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aria-controls="toc-Emergence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Proto-writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recording_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recording_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Recording history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recording_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bronze Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bronze_Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bronze Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cuneiform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuneiform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Cuneiform</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuneiform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egyptian_hieroglyphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptian_hieroglyphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Egyptian hieroglyphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptian_hieroglyphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Semitic_alphabets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Semitic_alphabets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Early Semitic alphabets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Semitic_alphabets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatolian_hieroglyphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatolian_hieroglyphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Anatolian hieroglyphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatolian_hieroglyphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Chinese characters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cretan_hieroglyphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cretan_hieroglyphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Cretan hieroglyphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cretan_hieroglyphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Mesoamerica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Iron Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greek_alphabets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_alphabets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Greek alphabets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_alphabets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italic_and_Latin_alphabets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italic_and_Latin_alphabets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Italic and Latin alphabets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italic_and_Latin_alphabets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_era_and_modernity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_era_and_modernity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medieval era and modernity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_era_and_modernity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_and_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_and_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Technology and materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology_and_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_and_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_and_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Uses and implications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses_and_implications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses and implications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses_and_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade_and_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Trade and commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law,_governance,_and_journalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law,_governance,_and_journalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Law, governance, and journalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law,_governance,_and_journalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Literary culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literary_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literary culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literary_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia,_Egypt,_India,_and_Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia,_Egypt,_India,_and_Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Mesoamerica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia,_Egypt,_India,_and_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Ancient Greece and Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_universities_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_universities_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Early universities in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_universities_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Printing in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_academia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_academia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Modern academia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_academia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Psychological implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of writing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الكتابة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الكتابة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_escritura" title="Historia de la escritura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la escritura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="লেখার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লেখার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Entstehung_vo_da_Schrift" title="De Entstehung vo da Schrift – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="De Entstehung vo da Schrift" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27escriptura" title="Història de l'escriptura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'escriptura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_sa_pagsulat" title="Kasaysayan sa pagsulat – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kasaysayan sa pagsulat" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyn%C3%A1lez_p%C3%ADsma" title="Vynález písma – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vynález písma" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Schrift" title="Geschichte der Schrift – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Schrift" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_escritura" title="Historia de la escritura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la escritura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idazketaren_historia" title="Idazketaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Idazketaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4" title="تاریخ نگارش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ نگارش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27%C3%A9criture" title="Histoire de l'écriture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'écriture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_escritura" title="Historia da escritura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da escritura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B8%EC%9E%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="문자의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="문자의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="लेखन का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लेखन का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_tulisan" title="Sejarah tulisan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah tulisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_scrittura" title="Storia della scrittura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della scrittura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D1%88%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Жазудың шығуы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жазудың шығуы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_scribendi" title="Historia scribendi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia scribendi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_penulisan" title="Sejarah penulisan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah penulisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Бичгийн түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бичгийн түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="文字の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="文字の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਲਿਖਣ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲਿਖਣ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjoituksen_historia" title="Kirjoituksen historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirjoituksen historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="எழுத்தின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எழுத்தின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1_tarihi" title="Yazı tarihi – 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;border-spacing:0;padding:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <span style="font-size:120%">↑</span> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>) <span class="nowrap">  </span>(<small><i><b><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a></b></i></small>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a><br /><small><b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></b></small><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Present</a>)</small></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nowrap">  </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of writing</b> traces the development of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels19963_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels19963-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and how their use transformed and was transformed by different societies. The use of writing prefigures various social and psychological consequences associated with <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and literary culture. </p><p>Each historical invention of writing emerged from systems of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a> that used <a href="/wiki/Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> symbols but were not capable of fully recording spoken language. <i>True writing</i>, where the content of linguistic <a href="/wiki/Utterance" title="Utterance">utterances</a> can be accurately reconstructed by later readers, is a later development. As proto-writing is not capable of fully reflecting the grammar and lexicon used in languages, it is often difficult or impossible to deduce what the author intended to communicate. </p><p>The earliest uses of writing were to document agricultural transactions and contracts in ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, but it was soon used in the areas of finance, religion, government, and law. Writing allowed the spread of these social modalities and their associated knowledge, and ultimately the further centralization of political power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div> <p>Writing systems typically satisfy three criteria. Firstly, the writing must have some purpose or meaning to it, and a point must be communicated by the text. Secondly, writing systems make use of specific symbols which may be recorded on some <a href="/wiki/Writing_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing medium">writing medium</a>. Thirdly, the symbols used in writing generally correspond to elements of spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200315–16_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200315–16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, systems of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_communication" title="Symbolic communication">symbolic communication</a> like signage, painting, maps, and mathematics are distinguished from writing systems, which require knowledge of an associated spoken language to read a text. </p><p>The norms of writing generally evolve more slowly than those of speech; as a result, linguistic features are frequently preserved in the written form of a language after they cease to appear in the corresponding spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer20038_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer20038-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence">Emergence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Emergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">List of languages by first written account</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cities_of_Sumer_(en).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg/180px-Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg/270px-Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg/360px-Cities_of_Sumer_%28en%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, located in southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, is believed to be where <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> was first invented.</figcaption></figure> </div><div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tableta_con_trillo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tableta_con_trillo.png/180px-Tableta_con_trillo.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tableta_con_trillo.png/270px-Tableta_con_trillo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Tableta_con_trillo.png/360px-Tableta_con_trillo.png 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kish_tablet" title="Kish tablet">Kish tablet</a>, bearing what is possibly the earliest known writing – Sumer (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500 BCE</span>), from the <a href="/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum" title="Ashmolean Museum">Ashmolean Museum</a></figcaption></figure> </div></div> <p>Before the 20th century, most scholarly theories of the origins of writing involved some form of <a href="/wiki/Monogenesis_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Monogenesis (linguistics)">monogenesis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959Condorelli202219_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959Condorelli202219-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the assumption that writing had been invented only once as <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, and spread across the world from there via <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diffusion" title="Cultural diffusion">cultural diffusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to these theories, writing was such a particular technology that exposure through activities like trade was a much more likely means of acquisition than independent reinvention. Specifically, many theories were dependent on a literal account of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>, including the emphases it placed on <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels199624_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels199624-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, greater awareness of the systems of pre-Columbian <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> conclusively established that writing had been independently invented multiple times. Four independent inventions of writing are most commonly recognized<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—in Mesopotamia (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3400–3100 BCE</span>), Egypt (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3250 BCE</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERegulski2016-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWengrow201199–103_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWengrow201199–103-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China (before <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250 BCE</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199431_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199431-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Mesoamerica (before <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1 CE</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaganBeckMichaelsScarre1996762_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaganBeckMichaelsScarre1996762-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sumerian cuneiform and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> are considered the earliest true writing systems, both having gradually evolved from proto-writing between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite script</a> is also believed to have been in use during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker19897–9_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker19897–9-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding Egyptian hieroglyphs,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERegulski2016-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaines2004_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaines2004-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> scholars point to very early differences with Sumerian cuneiform "in structure and style" as to why the two systems "(must) have developed independently," and if any "stimulus diffusion" of writing did occur, it only served to transmit the bare idea of writing between cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERegulski2016-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoods201015–25_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoods201015–25-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1990s, symbols originally inscribed between 3400 and 3200 BCE were discovered at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, which shed some doubt on the previous notion that the Mesopotamian sign system predated the Egyptian one.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, scholars have noted that the attestation at Abydos is singular and sudden, while the gradual evolution of the Mesopotamian system is lengthy and well-documented, with its predecessor token system used in agriculture and accounting attested as early as 8000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a7Condorelli202221_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a7Condorelli202221-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As there is no evidence of contact between the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050 BCE</span>) and the literate civilizations of the Near East,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the methods of <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> representation in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> are distinct from those used in cuneiform and hieroglyphs, <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a> is considered to be an independent development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proto-writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/Accounting_token" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting token">Accounting tokens</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/101px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/152px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/202px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Clay <a href="/wiki/Bulla_(seal)" title="Bulla (seal)">bulla</a> and tokens – <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> <span class="nowrap">(4000–3100 BCE)</span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:165px;max-width:165px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg/163px-Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg/245px-Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg/326px-Numerical_tablet_Khafaje_OIM_A21310.jpg 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="1009" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems#Proto-cuneiform" title="History of ancient numeral systems">Numerical tablet</a> – <a href="/wiki/Khafajah" title="Khafajah">Khafajah</a>, Uruk V <span class="nowrap">(3500–3350 BCE)</span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:270px;max-width:270px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:178px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pre-cuneiform_tags,_Sumer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg/268px-Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg/402px-Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg/536px-Pre-cuneiform_tags%2C_Sumer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="717" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Pre-cuneiform tags depicting a goat or sheep alongside a numeral, likely "10" – <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a> (3300–3100 BCE)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg/180px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg/270px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg/360px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E8%88%9E%E9%98%B3%E8%B4%BE%E6%B9%96%E9%81%97%E5%9D%80-%E5%88%BB%E7%AC%A6%E9%BE%9F%E7%94%B2-%E8%A3%B4%E6%9D%8E%E5%B2%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E9%99%A2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="1687" /></a><figcaption>Turtle plastron inscribed with an eye-like symbol – <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a>, China <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6000 BCE</span>)</span></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> (3300–2100 BCE), the first writing systems evolved from systems of <i><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a></i>, which used <a href="/wiki/Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> symbols to communicate information, but did not record human language directly. Proto-writing is attested as early as the 7th millennium BCE, with well-known examples including: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Jiahu_symbols" title="Jiahu symbols">Jiahu symbols</a> carved into tortoise shells, found in 24 <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> graves excavated at <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> in northern China and dated to the 7th millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The majority of the signs uncovered were inscribed individually or in small groups on different shells.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most archaeologists consider the Jiahu symbols as not directly linked to the emergence of true writing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_symbols" title="Vinča symbols">Vinča symbols</a> found on artifacts of the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a> of central and southeastern Europe, dating to the 6th–5th millennia BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaarmann2002ch._10:_5300–3200_BC_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann2002ch._10:_5300–3200_BC-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> attested in short inscriptions between 2600 and 2000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010110_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other examples of proto-writing include <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">quipu</a>, a system of knotted cords used as mnemonic devices within the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> (15th century CE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recording_history">Recording history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Recording history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a></div> <p>The origins of writing are more generally attributed to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Neolithic" title="Late Neolithic">pottery-phase of the Neolithic</a>, when clay tokens were used to record specific amounts of livestock or commodities. These tokens were initially impressed on the surface of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems#Clay_token" title="History of ancient numeral systems">round clay envelopes</a> and then stored in them. The tokens were then progressively replaced by flat tablets, on which signs were recorded with a stylus. Actual writing is first recorded in <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> (modern Iraq), at the end of the 4th millennium BCE, and soon after in various parts of the Near East.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An ancient Sumerian poem gives the first known story of the invention of writing: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat (the message), the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar_and_the_Lord_of_Aratta" title="Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta">Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta</a></i> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800 BCE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels199645_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels199645-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The emergence of writing in a given area is usually followed by several centuries of fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscription">inscriptions</a>. Historians mark the "historicity" of a culture by the presence of coherent texts written by the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have disagreed concerning when prehistory becomes history and when proto-writing became true writing.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Bronze Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cuneiform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/130px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/195px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/260px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>Tablet with proto-cuneiform pictographs – <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk III</a> (late 4th millennium BCE)</figcaption></figure> <p>Sumerian writing evolved from a <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">system of clay tokens</a> used to represent commodities. By the end of the 4th millennium BCE, this had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, which recorded numbers using a round stylus pressed into the clay at different angles. This system was gradually augmented with <a href="/wiki/Pictographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographic">pictographic</a> marks indicating what was being counted, which were made using a sharp stylus. By the 29th century BCE, writing used a wedge-shaped stylus and included phonetic elements representing syllables of the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>, and gradually replaced round-stylus and sharp-stylus markings during the 27th and 26th centuries BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a55–71_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a55–71-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, cuneiform became a general-purpose writing system with logograms, syllables, and numerals. From the 26th century BCE, the system was adapted to write the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a>, and from there to others, such as <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a>. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egyptian_hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Egyptian hieroglyphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/170px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/255px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg/340px-Design_of_the_Abydos_token_glyphs_dated_to_3400-3200_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Designs on tokens bearing similarities to contemporary clay tags from <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos, Egypt</a> (3400–3200 BCE)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Sampson" title="Geoffrey Sampson">Geoffrey Sampson</a> states that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESampson199078_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESampson199078-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, more recent scholars have held that the evidence for direct influence is sparse. During the 1990s, the discovery of glyphs at <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a> dated between 3400 and 3200 BCE has challenged the hypothesis that writing diffused from Mesopotamia to Egypt, pointing instead to the independent development of writing within Egypt. The Abydos glyphs, found in tomb U-J, are written on ivory and are likely labels for other goods found in the grave.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaines2007118_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaines2007118-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While sign usage in Mesopotamian tokens is attested <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8000 BCE</span>, Egyptian writing appears suddenly in the late 4th millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell1999-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Yurco" title="Frank J. Yurco">Frank J. Yurco</a> states that depictions of pharaonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada</a> and <a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group</a> cultures. He further elaborates that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, [which] further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argues that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality", although he acknowledges the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing was of political importance to the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train as scribes, in the service of temple, royal, and military authorities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Semitic_alphabets">Early Semitic alphabets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Semitic alphabets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></div> <p>The first alphabetic writing was developed by workers in the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> to write <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BCE</span>. This script worked by giving Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">hieratic</a> letters Semitic sound values. The <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a> native to <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> descends from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a>, which had initially been used to write early <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> texts.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most alphabetic writing systems presently in use either descended from Proto-Sinaitic—usually via the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>—or were directly inspired by its descendants. In Italy, about 500 years separated the early <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic scripts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 750–250 BCE</span>), and in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, the corresponding time span is again similar, from the first <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> inscriptions to early texts like the <i><a href="/wiki/Abrogans" title="Abrogans">Abrogans</a></i> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200–750 CE</span>). These early <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> remained of marginal importance for several centuries, and it is only towards the end of the Bronze Age that forms of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a> split into the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Canaanite_alphabet" title="Proto-Canaanite alphabet">Proto-Canaanite alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400 BCE</span>), the undeciphered <a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos syllabary</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Arabian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="South Arabian alphabet">South Arabian alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200 BCE</span>). Proto-Canaanite, which was probably influenced by the Byblos syllabary, in turn inspired the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic alphabet</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300 BCE</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anatolian_hieroglyphs">Anatolian hieroglyphs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anatolian hieroglyphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian hieroglyphs</a></div> <p>Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous script native to western <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, used to record the <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a> language. It first appeared on <a href="/wiki/Luwian_hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian hieroglyphs">Luwian</a> royal seals from the 13th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECammarosano2024170_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECammarosano2024170-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_characters">Chinese characters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chinese characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></div> <p>The earliest attested Chinese writing comprise the body of inscriptions on oracle bones and bronze vessels dating to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1050 BCE</span>), with the earliest of these dated <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250 BCE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cretan_hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cretan hieroglyphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></div> <p>Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> (2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean Greeks">Mycenaean Greeks</a>, has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be summarized as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlivier1986377-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">System</th> <th scope="col">Time span</th> <th scope="col">Region </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</a> </td> <td><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2100−1700 BCE</span> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a> </td> <td><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800−1450 BCE</span> </td> <td> <ul><li>Crete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mainland" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek mainland">Greek mainland</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a> </td> <td><span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1450−1200 BCE</span> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> on Crete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</a> on the Greek mainland</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a></div> <p>Of several symbol systems used in pre-Columbian <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> appears to be the best developed, and has been fully deciphered. The earliest inscriptions identifiable as Maya date to the 3rd century BCE, and writing was in continuous use from the 1st century CE until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198950,_121–128_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis198950,_121–128-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iron_Age">Iron Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg/170px-Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg/255px-Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg/340px-Interpretation_of_Queen_Maya%27s_dream.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2223" data-file-height="1738" /></a><figcaption>The sculpture depicts a scene where three soothsayers are interpreting to King <a href="/wiki/Suddhodana" class="mw-redirect" title="Suddhodana">Suddhodana</a> the dream of Queen <a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_Buddha)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya (mother of Buddha)">Maya</a>, mother of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>. Below them is seated a scribe recording the interpretation – from <a href="/wiki/Nagarjunakonda" title="Nagarjunakonda">Nagarjunakonda</a>, 2nd century CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a> is the continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet into the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>; it in turn gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> alphabets. To date, most of the writing systems used throughout Afro-Eurasia descend from either Aramaic or Greek. The Greek alphabet was the first to introduce letters representing vowel sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillard1986396-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It and its descendant in the Latin alphabet gave rise to several European scripts in the first several centuries CE, including the <a href="/wiki/Runic_alphabets" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic alphabets">runic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a> alphabets. The Aramaic alphabet evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic scripts</a> of India, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> abjads—with descendants spread as far as the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_Arabian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="South Arabian alphabet">South Arabian alphabet</a> gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_abugida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez abugida">Ge'ez abugida</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalomon1996Brahmi_and_Kharoshthi_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalomon1996Brahmi_and_Kharoshthi-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_alphabets">Greek alphabets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Greek alphabets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic Greek alphabets</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg/200px-NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg/300px-NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg/400px-NAMA_Alphabet_grec.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>Pottery inscriptions using the Early Greek alphabet – <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens" title="National Archaeological Museum, Athens">National Archaeological Museum, Athens</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">history of the Greek alphabet</a> began as early as the 8th century BCE, when the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet for their own use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarter197462_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarter197462-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letters of the Greek alphabet generally visually correspond to those of the Phoenician alphabet, and both came to be arranged using the same <a href="/wiki/Alphabetical_order" title="Alphabetical order">alphabetical order</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarter197462_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarter197462-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those adapting the Phoenician system added three letters to the end of the series, called the "supplementals". Several varieties of the Greek alphabet developed. One, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cumae_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumae alphabet">Cumae alphabet</a>, was used west of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and in southern Italy. The other variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in present-day Turkey and by the Athenians, and eventually the rest of the world that spoke Greek adopted this variation. After first writing right to left, like the Phoenicians, the Greeks eventually chose to write from left to right. Occasionally however, the writer would start the next line where the previous line finished, so that the lines would read alternately left to right, then right to left, and so on. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedon</a> writing, which imitated the path of an ox-drawn plough, and was used until the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italic_and_Latin_alphabets">Italic and Latin alphabets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Italic and Latin alphabets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cippo_perugino,_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna,_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg/170px-Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg/255px-Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg/340px-Cippo_perugino%2C_con_iscrizione_in_lingua_etrusca_su_un_atto_giuridico_tra_le_famiglie_dei_velthina_e_degli_afuna%2C_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="2898" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> writing near <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a>, Italy, the precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latin_script" title="History of the Latin script">History of the Latin script</a></div> <p>Greek is in turn the source for all the modern scripts of Europe. The most widespread descendant of Greek is the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>, named for the <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a>, a central Italian people who came to dominate Europe with the rise of Rome. Around the 5th century BCE, the Romans adopted writing from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a>, who wrote in a number of Italic scripts derived from the western Greeks. Due to the cultural dominance of the Roman state, the other <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic scripts</a> have not survived in any great quantity, and the Etruscan language is mostly lost. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_era_and_modernity">Medieval era and modernity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Medieval era and modernity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century, the production and transmission of literature that had previously been widespread across the Roman world became largely confined to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> empires, where the primary literary languages were <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> respectively—though other languages such as <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> were also important.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202227–28_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202227–28-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a> in the 7th century brought about the rapid establishment of <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> as a major literary language in much of the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Arabic and Persian quickly began to overshadow Greek's role as a language of scholarship. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> was adopted as the primary script of the Persian language and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Turkic language">Old Turkic language</a>. This script also heavily influenced the development of the <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a> scripts of Greek, the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, and other languages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Arabic language also served to spread the <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a> throughout Europe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By the 11th century, the city of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba, Andalusia</a> in what is now southern Spain had become one of the world's foremost intellectual centers, and was the site of the largest library in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in Europe led to a temporary revival of the importance of Greek, and a slow revival of Latin as a significant literary language<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. A similar though smaller emergence occurred in Eastern Europe, especially in Russia. At the same time Arabic and Persian began a slow decline in importance as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> ended. The revival of literacy development in Western Europe led to many innovations in the Latin alphabet and the diversification of the alphabet to codify the phonologies of the various languages. </p><p>The nature of writing has been constantly evolving, particularly due to the development of new technologies over the centuries. The pen, <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, computer, and mobile phone are all technological developments which have altered what is written, and the medium through which the written word is produced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_and_materials">Technology and materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Technology and materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Writing_material" title="Writing material">Writing material</a></div> <p>The mediums, materials, and technologies used by literate societies for writing help determine how writing systems work, what writing is used for, and what social impact it has.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPiquetteWhitehouse20132–5_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiquetteWhitehouse20132–5-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the physical durability of the materials used directly determines what historical examples of writing have survived for later analysis: while bodies of <a href="/wiki/Inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscriptions">inscriptions</a> in stone, bone, or metal are attested from each ancient literate society, much <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> culture is attested only indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESubačius2023305_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESubačius2023305-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The common manuscript materials in Mesopotamia world were the tablet and the roll, the former probably having a <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldean</a> origin, the latter an Egyptian. The tablets of the Chaldeans are small pieces of clay, somewhat crudely shaped into a form resembling a pillow, and thickly inscribed with cuneiform characters. Similar use has been seen in hollow cylinders, or prisms of six or eight sides, formed of fine <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a>, sometimes glazed, on which the characters were traced with a small stylus, in some specimens so minutely as to require the aid of a magnifying glass.<sup id="cite_ref-McClintock1885_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClintock1885-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Egypt the principal writing material was of quite a different sort. Wooden tablets are found pictured on the monuments, while <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> was also used as early as the 4th millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The papyrus reed grew chiefly in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> and had various economic means for writing. The pith was taken out and divided by a pointed instrument into the thin pieces of which it is composed; it was then flattened by pressure, and the strips glued together, other strips being placed at right angles to them, so that a roll of any length might be manufactured. Writing seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. That this material was in use in Egypt from a very early period is evidenced by still existing papyrus of the earliest Theban dynasties.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the papyrus, being in great demand, and exported to all parts of the world, became very costly, other materials were often used instead of it, among which is mentioned leather, a few leather mills of an early period having been found in the tombs.<sup id="cite_ref-McClintock1885_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClintock1885-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a>, using sheepskins left after the wool was removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported outside Egypt. With the invention of <a href="/wiki/Wood-pulp_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood-pulp paper">wood-pulp paper</a>, the cost of writing material began a steady decline. Wood-pulp paper is still used today, and in recent times efforts have been made to improve bond strength of fibers. Two main areas of examination in this regard have been "dry strength of paper" and "wet web strength".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former involves examination of the physical properties of the paper itself, while the latter involves using additives to improve strength. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_and_implications">Uses and implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Uses and implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_commerce">Trade and commerce</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Trade and commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Denise_Schmandt-Besserat" title="Denise Schmandt-Besserat">Denise Schmandt-Besserat</a>, writing had its origins in the counting and cataloguing of agricultural produce, and then economic transactions involving the produce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992b_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992b-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government tax rolls followed thereafter. Written documents became essential for the accumulation and accounting of wealth by individuals, the state, and religious organizations as well as the transactions of trade, loans, inheritance, and documentation of ownership.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With such documentation and accounting larger accumulations of wealth became more possible, along with the power that accompanied wealth, most prominently to the benefit of royalty, the state, and religions. Contracts and loans supported the growth of long-distance international trade with accompanying networks for import and export, supporting the rise of capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paper_money" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper money">Paper money</a> (initially appearing in China in the 11th century)<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other financial instruments relied on writing, initially in the form of letters and then evolving into specialized <a href="/wiki/Genre_studies" title="Genre studies">genres</a>, to explain the transactions and guarantees (from individuals, banks, or governments) of value inhering in the documents.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the growth of economic activity in late Medieval and Renaissance Europe, sophisticated methods of accounting and calculating value emerged, with such calculations both carried out in writing and explained in manuals.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of corporations then proliferated documents surrounding organization, management, the distribution of shares, and <a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">records management</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic theory itself only began to be developed in the latter eighteenth century through the writings of such theorists as <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>. Even the concepts of an economy and a national economy were established through their texts and the texts of their colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmart2008_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmart2008-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then economics has developed as a field with many authors contributing texts to the professional literature, and governments collecting data, instituting policies and creating institutions to manage and advance their economies. <a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a> has examined the rhetorical strategies and discursive construction of modern economic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graham Smart has examined in depth how the Bank of Canada uses writing to cooperatively produce policies based on economic data and then to communicate strategically with relevant publics.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law,_governance,_and_journalism"><span id="Law.2C_governance.2C_and_journalism"></span>Law, governance, and journalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Law, governance, and journalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Private legal documents for the sale of land appeared in Mesopotamia in the early 3rd millennium BCE, not long after the initial appearance of cuneiform writing.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first written legal codes followed shortly thereafter <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2100 BCE</span> with the most well known being the Code of Hammurabi, inscribed on stone stelae throughout Babylon.<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1750 BCE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While ancient Egypt did not have codified laws, legal decrees and private contracts did appear in the Old Kingdom <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2150 BCE</span>. The Torah—comprising the first five books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>—codified the laws of Ancient Israel. Many other codes were to follow in Greece and Rome, with Roman law to serve as a model for church canon law and secular law throughout much of Europe during later periods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETiersma2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiersma2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In China, the earliest indications of written codifications of law or books of punishments are inscriptions on bronze vessels in 536 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest extant full set of laws dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> dynasties, which set out a full system of social control and governance, with criminal procedures and accountability for both government officials and citizens. These laws required complex reporting and documenting procedures to facilitate hierarchical supervision from the village up to the imperial center.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> developed in a mostly oral environment in England after the Roman period, with the return of the church and the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman conquest</a>, customary law began to be inscribed as were precedents of the courts; however, many elements remained oral, with documents only memorializing public oaths, wills, land transfers, court judgments, and ceremonies. During the late medieval period, however, documents gained authority for agreements, transactions, and laws.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing has been central to expanding many of the core functions of governance through law, regulation, taxation, and documentary surveillance of citizens; all dependent on growth of bureaucracy which elaborates and administers rules and policies and maintains records. These developments which rely on writing increase the power and extent of states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time writing has increased the ability of citizens to become informed about the operations of the state, to become more organized in expressing needs and concerns, to identify with regions and states, and to form constituencies with particular views and interests; the <a href="/wiki/History_of_journalism" title="History of journalism">history of journalism</a> is closely linked to citizen information, regional and national identity, and expression of interests. These changes have greatly influenced the nature of states, increasing the visibility of people and their views no matter what the form of governance is. </p><p>Extensive bureaucracies arose in the ancient Near East<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody198689–92_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody198689–92-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and China<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnery1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnery1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which relied on a literate class of scribes and bureaucrats. In the Ancient Near East this was carried out through the formation of scribal schools,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in China this led to a series of written <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">imperial examinations</a> based on classic texts which in effect regulated education over millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2000_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2000-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literacy remained associated with rise in the government bureaucracy, and printing as it emerged was tightly controlled by the government, with vernacular texts only emerging later and then being limited in their range up through the early twentieth century and the fall of the Ching dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-HKCUP1998_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HKCUP1998-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In ancient Greece and Rome, class distinctions of citizen and slave, wealthy and poor limited education and participation. In Medieval and early modern Europe church dominance of education, both before and for a time after the reformation, expressed the importance of religion in the control of the state and state bureaucracies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStock1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStock1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe and its colonies in the Americas, the introduction of the printing press and decreasing cost of paper and printing allowed for greater access of ordinary citizens to gain information about the government and conditions in other regions within the jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> with an emphasis on individual reading of sacred texts, eventually increased the spread of literacy beyond the governing classes and opened the door to wider knowledge and criticism of government actions. Divisions in English society during the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> of the 17th century, and the increased role of parliament that followed, along with the splitting of political religious control<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet_wars" title="Pamphlet wars">pamphlet wars</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_newspaper_publishing" title="History of newspaper publishing">Newspaper publishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_journalism" title="History of journalism">journalism</a>, having origins in commercial information, soon was to offer political information and was instrumental to the formation of a public sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newspapers were instrumental in the sharing of information, fostering discussion, and forming political identities in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and then the new nation. The circulation of newspapers also created urban, regional, and state identification in the latter nineteenth century and after. A focus on national news that followed telegraphy and the emergence of newspapers with national circulation along with scripted national radio and television news broadcasts also created horizons of attention through the 20th century, with both benefits and costs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarr2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarr2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_culture">Literary culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Literary culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of what is considered <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> is inscribed in written text and is the result of communal processes of production, sharing, and evaluation among social groups and institutions bound together with the aim of producing and disseminating knowledge-bearing texts; the contemporary world identifies such social groups as disciplines and their products as disciplinary literatures. The invention of writing facilitated the sharing, comparing, criticizing, and evaluating of texts, resulting in knowledge becoming a more communal property across wider geographic and temporal domains. <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a> formed the common knowledge of scriptural religions, and knowledge of those sacred scriptures became the focus of institutions of religious belief, interpretation, and schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazerman2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazerman2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars have disagreed concerning when written record-keeping became more like literature, but the oldest surviving literary texts date from a full millennium after the invention of writing. The earliest literary author known by name is <a href="/wiki/Enheduanna" title="Enheduanna">Enheduanna</a>, who is credited as the author of a number of works of Sumerian literature, including <i>Exaltation of Inanna</i>, in the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a> during the 24th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipsonBinkley2012_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipsonBinkley2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next earliest named author is <a href="/wiki/Ptahhotep" title="Ptahhotep">Ptahhotep</a>, who is credited with authoring <i><a href="/wiki/The_Maxims_of_Ptahhotep" title="The Maxims of Ptahhotep">The Maxims of Ptahhotep</a></i>, an instructional book for young men in <a href="/wiki/Old_Egyptian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> composed in the 23rd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a></i> is a notable early poem, but it can also be seen as a political glorification of the historical King <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a> of Sumer whose natural and supernatural accomplishments are recounted. </p><p>The identification of sacred <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a> codified distinct belief systems, and became the basis of the modern concept of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reproduction and spread of these texts became associated with these scriptural religions and their spread, and thus were central to proselytizing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sacred books created obligations of believers to read, or to follow the teachings of priests charged with the reading, interpretation and application of these texts. Well-known examples of such scriptures are the Torah, the Bible, Quran, Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, and Sutras, but there are far more religious texts through the histories of different religions with many still in current use. These texts, because of their spread, tended to foster generalized guides for moral and ethical behavior, at least for all members of the religious community, but often these guidelines were considered applicable to all humans, as in the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamia,_Egypt,_India,_and_Mesoamerica"><span id="Mesopotamia.2C_Egypt.2C_India.2C_and_Mesoamerica"></span>Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Mesoamerica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Mesopotamia and Egypt, scribes became important for roles beyond the initiating roles in the economy, governance and law. They became the producers and stewards of astronomy and calendars, divination, and literary culture. Schools developed in tablet houses, which also archived repositories of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In ancient India, the Brahman caste became stewards of texts that aggregated and codified oral knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those texts then became the authoritative basis for a continuing tradition of oral education. A case in point is the work of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> the linguist, who analyzed and codified knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> syntax, prosody, and grammar. Mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were also subjects of classic Indian learning and were codified in classic texts.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Less is known about Mayan, Aztec, and other Mesoamerican learning because of the destruction of texts by the <a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">conquistadors</a>, but it is known that scribes were revered, elite children attended schools, and the study of astronomy, map making, historical chronicles, and genealogy flourished.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In China, after the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> attempted to remove all traces of the competing <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> made <a href="/wiki/Philological" class="mw-redirect" title="Philological">philological</a> knowledge the qualification for the government bureaucracy, so as to restore knowledge that was in danger of vanishing. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system for the civil service functioned for two millennia, and consisted of a written exam based on knowledge of classical texts. To support students obtaining government positions through the written examination, schools focused on those same texts and the associated philological knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2000_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2000-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts covered philosophical, religious, legal, astronomical, hydrological, mathematical, military, and medical knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">Printing</a> as it emerged largely served the knowledge needs of the bureaucracy and the monastery, with substantial vernacular printing only emerging around the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-HKCUP1998_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HKCUP1998-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece_and_Rome">Ancient Greece and Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece and Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> thought writing an inferior means of transmission of learning (recounted in the <a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a>), we know of his works through <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s written accounts of his dialogues. Havelock also connects the philosophical work of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle with literacy, as it enabled the development of critical thinking via the analysis of permanent texts written both by the author and their peers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> wrote treatises and lectures which were the core of education at the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a>, along with the may volumes collected in the Lyceum's library. The <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a> also wrote and taught during the same period in Athens, although we now have only fragments of their works. </p><p>Greek writers were the founding writers of many other fields of knowledge. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> writing during the 5th century BCE in Athens are considered the founders of history, transforming genealogy and mythic accounts into systematic investigations of events. Thucydides developed a more critical, neutral history through the examination of documents, transcription of speeches, and interviews. <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> during the same period authored several major works of medicine codifying and advancing the knowledge of this field. In the 2nd century CE, the Greek physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> went to Rome where he wrote numerous works that dominated European medicine through the Renaissance. Hellenized writers in Egypt also produced compendia of knowledge using the resources of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">great library at Alexandria</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Euclid's Elements</a></i>, which remains a standard reference work in geometry. <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, an astronomy treatise, was used throughout the Middle Ages. </p><p>Roman scholars continued the practice of writing compendia of knowledge, including <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>. While much of Roman accomplishment was in material culture of construction, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> documented much of the contemporary practice to influence design until today. Agriculture also became an important area for manuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Rutilius_Taurus_Aemilianus_Palladius" title="Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius">Palladius</a>' compendium. Numerous manuals of rhetoric and rhetorical education that were to influence future generations also appeared, such as the anonymous <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i></span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>'s <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i></span></i> and <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a>'s <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i></span></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the fall of Rome, the Middle East became the crossroads for learning, with knowledge bearing texts from the West and East meeting in Constantinople, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and then Baghdad. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>) with a large library was founded, where Greek works of medicine, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy were translated into Arabic, along with Indian works on mathematics and therapeutics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakdisi1981_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakdisi1981-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To these texts, philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and astronomers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farghani" title="Al-Farghani">Al-Farghani</a> made new contributions. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a> authored the first work on algebra, drawing on both Greek and Indian resources. The centrality of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> in Islam also led to growth of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic linguistics">Arabic linguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh1995_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh1995-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Baghdad, knowledge and texts were to flow back to South Asia and down through Africa, with a large collection of books and an educational center around the <a href="/wiki/Sankore_Madrasah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankore Madrasah">Sankhore Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>, the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a>. During this period the deposed Abbasid Caliphate moved its seat of power and learning to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, now in Spain, where they founded a major library which reintroduced many of the classic texts back into Europe along with texts of Arab learning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_universities_in_Europe">Early universities in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Early universities in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reintroduction of classical texts into Europe through the library and intercultural intellectual culture in Córdoba, including works of Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy and Galen, along with Arabic texts such as by Avicenna and Al-Kharazami created a need for interpretation, lectures, and scholarship to make those works more accessible to scholars in monasteries and urban centers. During the twelfth century universities emerged from these clusters of scholars in Italy at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">Bologna</a>; in Spain at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salamanca" title="University of Salamanca">Salamanca</a>, in France at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Paris</a> and in England at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidder-Symoens1991a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidder-Symoens1991a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1500, there were at least sixty universities throughout Europe<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enrolling at least 750,000 students.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwinges1991_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwinges1991-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the four faculties—liberal arts, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, law, and medicine—was oriented around the transmission of classical texts, rather than the production of fresh knowledge beyond lectures and commentaries. This form of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> education continued well into the 17th century in some locations and disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeff1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeff1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarcia1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarcia1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiraisi1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiraisi1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing_in_Europe">Printing in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Printing in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>'s European introduction of the moveable type <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1450</span> created new opportunities for the production and widespread distribution of books, fostering much new writing, with particular consequences for the development of knowledge, as documented by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Eisenstein" title="Elizabeth Eisenstein">Elizabeth Eisenstein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The production and distribution of knowledge was no longer tied to monasteries or universities with their libraries and collections of scribal copies. In the ensuing centuries a politically and increasingly religiously divided Europe, no single authority was able to censor or control the production of books. While universities remained attached to disseminating traditional texts, publishing houses became the new centers of knowledge production, and publishing houses in different jurisdictions led to a diversity of ideas becoming available as books moved across borders and scholars came to see themselves as citizens of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2008190–191_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2008190–191-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The comparison of multiple editions of traditional texts led to improved textual scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrafton1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrafton1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to share and compare results from many regions and enlist more people into the production of science soon led to the development of early modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Books of medicine began to incorporate observations from contemporary surgery and dissections, including printed plates providing graphic displays, to improve knowledge of anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedersen1996[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedersen1996[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With many copies of traditional books and new books appearing, debates arose over the value of each in what became known as the "battle of the books".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maps and discoveries of exploration and colonization also were recorded in books and governmental records,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuegg19963–4_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuegg19963–4-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often with the purpose of economic exploitation as in the <a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a> in Seville but also to satisfy curiosity about the world.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Printing also made possible the invention and development of scientific journals, with the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des sçavans">Journal des sçavans</a></i></span> appearing in France and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a> in England, both in 1665.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the years, these journals proliferated and became the basis of disciplines and disciplinary literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKronick1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKronick1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genres reporting experiments and other scientific observations and theories developed over the ensuing centuries to produce modern practices of disciplinary publication with the extensive <a href="/wiki/Intertextuality" title="Intertextuality">intertexts</a> which represent the collective pursuits of disciplinary knowledge. The availability of scientific and disciplinary books and journals also facilitated the development of modern practices of scientific reference and <a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">citation</a>. These developments from the impact of printing on the growth of knowledge contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">science in the Renaissance</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_academia">Modern academia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern academia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 18th century, dissident Scottish and English dissident universities began offering practical instruction in rhetoric and writing to enable non-elite students to influence contemporary events. Only in the 19th century did the universities in some countries begin making place for the writing of new knowledge, turning them in the ensuing years from primarily disseminating knowledge through the reading of classical texts to becoming institutions devoted to both reading and writing. The creation of research seminars and the associated seminar papers in history and philology in German universities were a significant starting point for the reform of the university.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruse2006331–334_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruse2006331–334-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professorships in philology, history, economy, theology, psychology, sociology, mathematics and the sciences were to emerge over the century, and the German model of disciplinary research university was to influence the organization of universities in England and the United States, with another model developing in France. Both emphasized production of new knowledge by faculty and acquisition thereof by students. In elite British universities, writing instruction was supported by the <a href="/wiki/Tutorial_system" title="Tutorial system">tutorial system</a> with weekly writing by students for their tutors, while in the <a href="/wiki/Teaching_writing_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaching writing in the United States">United States regular courses in writing</a> were often required starting in the late 19th century, with <a href="/wiki/Writing_across_the_curriculum" title="Writing across the curriculum">writing across the curriculum</a> becoming an increasing focus, particularly towards the end of the 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychological_implications">Psychological implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Psychological implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Walter J. Ong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eric_A._Havelock" title="Eric A. Havelock">Eric A. Havelock</a> were among the earliest to systematically argue for the psychological and intellectual consequences of literacy. Ong argued that the introduction of writing changed the form of human consciousness from sensing the immediacy of the spoken word to the critical distance and systematization of words, which could be graphically displayed and ordered,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1977_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1977-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1982_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as in the works of <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Petrus Ramus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng2004_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng2004-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Havelock attributed the emergence of Greek philosophic thought to the use of the written word which allowed the comparison of beliefs and belief systems and the critical examination of concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jack Goody argued that written language fostered such practices as <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categorization</a>, making lists, following formulas, developing recipes and prescriptions, and ultimately making and recording experiments. These practices changed the intellectual and psychological orientation of those who engaged with them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1977[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1977[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While recognizing the possibilities of all these psychological and intellectual changes that accompanied these literate practices, <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Scribner" title="Sylvia Scribner">Sylvia Scribner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cole_(psychologist)" title="Michael Cole (psychologist)">Michael Cole</a> argued that these changes did not come universally or automatically with literacy, but rather were dependent on the social uses made of literacy in their local contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They carried out field observation and experiments among the <a href="/wiki/Vai_people" title="Vai people">Vai people</a> of West Africa, for whom the psychological impacts of literacy vary due to the three different contexts in which locals learn to read and write the <a href="/wiki/Vai_language" title="Vai language">Vai language</a>, English, and Arabic—practical skills, secular education, and religious education, respectively. European literacy was associated with European-style schooling, and fostered among other things syllogistic reasoning and logical problem solving. Arabic literacy was associated with the religious training of <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a> and fostered, among other things, heightened rote memory. Literacy in the written forms of Vai associated with daily practices of making requests and explaining tasks, increased anticipation of audience knowledge and needs along with rebus solving (as the written language used rebus-like icons). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of numbers">History of numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_newspaper_publishing" title="History of newspaper publishing">History of newspaper publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_knowledge" title="History of knowledge">History of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels19963-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels19963_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels1996">Daniels (1996)</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1986[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoody1986">Goody (1986)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer200315–16-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer200315–16_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2003">Fischer (2003)</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer20038-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischer20038_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFischer2003">Fischer (2003)</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959Condorelli202219-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959Condorelli202219_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlsonTorrance2009">Olson & Torrance (2009)</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsonTorrance200959_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlsonTorrance2009">Olson & Torrance (2009)</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels199624-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels199624_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels1996">Daniels (1996)</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202219_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERegulski2016-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERegulski2016_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRegulski2016">Regulski (2016)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWengrow201199–103-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWengrow201199–103_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWengrow2011">Wengrow (2011)</a>, pp. 99–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz199431-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz199431_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoltz1994">Boltz (1994)</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaganBeckMichaelsScarre1996762-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaganBeckMichaelsScarre1996762_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaganBeckMichaelsScarre1996">Fagan et al. (1996)</a>, p. 762.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker19897–9-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker19897–9_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker1989">Walker (1989)</a>, pp. 7–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaines2004-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaines2004_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaines2004">Baines (2004)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDreyer1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dreyer, Günter (1998). <i>Umm el-Qaab I. Das prädynastische Königsgrab U-j und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse</i> [<i>Umm el-Qaab I. The predynastic royal tomb U-j and its early written evidence</i>] (in German). Mainz: Philip von Zabern. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8053-2486-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8053-2486-1"><bdi>978-3-8053-2486-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Umm+el-Qaab+I.+Das+pr%C3%A4dynastische+K%C3%B6nigsgrab+U-j+und+seine+fr%C3%BChen+Schriftzeugnisse&rft.place=Mainz&rft.pub=Philip+von+Zabern&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-8053-2486-1&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoods201015–25-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoods201015–25_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoods2010">Woods (2010)</a>, pp. 15–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebsKrebs200391_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrebsKrebs2003">Krebs & Krebs (2003)</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell1999-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell1999_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1999" class="citation magazine cs1">Mitchell, Larkin (March–April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html">"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"</a>. <i>Archaeology</i>. Archaeological Institute of America. <q>The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Earliest+Egyptian+Glyphs&rft.date=1999-03%2F1999-04&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F9903%2Fnewsbriefs%2Fegypt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a7Condorelli202221-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a7Condorelli202221_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992a">Schmandt-Besserat (1992a)</a>, p. 7; <a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeightleyBarnard1983" class="citation book cs1">Keightley, David N.; Barnard, Noel (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4-vdP2aZWhUC&pg=PA415"><i>The Origins of Chinese Civilization</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 415–416. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2"><bdi>978-0-520-04229-2</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=415-416&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04229-2&rft.aulast=Keightley&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft.au=Barnard%2C+Noel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4-vdP2aZWhUC%26pg%3DPA415&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_C-206"><i>Cast; tablet</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. C.206.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cast%3B+tablet&rft.pub=British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FW_C-206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1987" class="citation book cs1">Walker, C. B. F. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lPHj37r09EMC&pg=PA9"><i>Cuneiform</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06115-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06115-6"><bdi>978-0-520-06115-6</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuneiform&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06115-6&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=C.+B.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlPHj37r09EMC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm">"Archaeologists Rewrite History"</a>. <i>China Daily</i>. 12 June 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181026123513/http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Daily&rft.atitle=Archaeologists+Rewrite+History&rft.date=2003-06-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china.org.cn%2Fenglish%2F2003%2FJun%2F66806.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPilcher2003" class="citation journal cs1">Pilcher, Helen R. (30 April 2003). "Earliest Handwriting Found? Chinese Relics Hint at Neolithic Rituals". <i>Nature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews030428-7">10.1038/news030428-7</a>. <q>Symbols carved into tortoise shells more than 8,000 years ago ... unearthed at a mass-burial site at Jiahu in the Henan Province of western China</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Earliest+Handwriting+Found%3F+Chinese+Relics+Hint+at+Neolithic+Rituals&rft.date=2003-04-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnews030428-7&rft.aulast=Pilcher&rft.aufirst=Helen+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiHarbottleZhangWang2003" class="citation journal cs1">Li, X.; Harbottle, G.; Zhang, J.; Wang, C. (2003). "The Earliest Writing? Sign Use in the Seventh Millennium BCE at Jiahu, Henan Province, China". <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>77</b> (295): 31–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00061329">10.1017/S0003598X00061329</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162602307">162602307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Earliest+Writing%3F+Sign+Use+in+the+Seventh+Millennium+BCE+at+Jiahu%2C+Henan+Province%2C+China&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=295&rft.pages=31-44&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00061329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162602307%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=X.&rft.au=Harbottle%2C+G.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+J.&rft.au=Wang%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHouston2004245–246_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHouston2004">Houston (2004)</a>, pp. 245–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaarmann2002ch._10:_5300–3200_BC-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaarmann2002ch._10:_5300–3200_BC_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaarmann2002">Haarmann (2002)</a>, ch. 10: 5300–3200 BC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESproat2010110-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESproat2010110_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSproat2010">Sproat (2010)</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas200220_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoulmas2002">Coulmas (2002)</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1">Hallo, William W.; Simpson, William Kelly (1971). <i>The Ancient Near East</i>. 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That final step completed the transition to full writing, and with it the consequent ability to record contemporary events for posterity</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+%26+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-15-502755-8&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+William+Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels199645-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels199645_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels1996">Daniels (1996)</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoudreau200471_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoudreau2004">Boudreau (2004)</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShotwell1922" class="citation book cs1">Shotwell, James Thomson (1922). <i>An Introduction to the History of History: Records of Civilization, Sources and Studies</i>. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25812-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25812-9"><bdi>978-0-520-25812-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Deep+History+and+the+Brain%3A+An+Ahmanson+Foundation+Book+in+the+Humanities&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25812-9&rft.aulast=Smail&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Lord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a55–71-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchmandt-Besserat1992a55–71_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992a">Schmandt-Besserat (1992a)</a>, pp. 55–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA24"><i>The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. 1996. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-96-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-96-6"><bdi>978-0-931464-96-6</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-96-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarreFagan2016" class="citation book cs1">Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian M. 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Eerdmans. p. 1150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3784-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3784-4"><bdi>978-0-8028-3784-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing&rft.btitle=The+International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=1150&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4&rft.aulast=Bromiley&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6OJvO2jMCr8C%26pg%3DPA1150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1970" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen (1970). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 43–44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=43-44&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Iorwerth+Eiddon+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaines2007118-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaines2007118_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaines2007">Baines (2007)</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2010" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&q=recent+discoveries+indicate+writing"><i>Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48635-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48635-4"><bdi>978-1-139-48635-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books. <q>Although it was once thought that the idea of writing came to Egypt from Mesopotamia, recent discoveries indicate that writing arose first in Egypt.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Egyptian%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Language+and+Culture+of+Hieroglyphs&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48635-4&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlF78Max-h8MC%26q%3Drecent%2Bdiscoveries%2Bindicate%2Bwriting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYurco1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Yurco, Frank J. (1996). "The Origin and Development of Ancient Nile Valley Writing". 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(1990). <i>Ancient Civilizations of Africa</i>. UNESCO General History of Africa. Vol. 2 (Abridged ed.). London: UNESCO. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85255-092-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85255-092-8"><bdi>0-85255-092-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Civilizations+of+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.series=UNESCO+General+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=11-12&rft.edition=Abridged&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-85255-092-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipson2004" class="citation book cs1">Lipson, Carol S. (2004). "Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric: It All Comes Down to Maat". In Lipson, Carol S.; Binkley, Roberta A. (eds.). <i>Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks</i>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6099-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6099-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-6099-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Rhetoric%3A+It+All+Comes+Down+to+Maat&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+before+and+beyond+the+Greeks&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6099-3&rft.aulast=Lipson&rft.aufirst=Carol+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFattovich2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fattovich, Rodolfo (2003). 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Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04746-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04746-3"><bdi>978-3-447-04746-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-447-04746-3&rft.aulast=Fattovich&rft.aufirst=Rodolfo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECammarosano2024170-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECammarosano2024170_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCammarosano2024">Cammarosano (2024)</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley2004190_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagley2004">Bagley (2004)</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1999" class="citation book cs1">Boltz, William G. 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Los Angeles: Getty. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4"><bdi>978-1-60606-083-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Books%3A+A+Living+History&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Getty&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-083-4&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorelli202227–28-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECondorelli202227–28_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCondorelli2022">Condorelli (2022)</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampoMelton2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Campo, Juan Eduardo; Melton, J. Gordon (2009). "Cordoba". <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. 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(July 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindström2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lindström, Tom (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267385974">"On the Nature of Joint Strength in paper-A Review of Dry and Wet Strength Resins Used in Paper Manufacturing"</a>. <i>13th Fundamental Research Symposium</i>. <b>1</b>: 457–562 – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=13th+Fundamental+Research+Symposium&rft.atitle=On+the+Nature+of+Joint+Strength+in+paper-A+Review+of+Dry+and+Wet+Strength+Resins+Used+in+Paper+Manufacturing.&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=457-562&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lindstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F267385974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFGlahn2005" class="citation">Glahn, R. "The origins of paper money in China". In <a href="#CITEREFGoetzmannRouwenhorst2005">Goetzmann & Rouwenhorst (2005)</a>, pp. 65–89.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFPezzolo2005" class="citation">Pezzolo, L. "Bonds and government debt in Italian city-states, 1250–1650". 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4613-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4613-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-4613-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Control+Through+Communication%3A+The+Rise+of+System+in+American+Management&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-4613-7&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=JoAnne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmart2008-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmart2008_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmart2008">Smart 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey1985" class="citation book cs1">McCloskey, Deirdre N. 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10380-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-10380-4"><bdi>978-0-299-10380-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhetoric+of+Economics&rft.place=Madison&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-299-10380-4&rft.aulast=McCloskey&rft.aufirst=Deirdre+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCloskey1987" class="citation book cs1">McCloskey, Deirdre N. 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84553-066-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84553-066-2"><bdi>978-1-84553-066-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+the+Economy%3A+Activity%2C+Genre+And+Technology+in+the+World+of+Banking&rft.place=London&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Equinox&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84553-066-2&rft.aulast=Smart&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllicksonThorland1995" class="citation journal cs1">Ellickson, Robert; Thorland, Charles (1995). 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89089-977-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89089-977-9"><bdi>978-0-89089-977-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Mesopotamian+Law&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Carolina+Academic+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-89089-977-9&rft.aulast=VerSteeg&rft.aufirst=Russ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETiersma2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETiersma2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTiersma2008">Tiersma (2008)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeyer2004">Meyer (2004)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoddeMorris1967" class="citation book cs1">Bodde, Derk; Morris, Clarence (1967). <i>Law in Imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch'ing Dynasty Cases, With Historical, Social, and Juridical Commentaries</i>. Harvard University Press. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733213">10.4159/harvard.9780674733213</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73319-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-73319-0"><bdi>978-0-674-73319-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+in+Imperial+China%3A+Exemplified+by+190+Ch%27ing+Dynasty+Cases%2C+With+Historical%2C+Social%2C+and+Juridical+Commentaries&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674733213&rft.isbn=978-0-674-73319-0&rft.aulast=Bodde&rft.aufirst=Derk&rft.au=Morris%2C+Clarence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbieri-LowYates2015" class="citation book cs1">Barbieri-Low, Anthony J.; Yates, Robin D. S. (2015). <i>Law, state, and society in early imperial China: a study with critical edition and translation of the legal texts from Zhangjiashan tomb no. 247</i>. Sinica Leidensia. Vol. 126. Leiden: Brill. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29283-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29283-3"><bdi>978-90-04-29283-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law%2C+state%2C+and+society+in+early+imperial+China%3A+a+study+with+critical+edition+and+translation+of+the+legal+texts+from+Zhangjiashan+tomb+no.+247&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Sinica+Leidensia&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-29283-3&rft.aulast=Barbieri-Low&rft.aufirst=Anthony+J.&rft.au=Yates%2C+Robin+D.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiersma1999" class="citation book cs1">Tiersma, Peter M. (1999). <i>Legal Language</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-80302-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-80302-9"><bdi>978-0-226-80302-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legal+Language&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-226-80302-9&rft.aulast=Tiersma&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody198689–92-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody198689–92_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoody1986">Goody (1986)</a>, pp. 89–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnery1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnery1998[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConnery1998">Connery (1998)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis (1999)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadnerRobson2011">Radner & Robson (2011)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee2000-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee2000_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee2000_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2000" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Thomas H. C. (2000). <i>Education in Traditional China: A History</i>. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 13. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10363-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10363-4"><bdi>978-90-04-10363-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+in+Traditional+China%3A+A+History&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10363-4&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HKCUP1998-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HKCUP1998_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HKCUP1998_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuoChan1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Luo Shubao (罗树宝); Chan Sin-Wai (陈善伟), eds. 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(August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-937-032-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-937-032-9"><bdi>978-962-937-032-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%9B%BE%E5%86%8C&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+City+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-962-937-032-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStock1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStock1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStock1987">Stock (1987)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChartier1994" class="citation book cs1">Chartier, Roger (1994). <i>The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe Between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2266-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2266-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-2266-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Order+of+Books%3A+Readers%2C+Authors%2C+and+Libraries+in+Europe+Between+the+Fourteenth+and+Eighteenth+Centuries&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2266-7&rft.aulast=Chartier&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill1972" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Christopher (1972). <i>The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution</i>. New York: Viking. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-78975-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-78975-7"><bdi>978-0-670-78975-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Turned+Upside+Down%3A+Radical+Ideas+during+the+English+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-670-78975-7&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span>}}</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabermas1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas, Jürgen</a> (1999) [1991]. <i>The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere</i>. Translated by Burger, T.; Lawrence, F. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 187–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-58108-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-58108-0"><bdi>978-0-262-58108-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structural+Transformation+of+the+Public+Sphere&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=187-189&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-58108-0&rft.aulast=Habermas&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benedict_Anderson" title="Benedict Anderson">Anderson, Benedict Richard O'Gorman</a> (1983). <a href="/wiki/Imagined_Communities" title="Imagined Communities"><i>Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism</i></a> (Rev. ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso</a>. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-059-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-059-6"><bdi>978-0-86091-059-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagined+Communities%3A+Reflections+on+the+Origin+and+Spread+of+Nationalism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-86091-059-6&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Benedict+Richard+O%27Gorman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarr2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarr2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarr2004">Starr (2004)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazerman2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazerman2004[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBazerman2004">Bazerman (2004)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipsonBinkley2012-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipsonBinkley2012_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipsonBinkley2012">Lipson & Binkley (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalami2020" class="citation book cs1">Salami, Minna (2020). "Of Liberation". <i>Sensuous Knowledge: A Black Feminist Approach For Everyone</i>. Amistad. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-287706-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-287706-2"><bdi>978-0-06-287706-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Of+Liberation&rft.btitle=Sensuous+Knowledge%3A+A+Black+Feminist+Approach+For+Everyone&rft.pub=Amistad&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-06-287706-2&rft.aulast=Salami&rft.aufirst=Minna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1SRnjwEACAAJ"><i>The Teachings of Ptahhotep: The Oldest Book in the World</i></a>. Martino Fine. 2016. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61427-930-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61427-930-3"><bdi>978-1-61427-930-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Teachings+of+Ptahhotep%3A+The+Oldest+Book+in+the+World&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Martino+Fine&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-61427-930-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1SRnjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadnerRobson2011_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadnerRobson2011">Radner & Robson (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrett1999" class="citation journal cs1">Perrett, Roy W. (1999). "History, Time, and Knowledge in Ancient India". <i>History and Theory</i>. <b>38</b> (3): 307–321. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0018-2656.00094">10.1111/0018-2656.00094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=History%2C+Time%2C+and+Knowledge+in+Ancient+India&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=307-321&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0018-2656.00094&rft.aulast=Perrett&rft.aufirst=Roy+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMookerji1998" class="citation book cs1">Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1998) [1951]. <i>Ancient Indian education: brahmanical and Buddhist</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0423-4"><bdi>978-81-208-0423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Indian+education%3A+brahmanical+and+Buddhist&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0423-4&rft.aulast=Mookerji&rft.aufirst=Radha+Kumud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoone2000" class="citation book cs1">Boone, Elizabeth Hill (2000). <i>Stories in Red and Black</i>. Austin: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press" title="University of Texas Press">University of Texas Press</a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70876-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70876-1"><bdi>978-0-292-70876-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+in+Red+and+Black&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70876-1&rft.aulast=Boone&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerdan2005" class="citation book cs1">Berdan, Frances F. (2005). <i>The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society</i>. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-62728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-62728-7"><bdi>978-0-534-62728-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aztecs+of+Central+Mexico%3A+An+Imperial+Society&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-534-62728-7&rft.aulast=Berdan&rft.aufirst=Frances+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodde1991" class="citation book cs1">Bodde, Derk (1991). <i>Chinese Thought, Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social Background of Science and Technology in Pre-Modern China</i>. Honolulu: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawai%CA%BBi_Press" title="University of Hawaiʻi Press">University of Hawaiʻi Press</a>. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1334-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1334-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-1334-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Thought%2C+Society%2C+and+Science%3A+The+Intellectual+and+Social+Background+of+Science+and+Technology+in+Pre-Modern+China&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1334-5&rft.aulast=Bodde&rft.aufirst=Derk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHavelock1963">Havelock (1963)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHavelock1978">Havelock (1978)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHavelock1981">Havelock (1981)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakdisi1981-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakdisi1981_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakdisi1981">Makdisi (1981)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh1995-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh1995_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVersteegh1995">Versteegh (1995)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidder-Symoens1991a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidder-Symoens1991a[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidder-Symoens1991a">Ridder-Symoens (1991a)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVerger1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVerger1991">Verger (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwinges1991-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwinges1991_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwinges1991">Schwinges (1991)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeff1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeff1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeff1991">Leff (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorth1991">North (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarcia1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarcia1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarcia1991">Garcia (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiraisi1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiraisi1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiraisi1991">Siraisi (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEisenstein1979[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEisenstein1979">Eisenstein (1979)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2008190–191-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazermanRogers2008190–191_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBazermanRogers2008">Bazerman & Rogers (2008)</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrafton1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrafton1991[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrafton1991">Grafton (1991)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedersen1996[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedersen1996[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPedersen1996">Pedersen (1996)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1965[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1965">Jones (1965)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuegg19963–4-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuegg19963–4_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuegg1996">Ruegg (1996)</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImpeyMacGregor1985" class="citation book cs1">Impey, O.; MacGregor, A., eds. (1985). <i>The origins of museums: the cabinet of curiosities in sixteenth and seventeenth-century Europe</i>. Oxford: Clarendon. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-952108-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-952108-5"><bdi>0-19-952108-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+museums%3A+the+cabinet+of+curiosities+in+sixteenth+and+seventeenth-century+Europe&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+November+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28November+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-19-952108-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/S._H._Steinberg" title="S. H. Steinberg">Steinberg, S. H.</a> (2017) [1955]. <i>Five Hundred Years of Printing</i>. Mineola, NY: Dover. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-81445-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-81445-2"><bdi>978-0-486-81445-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Five+Hundred+Years+of+Printing&rft.place=Mineola%2C+NY&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-486-81445-2&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKronick1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKronick1976[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(November_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKronick1976">Kronick (1976)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruse2006331–334-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruse2006331–334_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKruse2006">Kruse (2006)</a>, pp. 331–334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1977-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1977_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOng1977">Ong (1977)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng1982-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng1982_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOng1982">Ong (1982)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOng2004-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOng2004_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOng2004">Ong (2004)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1963_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHavelock1963">Havelock (1963)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHavelock1981_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHavelock1981">Havelock (1981)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1975[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoody1975">Goody (1975)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoody1977[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoody1977[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoody1977">Goody (1977)</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScribnerCole1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Scribner" title="Sylvia Scribner">Scribner, Sylvia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cole_(psychologist)" title="Michael Cole (psychologist)">Cole, Michael</a> (1981). <i>The Psychology of Literacy</i>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72114-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72114-2"><bdi>978-0-674-72114-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Literacy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=Category%3AWikipedia+articles+needing+page+number+citations+from+August+2024%3Csup+class%3D%22noprint+Inline-Template+%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%26%2391%3B%3Ci%3EWikipedia%3ACiting+sources%7C%3Cspan+title%3D%22This+citation+requires+a+reference+to+the+specific+page+or+range+of+pages+in+which+the+material+appears.%26%2332%3B%28August+2024%29%22%3Epage-needed%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fi%3E%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72114-2&rft.aulast=Scribner&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rft.au=Cole%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaines2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baines_(Egyptologist)" title="John Baines (Egyptologist)">Baines, John</a> (2007). <i>Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815250-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815250-7"><bdi>978-0-19-815250-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visual+and+Written+Culture+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815250-7&rft.aulast=Baines&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagley2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bagley" title="Robert Bagley">Bagley, Robert</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&q=The+first+writing+:+script+invention+as+history+and+process">"Anyang writing and the origin of the Chinese writing system"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Houston" title="Stephen D. Houston">Houston, Stephen</a> (ed.). <i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0"><bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anyang+writing+and+the+origin+of+the+Chinese+writing+system&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83861-0&rft.aulast=Bagley&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjsWL_XJt-dMC%26q%3DThe%2Bfirst%2Bwriting%2B%3A%2Bscript%2Binvention%2Bas%2Bhistory%2Band%2Bprocess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetròFriedrichMichel2024" class="citation book cs1">Betrò, Marilina; Friedrich, Michael; Michel, Cécile, eds. (2024). <i>The Ancient World Revisited: Material Dimensions of Written Artefacts</i>. Studies in Manuscript Cultures. Vol. 37. Berlin: De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-135902-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-135902-1"><bdi>978-3-11-135902-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2365-9696">2365-9696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+World+Revisited%3A+Material+Dimensions+of+Written+Artefacts&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Studies+in+Manuscript+Cultures&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2024&rft.issn=2365-9696&rft.isbn=978-3-11-135902-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFCammarosano2024" class="citation">Cammarosano, Michele. "Writing on Wood in Hittite Anatolia". In <a href="#CITEREFBetròFriedrichMichel2024">Betrò, Friedrich & Michel (2024)</a>, pp. 165–206.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Boltz" title="William G. Boltz">Boltz, William G.</a> (1994). <i>The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System</i>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/American_Oriental_Society" title="American Oriental Society">American Oriental Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-78-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-78-9"><bdi>978-0-940490-78-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-940490-78-9&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoudreau2004" class="citation book cs1">Boudreau, Vincent, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC"><i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0"><bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83861-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjsWL_XJt-dMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFBaines2004" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/John_Baines_(Egyptologist)" title="John Baines (Egyptologist)">Baines, John</a>. "The earliest Egyptian writing: Development, context, purpose". In <a href="#CITEREFBoudreau2004">Boudreau (2004)</a>, pp. 150–189.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazerman2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bazerman" title="Charles Bazerman">Bazerman, Charles</a> (2004). "Speech Acts, Genres, and Activity Systems: How Texts Organize Activity and People". In Bazerman, Charles; Prior, Paul A. (eds.). <i>What Writing Does and How It Does It</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 309–339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-3805-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-3805-8"><bdi>0-8058-3805-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Speech+Acts%2C+Genres%2C+and+Activity+Systems%3A+How+Texts+Organize+Activity+and+People&rft.btitle=What+Writing+Does+and+How+It+Does+It&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+NJ&rft.pages=309-339&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8058-3805-8&rft.aulast=Bazerman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazerman2008" class="citation book cs1">———, ed. (2008). "Writing, Text, and the Law". <i>Handbook of Research on Writing</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-4870-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-4870-0"><bdi>978-0-8058-4870-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing%2C+Text%2C+and+the+Law&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Research+on+Writing&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-4870-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFBazermanRogers2008" class="citation">———; Rogers, Paul. "Writing and Secular Knowledge Outside Modern European Institutions". In <a href="#CITEREFBazerman2008">Bazerman (2008)</a>, pp. 138–189.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFSmart2008" class="citation">Smart, Graham. "Writing and the Social Formation of Economy". In <a href="#CITEREFBazerman2008">Bazerman (2008)</a>, pp. 123–135.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFTiersma2008" class="citation">Tiersma, Peter. "Writing, Text, and the Law". In <a href="#CITEREFBazerman2008">Bazerman (2008)</a>, pp. 156–170.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondorelli2022" class="citation book cs1">Condorelli, Marco (2022). <i>Introducing Historical Orthography</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-910073-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-910073-1"><bdi>978-1-00-910073-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Historical+Orthography&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-00-910073-1&rft.aulast=Condorelli&rft.aufirst=Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023" class="citation book cs1">———; Rutkowska, Hanna, eds. (2023). <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography</i>. Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48731-3"><bdi>978-1-108-48731-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Historical+Orthography&rft.series=Cambridge+handbooks+in+language+and+linguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48731-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFSubačius2023" class="citation">Subačius, Giedrius. "Materiality of Writing". In <a href="#CITEREFCondorelliRutkowska2023">Condorelli & Rutkowska (2023)</a>, pp. 305–324.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnery1998" class="citation book cs1">Connery, Christopher Leigh (1998). <i>The Empire of the Text: Writing and Authority in Early Imperial China</i>. 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London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-67000-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-67000-3"><bdi>978-1-315-67000-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+the+English+Writing+System&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-315-67000-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Florian_Coulmas" title="Florian Coulmas">Coulmas, Florian</a> (2002). <i>Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78217-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78217-3"><bdi>978-0-521-78217-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems%3A+An+Introduction+to+Their+Linguistic+Analysis&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78217-3&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_T._Daniels" title="Peter T. Daniels">Daniels, Peter T.</a> (1996). Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). <i>The World's Writing Systems</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507993-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507993-7&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1989). <i>Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems</i>. 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(1996). "Writing: Introduction". <i>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology</i>. 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(2003). <i>A History of Reading</i>. Reaktion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-160-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-160-0"><bdi>978-1-86189-160-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Reading&rft.pub=Reaktion&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-160-0&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Steven+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoetzmannRouwenhorst2005" class="citation book cs1">Goetzmann, William N.; Rouwenhorst, K. Geert, eds. (2005). <i>The origins of value: the financial innovations that created modern capital markets</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517571-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517571-4"><bdi>978-0-19-517571-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+value%3A+the+financial+innovations+that+created+modern+capital+markets&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517571-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Goody, Jack</a> (1975) [1968]. <i>Literacy in Traditional Societies</i> (Rev. ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29005-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29005-0"><bdi>978-0-521-29005-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy+in+Traditional+Societies&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29005-0&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody1977" class="citation book cs1">——— (1977). <i>The Domestication of the Savage Mind</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29242-9"><bdi>978-0-521-29242-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Domestication+of+the+Savage+Mind&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29242-9&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody1986" class="citation book cs1">——— (1986). <i>The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-62159-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-62159-8"><bdi>978-0-511-62159-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Writing+and+the+Organization+of+Society&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-511-62159-8&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody2004" class="citation book cs1">——— (2004). <i>Capitalism and Modernity: The Great Debate</i> (Repr. ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Polity_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Polity Press">Polity Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3191-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3191-2"><bdi>978-0-7456-3191-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism+and+Modernity%3A+The+Great+Debate&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3191-2&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrafton1991" class="citation book cs1">Grafton, Anthony (1991). <i>Defenders of the Text: The Traditions of Scholarship in an Age of Science, 1450–1800</i>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19545-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-19545-5"><bdi>978-0-674-19545-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defenders+of+the+Text%3A+The+Traditions+of+Scholarship+in+an+Age+of+Science%2C+1450%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-674-19545-5&rft.aulast=Grafton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Harald_Haarmann" title="Harald Haarmann">Haarmann, Harald</a> (2002). <i>Geschichte der Schrift</i> [<i>History of Writing</i>] (in German). <a href="/wiki/C._H._Beck" title="C. H. Beck">C. H. Beck</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-47998-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-47998-7"><bdi>3-406-47998-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Schrift&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=3-406-47998-7&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavelock1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_A._Havelock" title="Eric A. Havelock">Havelock, Eric A.</a> (1963). <i>Preface to Plato</i>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-69906-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-69906-9"><bdi>978-0-674-69906-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preface+to+Plato&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-674-69906-9&rft.aulast=Havelock&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavelock1978" class="citation book cs1">——— (1978). <i>The Greek Concept of Justice: From Its Shadow in Homer to Its Substance in Plato</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-36220-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-36220-9"><bdi>0-674-36220-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+Concept+of+Justice%3A+From+Its+Shadow+in+Homer+to+Its+Substance+in+Plato&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-674-36220-9&rft.aulast=Havelock&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavelock1981" class="citation book cs1">——— (1981). <i>The Literate Revolution in Greece and Its Cultural Consequences</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00026-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00026-8"><bdi>978-0-691-00026-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Literate+Revolution+in+Greece+and+Its+Cultural+Consequences&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00026-8&rft.aulast=Havelock&rft.aufirst=Eric+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston2004" class="citation book cs1">Houston, Stephen D. (2004). <i>The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83861-0"><bdi>978-0-521-83861-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Writing%3A+Script+Invention+as+History+and+Process&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83861-0&rft.aulast=Houston&rft.aufirst=Stephen+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1965" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Richard F. (1965) [1936]. <i>Ancients and Moderns: A Study of the Background of the Battle of the Books</i> (2nd ed.). Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/877465393">877465393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancients+and+Moderns%3A+A+Study+of+the+Background+of+the+Battle+of+the+Books&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F877465393&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebsKrebs2003" class="citation book cs1">Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0fjBeseVEC&pg=PA91"><i>Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World</i></a>. Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4"><bdi>978-0-313-31342-4</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundbreaking+Scientific+Experiments%2C+Inventions%2C+and+Discoveries+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31342-4&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft.au=Krebs%2C+Carolyn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0H0fjBeseVEC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKronick1976" class="citation book cs1">Kronick, David A. (1976) [1962]. <i>A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origins and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press, 1665–1790</i> (2nd ed.). Metuchen, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarecrow Press">Scarecrow</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-0844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-0844-7"><bdi>978-0-8108-0844-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Scientific+%26+Technical+Periodicals%3A+The+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Scientific+and+Technical+Press%2C+1665%E2%80%931790&rft.place=Metuchen%2C+NJ&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-0844-7&rft.aulast=Kronick&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruse2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kruse, Otto (2006). "The Origins of Writing in the Disciplines: Traditions of Seminar Writing and the Humboldtian Ideal of the Research University". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 331–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088306289259">10.1177/0741088306289259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0741-0883">0741-0883</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Communication&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Writing+in+the+Disciplines%3A+Traditions+of+Seminar+Writing+and+the+Humboldtian+Ideal+of+the+Research+University&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-352&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0741088306289259&rft.issn=0741-0883&rft.aulast=Kruse&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Mark Edward (1999). <i>Writing and Authority in Early China</i>. Albany: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4113-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4113-8"><bdi>978-0-7914-4113-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+and+Authority+in+Early+China&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-4113-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Mark+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipsonBinkley2012" class="citation book cs1">Lipson, Carol S.; Binkley, Roberta A. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uVt7c3UX-zMC"><i>Rhetoric Before and Beyond the Greeks</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8503-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8503-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-8503-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+Before+and+Beyond+the+Greeks&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-8503-3&rft.aulast=Lipson&rft.aufirst=Carol+S.&rft.au=Binkley%2C+Roberta+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuVt7c3UX-zMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakdisi1981" class="citation book cs1">Makdisi, George (1981). <i>The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West</i>. <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-375-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-375-6"><bdi>978-0-85224-375-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Colleges%3A+Institutions+of+Learning+in+Islam+and+the+West&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-375-6&rft.aulast=Makdisi&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarter1974" class="citation journal cs1">McCarter, P. Kyle (1974). 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Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77704-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77704-0"><bdi>978-0-292-77704-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Writing+Came+About&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77704-0&rft.aulast=Schmandt-Besserat&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1992b" class="citation book cs1">——— (1992b). <i>Counting to Cuneiform</i>. Before Writing. Vol. 1. Austin: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press" title="University of Texas Press">University of Texas Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70783-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70783-2"><bdi>978-0-292-70783-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counting+to+Cuneiform&rft.place=Austin&rft.series=Before+Writing&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70783-2&rft.aulast=Schmandt-Besserat&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSproat2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sproat" title="Richard Sproat">Sproat, Richard</a> (2010). <i>Language, Technology, and Society</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954938-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954938-2"><bdi>978-0-19-954938-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language%2C+Technology%2C+and+Society&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954938-2&rft.aulast=Sproat&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarr2004" class="citation book cs1">Starr, Paul (2004). <i>The Creation of the Media: Political Origins of Modern Communications</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08193-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08193-6"><bdi>978-0-465-08193-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+Media%3A+Political+Origins+of+Modern+Communications&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-465-08193-6&rft.aulast=Starr&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStock1987" class="citation book cs1">Stock, Brian (1987). <i>The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries</i> (Repr. ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10227-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10227-6"><bdi>978-0-691-10227-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Implications+of+Literacy%3A+Written+Language+and+Models+of+Interpretation+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-691-10227-6&rft.aulast=Stock&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersteegh1995" class="citation book cs1">Versteegh, Kees (1995). <i>The Arabic Linguistic Tradition</i>. Landmarks in Linguistic Thought. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15757-5"><bdi>978-0-415-15757-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Linguistic+Tradition&rft.place=London&rft.series=Landmarks+in+Linguistic+Thought&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15757-5&rft.aulast=Versteegh&rft.aufirst=Kees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWengrow2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Wengrow" title="David Wengrow">Wengrow, David</a> (2011). "The Invention of Writing in Egypt". In Teeter, Emily (ed.). <i>Before the Pyramids: Origin of Egyptian Civilization</i>. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-82-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-82-0"><bdi>978-1-885923-82-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Invention+of+Writing+in+Egypt&rft.btitle=Before+the+Pyramids%3A+Origin+of+Egyptian+Civilization&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute%2C+University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-885923-82-0&rft.aulast=Wengrow&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1989" class="citation book cs1">Walker, C. B. F. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform"><i>Cuneiform: Reading The Past</i></a>. British Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-8059-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-8059-5"><bdi>978-0-7141-8059-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuneiform%3A+Reading+The+Past&rft.pub=British+Museum&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-8059-5&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=C.+B.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FWalker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2010" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Christopher (2010). "Visible language: the earliest writing systems". In Woods, Christopher; Teeter, Emily; Emberling, Geoff (eds.). <i>Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond</i>. Oriental Institute Museum Publications. Vol. 32. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. pp. 15–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-76-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-885923-76-9"><bdi>978-1-885923-76-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Visible+language%3A+the+earliest+writing+systems&rft.btitle=Visible+Language%3A+Inventions+of+Writing+in+the+Ancient+Middle+East+and+Beyond&rft.series=Oriental+Institute+Museum+Publications&rft.pages=15-25&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-885923-76-9&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrara2022" class="citation book cs1">Ferrara, Silvia (2022) [2019]. <i>The Greatest invention: a history of the world in nine mysterious scripts</i>. Translated by Portnowitz, Todd. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-60162-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-60162-1"><bdi>978-0-374-60162-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greatest+invention%3A+a+history+of+the+world+in+nine+mysterious+scripts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+%26+Giroux&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-374-60162-1&rft.aulast=Ferrara&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert2014" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, J. L. F. (2014). <i>Termcraft: The Emergence of Terminology Science from the Vin ANS and Sumerians to Aristotle</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4602-1665-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4602-1665-1"><bdi>978-1-4602-1665-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Termcraft%3A+The+Emergence+of+Terminology+Science+from+the+Vin+ANS+and+Sumerians+to+Aristotle&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4602-1665-1&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=J.+L.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoogtQuack2012" class="citation book cs1">Voogt, Alexander J. de; Quack, Joachim Friedrich, eds. (2012). <i>The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21545-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21545-0"><bdi>978-90-04-21545-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Writing%3A+Writing+Across+Borders&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21545-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Barry B. (2009). <i>Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization</i>. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-6256-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing%3A+Theory+and+History+of+the+Technology+of+Civilization&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6256-2&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Barry+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2004" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, Joel (2004). <i>In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language</i>. New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3654-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3654-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-3654-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Beginning%3A+A+Short+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3654-8&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassner2003" class="citation book cs1">Glassner, Jean-Jacques (2003). <i>The Invention of Cuneiform: Writing in Sumer</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Zainab_Bahrani" title="Zainab Bahrani">Bahrani, Zainab</a>; Van de Mieroop, Marc. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7389-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7389-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-7389-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Cuneiform%3A+Writing+in+Sumer&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7389-8&rft.aulast=Glassner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2000) [1995]. <i>The Story of Writing</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28156-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28156-7"><bdi>978-0-500-28156-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Writing&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-500-28156-7&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNissenDamerowEnglund1993" class="citation book cs1">Nissen, Hans Jörg; Damerow, Peter; Englund, Robert K. (1993). <i>Archaic bookkeeping: early writing and techniques of economic administration in the ancient Near East</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-58659-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-58659-5"><bdi>978-0-226-58659-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaic+bookkeeping%3A+early+writing+and+techniques+of+economic+administration+in+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-226-58659-5&rft.aulast=Nissen&rft.aufirst=Hans+J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Damerow%2C+Peter&rft.au=Englund%2C+Robert+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaggs1989" class="citation book cs1">Saggs, Henry W. F. (1989). <i>Civilization before Greece and Rome</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05031-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05031-8"><bdi>978-0-300-05031-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilization+before+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05031-8&rft.aulast=Saggs&rft.aufirst=Henry+W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988). <i>Chinese</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29653-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29653-6"><bdi>0-521-29653-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-29653-6&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiringer1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">Diringer, David</a> (1962). <i>Writing</i>. New York: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/308353">308353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F308353&rft.aulast=Diringer&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+writing" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_writing&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldswritingsystems.org/">The World's Writing Systems</a> – all 294 known writing systems, each with a typographic reference glyph and Unicode status</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/mayacode/">Cracking the Maya Code</a> – <a href="/wiki/Nova_(American_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova (American TV series)">NOVA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Writing_and_writing_material" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Writing" title="Template:Writing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Writing" title="Template talk:Writing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Writing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Writing_and_writing_material" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Writing_material" title="Writing material">writing material</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Enduring</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amate" title="Amate">Amate</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Trema_micrantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Trema micrantha">Trema micrantha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ficus_aurea" title="Ficus aurea">Ficus aurea</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">Bamboo and wooden slips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript" title="Birch bark manuscript">Birch bark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark"><i>Betula</i></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folding-book_manuscript" title="Folding-book manuscript">Folding-book manuscript</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Streblus_asper" title="Streblus asper">Streblus asper</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paper_mulberry" title="Paper mulberry">Broussonetia papyrifera</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ola_leaf" title="Ola leaf">Ola leaf</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Corypha_umbraculifera" title="Corypha umbraculifera">Corypha umbraculifera</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm leaf</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Animal skin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">Ink</a></li> <li>Metals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">Intaglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">Stamping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Photographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Stone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tablets <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">Clay tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_(writing)" title="Slate (writing)">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">Wax tablet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Textile printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts" title="Mawangdui Silk Texts">Silk text</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impermanent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skywriting" title="Skywriting">Skywriting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carrier objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Book</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notebook" title="Notebook">Notebook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_(ritual_baton)" title="Hu (ritual baton)"><i>Hu</i>/<i>Shaku</i> (baton)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Inscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">Bas-relief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscript</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">Palimpsest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">Microform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign" title="Sign">Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Writing_systems" title="Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Writing_systems" title="Template talk:Writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Graphemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Script_(Unicode)" title="Script (Unicode)">Scripts in Unicode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">by first written account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_text_corpora" title="Ancient text corpora">Ancient languages corpuses by size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">Undeciphered writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">Creators of writing systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Featural_writing_system" title="Featural writing system">Featural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">Numeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)" title="Phonogram (linguistics)">Phonogrammic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabary" title="Semi-syllabary">Semi-syllabaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorthand" title="Shorthand">Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current examples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Africa" title="Writing systems of Africa">In Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_systems_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Writing systems of Southeast Asia">In Southeast Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_history" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_history" title="Template:World history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_history" title="Template talk:World history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_periods" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historical periods">List of historical periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines of world history</a></li> <li><i>Major concepts:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>World regions:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Eastern culture (disambiguation)">Eastern civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="History of government">History of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law">History of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="History of economics">History of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="History of trade">History of trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="History of war">History of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li><i>Science/Technology:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History of navigation</a></li> <li><i>Arts:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="History of drama">History of drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">History of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">History of painting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Chronological world eras:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern history</a></li> <li><i>Societal eras:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Agricultural Revolution">Second Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britain%27s_Imperial_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Britain's Imperial Century">Britain's Imperial Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Age">Digital Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of<br />societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_people" title="Hill people">Montane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">Nomadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_society" title="Pastoral society">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">Agricultural/Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">Complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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[\"CITEREFHaarmann2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabermas1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalloSimpson1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHavelock1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHavelock1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHavelock1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouston2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImpeyMacGregor1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeightleyBarnard1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebsKrebs2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKronick1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruse2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambert2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeff1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiHarbottleZhangWang2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindström2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipsonBinkley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuoChan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakdisi1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCarter1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClintockStrong1885\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCloskey1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillard1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMokhtar1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMookerji1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorenz2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNissenDamerowEnglund1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorth1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivier1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonTorrance2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedersen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrett1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPezzolo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPilcher2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiquetteWhitehouse2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadnerRobson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegulski2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidder-Symoens1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidder-Symoens1991a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidder-Symoens1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuegg1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaggs1989\"] = 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[\"CITEREFvan_de_Mieroop2005\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Bots\"] = 1,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 24,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 105,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite object\"] = 1,\n [\"Clarification needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 20,\n [\"Human history\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"List of writing systems\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Mim\"] = 1,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 3,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 43,\n [\"Page numbers improve\"] = 1,\n [\"Pn\"] = 7,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnmp\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 86,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 11,\n [\"Stack\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"World history\"] = 1,\n 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