A+Culture+Patterning+of+Speech+Behavior&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=35-54&rft.date=1964&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F668160%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00020&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Ethel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F668160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maguire-1995-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maguire-1995_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaguire1995" class="citation journal cs1">Maguire, Linda (1995-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/bjil/vol2/iss1/2">"Power Ethnicized: The Pursuit of Protection and Participation in Rwanda and Burundi"</a>. <i>Buffalo Journal of International Law</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 49. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1074-4835">1074-4835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Buffalo+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Power+Ethnicized%3A+The+Pursuit+of+Protection+and+Participation+in+Rwanda+and+Burundi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49&rft.date=1995-04-01&rft.issn=1074-4835&rft.aulast=Maguire&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu%2Fbjil%2Fvol2%2Fiss1%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Falola-2015-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Falola-2015_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalolaJean-Jacques2015" class="citation book cs1">Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (2015-12-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&dq=burundi+music&pg=PA132"><i>Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]</i></a>. 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Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02557-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02557-8"><bdi>978-0-674-02557-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maize+and+Grace&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02557-8&rft.au=James+McCann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmaizegraceafrica0000mcca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lonely-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lonely_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_FitzpatrickTom_Parkinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Mary Fitzpatrick; Tom Parkinson (June 2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lonelyplaneteast00mary/page/607"><i>the quiet planet</i></a></span>. me. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lonelyplaneteast00mary/page/607">607</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-286-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74104-286-3"><bdi>978-1-74104-286-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+quiet+planet&rft.pages=607&rft.pub=me&rft.date=2006-06&rft.isbn=978-1-74104-286-3&rft.au=Mary+Fitzpatrick&rft.au=Tom+Parkinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flonelyplaneteast00mary%2Fpage%2F607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-2000-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-2000_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson-2000_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Tony (2000). 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cs1">Blouin, Arthur (2022-01-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/132/641/89/6219123">"Culture and Contracts: The Historical Legacy of Forced Labour"</a>. <i>The Economic Journal</i>. <b>132</b> (641): 89–105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fej%2Fueab031">10.1093/ej/ueab031</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0133">0013-0133</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=Culture+and+Contracts%3A+The+Historical+Legacy+of+Forced+Labour&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=641&rft.pages=89-105&rft.date=2022-01-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fej%2Fueab031&rft.issn=0013-0133&rft.aulast=Blouin&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fej%2Farticle%2F132%2F641%2F89%2F6219123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRwantabagu2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rwantabagu, Hermenegilde (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41480126">"Tradition, globalisation and language dilemma in education: African options for the 21st century"</a>. <i>International Review of Education</i>. <b>57</b> (3/4): 457–475. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011IREdu..57..457R">2011IREdu..57..457R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11159-011-9214-z">10.1007/s11159-011-9214-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-8566">0020-8566</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41480126">41480126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Education&rft.atitle=Tradition%2C+globalisation+and+language+dilemma+in+education%3A+African+options+for+the+21st+century&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=457-475&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11159-011-9214-z&rft.issn=0020-8566&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41480126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011IREdu..57..457R&rft.aulast=Rwantabagu&rft.aufirst=Hermenegilde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41480126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jamar_73–95-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jamar_73%E2%80%9395_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jamar_73%E2%80%9395_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamar2022" class="citation journal cs1">Jamar, Astrid (2022-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21681392.2022.2039733">"Accounting for which violent past? transitional justice, epistemic violence, and colonial durabilities in Burundi"</a>. <i>Critical African Studies</i>. <b>14</b> (1): 73–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21681392.2022.2039733">10.1080/21681392.2022.2039733</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10067%2F1876890151162165141">10067/1876890151162165141</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2168-1392">2168-1392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Accounting+for+which+violent+past%3F+transitional+justice%2C+epistemic+violence%2C+and+colonial+durabilities+in+Burundi&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=73-95&rft.date=2022-01-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10067%2F1876890151162165141&rft.issn=2168-1392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21681392.2022.2039733&rft.aulast=Jamar&rft.aufirst=Astrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F21681392.2022.2039733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture+of+Burundi" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 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