CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Model organism - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e46e7161-d5fd-4541-8d56-51bd8876d0c9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Model_organism","wgTitle":"Model organism","wgCurRevisionId":1251191257,"wgRevisionId":1251191257,"wgArticleId":19374,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1: long volume value","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023","Model organisms","Animal testing"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Model_organism","wgRelevantArticleId":19374,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q213907","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/1200px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="873"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/800px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="582"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/640px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="465"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Model organism - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Model_organism rootpage-Model_organism skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Model+organism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Model+organism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Model+organism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Model+organism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Selection </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selection-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Selection subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phylogeny_and_genetic_relatedness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny_and_genetic_relatedness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Phylogeny and genetic relatedness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny_and_genetic_relatedness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Disease models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_model_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_model_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Important model organisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Important_model_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Important model organisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Important_model_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_model_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_model_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Selected model organisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_model_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Limitations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Limitations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unintended_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unintended_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Unintended bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unintended_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Alternatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Model organism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B0%D8%AC_%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="نموذج حي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نموذج حي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC" title="মডেল জীব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মডেল জীব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelni_organizam" title="Modelni organizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Modelni organizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisme_model" title="Organisme model – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Organisme model" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelov%C3%BD_organismus" title="Modelový organismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Modelový organismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organeb_model" title="Organeb model – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Organeb model" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelorganisme" title="Modelorganisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Modelorganisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellorganismus" title="Modellorganismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Modellorganismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudelorganism" title="Mudelorganism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mudelorganism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismo_modelo" title="Organismo modelo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Organismo modelo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-organismo" title="Model-organismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Model-organismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_organismoa" title="Modelo organismoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Modelo organismoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%84" title="جاندار مدل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جاندار مدل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisme_mod%C3%A8le" title="Organisme modèle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Organisme modèle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismo_modelo" title="Organismo modelo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Organismo modelo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EB%8D%B8_%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC" title="모델 생물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="모델 생물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%AC_%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Մոդել օրգանիզմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մոդել օրգանիզմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisme_model" title="Organisme model – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Organisme model" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismo_modello" title="Organismo modello – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Organismo modello" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%9C" title="אורגניזם מודל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אורגניזם מודל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Зертханалық жануарлар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Зертханалық жануарлар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instar_animans" title="Instar animans – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Instar animans" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellszervezet" title="Modellszervezet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Modellszervezet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Моделен организам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Моделен организам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelorganisme" title="Modelorganisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Modelorganisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%87%E3%83%AB%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="モデル生物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モデル生物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellorganisme" title="Modellorganisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Modellorganisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellorganisme" title="Modellorganisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Modellorganisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%89%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%90%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ماډل ارګانېزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماډل ارګانېزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizmy_modelowe" title="Organizmy modelowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Organizmy modelowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismo-modelo" title="Organismo-modelo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Organismo-modelo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Модельные организмы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Модельные организмы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Model organism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelni_organizem" title="Modelni organizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Modelni organizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malliorganismi" title="Malliorganismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Malliorganismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modellorganism" title="Modellorganism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Modellorganism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A" title="สิ่งมีชีวิตตัวแบบ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สิ่งมีชีวิตตัวแบบ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_canl%C4%B1" title="Model canlı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Model canlı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модельний організм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Модельний організм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_v%E1%BA%ADt_m%C3%B4_h%C3%ACnh" title="Sinh vật mô hình – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh vật mô hình" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="模式生物 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="模式生物" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q213907#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Model_organism" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Model_organism">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Model_organism">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Model_organism" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Model_organism" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&oldid=1251191257" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Model_organism&id=1251191257&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FModel_organism">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FModel_organism">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Model_organism&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Model_organisms" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q213907" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organisms used to study biology across species</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E_coli_at_10000x,_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/220px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/330px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/440px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="1889" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> model organism</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/330px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg/440px-Drosophila_melanogaster_-_side_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a>, one of the most famous subjects for <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> experiments</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/220px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/330px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/440px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a>, one of the most intensively studied <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> model organisms in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a></figcaption></figure> A model organism is a <a href="/wiki/Non-human" title="Non-human">non-human</a> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> that is extensively studied to understand particular <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the <a href="/wiki/Model" title="Model">model</a> organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Model organisms are widely used to research human <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> when <a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation">human experimentation</a> would be unfeasible or <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">unethical</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> This strategy is made possible by the <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> of all living organisms, and the conservation of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental</a> pathways and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> over the course of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRCIOM-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature2007-7">[7]</a> It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, and has played significant roles in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NRCIOMb-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-HLAS2011-9">[9]</a> The results have included the near-<a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis eradication">eradication of polio</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">organ transplantation</a>, and have benefited both humans and animals.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-IOM1991-10">[10]</a> From 1910 to 1927, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>'s work with the fruit fly <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a> identified <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> as the vector of inheritance for genes,<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-nobel2-12">[12]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science".<a href="#cite_note-Kandel1999-13">[13]</a> Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as the production of the <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria_antitoxin" title="Diphtheria antitoxin">diphtheria antitoxin</a><a href="#cite_note-nobel3-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cannon2009-15">[15]</a> and the 1922 discovery of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a><a href="#cite_note-insulin-16">[16]</a> and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson2009-17">[17]</a> Modern general anaesthetics such as <a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">halothane</a> were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.<a href="#cite_note-raventos1956-18">[18]</a> Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplant</a> techniques,<a href="#cite_note-carrel1912-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-williamson1926-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-woodruff1986-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-moore1964-22">[22]</a> the heart-lung machine,<a href="#cite_note-gibbon1937-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rawbw-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Streptomycin-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-fleming1929-26">[26]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">whooping cough</a> vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-mrc1956-27">[27]</a> In researching human <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>, model organisms allow for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, even though care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models.<a href="#cite_note-zam-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-zrug-30">[30]</a> Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feline_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Feline immunodeficiency virus">feline immunodeficiency virus</a> (FIV),<a href="#cite_note-pu2005-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> Texas cattle fever,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_swine_fever" title="Classical swine fever">classical swine fever</a> (hog cholera),<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heartworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartworm">heartworm</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dryden2005-33">[33]</a> Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research,<a href="#cite_note-bundle-34">[34]</a> and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease,<a href="#cite_note-geula1998-35">[35]</a> AIDS,<a href="#cite_note-AIDS2005-36">[36]</a> multiple sclerosis,<a href="#cite_note-jameson1994-37">[37]</a> spinal cord injury, many headaches,<a href="#cite_note-lyuksyutova1984-38">[38]</a> and other conditions in which there is no useful <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> model system available. Model organisms are drawn from all three <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> of life, as well as <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. One of the first model systems for <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> was the bacterium <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> (E. coli), a common constituent of the human digestive system. The mouse (<a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a>) has been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-39">[39]</a> Other examples include baker's yeast (<a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a>), the <a href="/wiki/T4_phage" class="mw-redirect" title="T4 phage">T4 phage</a> virus, the <a href="/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">fruit fly</a> <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a>, the flowering plant <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pigs</a> (Cavia porcellus). Several of the bacterial viruses (<a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a>) that infect <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">gene regulation</a> (e.g. phages <a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enterobacteria_phage_T4" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobacteria phage T4">T4</a>).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Disease models are divided into three categories: homologous animals have the same causes, symptoms and treatment options as would humans who have the same disease, isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments, and predictive models are similar to a particular human disease in only a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions about mechanisms of a set of disease features.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The use of animals in research dates back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a> (304–258 BCE) among the first to perform experiments on living animals.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries included <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>'s use of a <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pig</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">calorimeter</a> to prove that <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> was a form of combustion, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>'s demonstration of the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a> in the 1880s using <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> in sheep.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11544370-43">[43]</a> Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRCIOM-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature2007-7">[7]</a> It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, and has played significant roles in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NRCIOMb-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-HLAS2011-9">[9]</a> For example, the results have included the near-<a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis eradication">eradication of polio</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">organ transplantation</a>, and have benefited both humans and animals.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-IOM1991-10">[10]</a> From 1910 to 1927, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>'s work with the fruit fly <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a> identified <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> as the vector of inheritance for genes.<a href="#cite_note-nobelprize.org-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-nobel2-12">[12]</a> Drosophila became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science".<a href="#cite_note-Kandel1999-13">[13]</a> D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of <a href="/wiki/William_Ernest_Castle" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ernest Castle">William Ernest Castle</a> in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Abbie_Lathrop" title="Abbie Lathrop">Abbie Lathrop</a> led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains.<a href="#cite_note-Steensma-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Hedrich-39">[39]</a> In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil von Behring</a> isolated the <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a> toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease.<a href="#cite_note-nobel3-14">[14]</a> The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the <a href="/wiki/1925_serum_run_to_Nome" title="1925 serum run to Nome">1925 serum run to Nome</a>. The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Cannon2009-15">[15]</a> Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a>'s research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes</a>. This led to the 1922 discovery of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> (with <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a>)<a href="#cite_note-insulin-16">[16]</a> and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson2009-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Cade" title="John Cade">John Cade</a>'s research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> which revolutionized the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as <a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">halothane</a> and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations.<a href="#cite_note-raventos1956-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-whalen2005-48">[48]</a> In the 1940s, <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a> used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> virus,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> which led to his creation of a <a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine" title="Polio vaccine">polio vaccine</a>. The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert Sabin</a> improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplant</a> techniques,<a href="#cite_note-carrel1912-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-williamson1926-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-woodruff1986-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-moore1964-22">[22]</a> the heart-lung machine,<a href="#cite_note-gibbon1937-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rawbw-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Streptomycin-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-fleming1929-26">[26]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">whooping cough</a> vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-mrc1956-27">[27]</a> Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feline_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Feline immunodeficiency virus">feline immunodeficiency virus</a> (FIV),<a href="#cite_note-pu2005-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> Texas cattle fever,<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_swine_fever" title="Classical swine fever">classical swine fever</a> (hog cholera),<a href="#cite_note-buck1904-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Heartworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartworm">heartworm</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dryden2005-33">[33]</a> Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research,<a href="#cite_note-bundle-34">[34]</a> and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease,<a href="#cite_note-geula1998-35">[35]</a> AIDS,<a href="#cite_note-AIDS2005-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> multiple sclerosis,<a href="#cite_note-jameson1994-37">[37]</a> spinal cord injury, many headaches,<a href="#cite_note-lyuksyutova1984-38">[38]</a> and other conditions in which there is no useful <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> model system available. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selection">Selection</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Selection">edit</a>]</div> Models are those organisms with a wealth of biological data that make them attractive to study as examples for other <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> and/or natural phenomena that are more difficult to study directly. Continual research on these organisms focuses on a wide variety of experimental techniques and goals from many different levels of biology—from <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">biomechanics</a>, down to the tiny functional scale of individual <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>. Inquiries about the DNA of organisms are classed as <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> models (with short generation times, such as the <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruitfly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">nematode</a> worm), <a href="/wiki/Experimental" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental">experimental</a> models, and <a href="/wiki/Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a> parsimony models, investigating pivotal position in the evolutionary tree.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Historically, model organisms include a handful of species with extensive genomic research data, such as the NIH model organisms.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation. This usually will include characteristics such as short <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life-cycle</a>, techniques for genetic manipulation (<a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbred</a> strains, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a> lines, and methods of <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a>) and non-specialist living requirements. Sometimes, the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for example, by being very compact or having a low proportion of <a href="/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">junk DNA</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">yeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">arabidopsis</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Takifugu_rubripes" title="Takifugu rubripes">pufferfish</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Leica-57">[57]</a> When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, <a href="/wiki/Generation_time" title="Generation time">generation time</a>, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. As comparative <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of <a href="/wiki/Kinship_and_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinship and descent">lineages</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree of life (science)">tree of life</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny_and_genetic_relatedness">Phylogeny and genetic relatedness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phylogeny and genetic relatedness">edit</a>]</div> The primary reason for the use of model organisms in research is the evolutionary principle that all organisms share some degree of relatedness and genetic similarity due to <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestry">common ancestry</a>. The study of taxonomic human relatives, then, can provide a great deal of information about mechanism and disease within the human body that can be useful in medicine.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Various phylogenetic trees for vertebrates have been constructed using comparative <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>, genetics, genomics as well as the geochemical and fossil record.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> These estimations tell us that humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago (mya). As our closest relatives, chimpanzees have a lot of potential to tell us about mechanisms of disease (and what genes may be responsible for human intelligence). However, chimpanzees are rarely used in research and are protected from highly invasive procedures. Rodents are the most common animal models. Phylogenetic trees estimate that humans and rodents last shared a common ancestor ~80-100mya.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chinwalla2002-60">[60]</a> Despite this distant split, humans and rodents have far more similarities than they do differences. This is due to the relative stability of large portions of the genome, making the use of vertebrate animals particularly productive.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Genomic data is used to make close comparisons between species and determine relatedness. Humans share about 99% of their genome with chimpanzees<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> (98.7% with bonobos)<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> and over 90% with the mouse.<a href="#cite_note-Chinwalla2002-60">[60]</a> With so much of the genome conserved across species, it is relatively impressive that the differences between humans and mice can be accounted for in approximately six thousand genes (of ~30,000 total). Scientists have been able to take advantage of these similarities in generating experimental and predictive models of human disease.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Use">edit</a>]</div> There are many model organisms. One of the first model systems for <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> was the bacterium <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a>, a common constituent of the human digestive system. Several of the bacterial viruses (<a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a>) that infect <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">gene regulation</a> (e.g. phages <a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enterobacteria_phage_T4" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobacteria phage T4">T4</a>). However, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, several yeasts, particularly <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a> ("baker's" or "budding" yeast), have been widely used in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>, largely because they are quick and easy to grow. The <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a> in a simple <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> is very similar to the cell cycle in <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> and is regulated by <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> proteins. The fruit fly <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a> is studied, again, because it is easy to grow for an animal, has various visible congenital traits and has a <a href="/wiki/Polytene" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytene">polytene</a> (giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a light microscope. The <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworm</a> <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a> is studied because it has very defined development patterns involving fixed numbers of cells, and it can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disease_models">Disease models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Disease models">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></div> Animal models serving in research may have an existing, inbred or induced <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> or injury that is similar to a human condition. These test conditions are often termed as animal models of disease. The use of animal models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal that imply a level of harm that would not be considered ethical to inflict on a human. The best models of disease are similar in <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a> (mechanism of cause) and phenotype (signs and symptoms) to the human equivalent. However complex human diseases can often be better understood in a simplified system in which individual parts of the disease process are isolated and examined. For instance, behavioral analogues of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">anxiety</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> in laboratory animals can be used to screen and test new <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">drugs</a> for the treatment of these conditions in humans. A 2000 study found that animal models concorded (coincided on true positives and false negatives) with human toxicity in 71% of cases, with 63% for nonrodents alone and 43% for rodents alone.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In 1987, Davidson et al. suggested that selection of an animal model for research be based on nine considerations. These include <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> 1) appropriateness as an analog, 2) transferability of information, 3) genetic uniformity of organisms, where applicable, 4) background knowledge of biological properties, 5) cost and availability, 6) generalizability of the results, 7) ease of and adaptability to experimental manipulation, 8) ecological consequences, and 9) ethical implications.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></blockquote> Animal models can be classified as homologous, isomorphic or predictive. Animal models can also be more broadly classified into four categories: 1) experimental, 2) spontaneous, 3) negative, 4) orphan.<a href="#cite_note-pmid750165-68">[68]</a> Experimental models are most common. These refer to models of disease that resemble human conditions in phenotype or response to treatment but are induced artificially in the laboratory. Some examples include: <ul><li>The use of <a href="/wiki/Metrazol" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrazol">metrazol</a> (pentylenetetrazol) as an animal model of <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid9092952-69">[69]</a></li> <li>Induction of mechanical brain injury as an animal model of <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_epilepsy" title="Post-traumatic epilepsy">post-traumatic epilepsy</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li>Injection of the <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a> <a href="/wiki/6-hydroxydopamine" class="mw-redirect" title="6-hydroxydopamine">6-hydroxydopamine</a> to dopaminergic parts of the basal ganglia as an animal model of <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23175810-71">[71]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunisation">Immunisation</a> with an auto-<a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> to induce an <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a> to model <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune diseases">autoimmune diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Experimental_autoimmune_encephalomyelitis" title="Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis">Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17943249-72">[72]</a></li> <li>Occlusion of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_cerebral_artery" title="Middle cerebral artery">middle cerebral artery</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Animal_models_of_ischemic_stroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal models of ischemic stroke">animal model of ischemic stroke</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid12442622-73">[73]</a></li> <li>Injection of blood in the <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">mice</a> as a model for <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhagic_stroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhagic stroke">hemorrhagic stroke</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18586227-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18193028-75">[75]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Sepsis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septic_shock" title="Septic shock">septic shock</a> induction by impairing the integrity of barrier tissues, administering live <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> or <a href="/wiki/Toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxins">toxins</a><a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S-76">[76]</a></li> <li>Infecting animals with <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a> to reproduce human <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a></li> <li>Injecting animals with <a href="/wiki/Agonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Agonists">agonists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">antagonists</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> to reproduce human <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a></li> <li>Using <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> to cause <a href="/wiki/Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a></li> <li>Using gene transfer to cause <a href="/wiki/Tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumors">tumors</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li> <li>Implanting animals with <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a> to test and develop treatments using <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial selection">Genetically</a> selected (such as in <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">mice</a> also known as <a href="/wiki/NOD_mice" title="NOD mice">NOD mice</a>)<a href="#cite_note-pmid15099561-79">[79]</a></li> <li>Various animal models for <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/screening" class="extiw" title="wikt:screening">screening</a> of drugs for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a></li> <li>The use of the <a href="/wiki/Ovariectomized_rat" title="Ovariectomized rat">ovariectomized rat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a> research</li> <li>Use of <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_yoelii" title="Plasmodium yoelii">Plasmodium yoelii</a> as a model of human malaria<a href="#cite_note-pmid14702631-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16641443-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16569221-82">[82]</a></li></ul> Spontaneous models refer to diseases that are analogous to human conditions that occur naturally in the animal being studied. These models are rare, but informative. Negative models essentially refer to control animals, which are useful for validating an experimental result. Orphan models refer to diseases for which there is no human analog and occur exclusively in the species studied.<a href="#cite_note-pmid750165-68">[68]</a> The increase in knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> of non-human <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> that are genetically close to humans is allowing the production of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetically engineered</a> animal tissues, organs and even animal species which express human diseases, providing a more robust model of human diseases in an animal model. Animal models observed in the sciences of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> are often termed animal models of behavior. It is difficult to build an animal model that perfectly reproduces the <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a> of depression in patients. Depression, as other <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental disorders">mental disorders</a>, consists of <a href="/wiki/Endophenotype" title="Endophenotype">endophenotypes</a><a href="#cite_note-endophenotype-83">[83]</a> that can be reproduced independently and evaluated in animals. An ideal animal model offers an opportunity to understand <a href="/wiki/Molecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular">molecular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetic</a> factors that may lead to depression. By using animal models, the underlying molecular alterations and the causal relationship between <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">genetic</a> or environmental alterations and depression can be examined, which would afford a better insight into <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a> of depression. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Animal_models_of_depression" title="Animal models of depression">animal models of depression</a> are indispensable for identifying novel <a href="/wiki/Therapies" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapies">therapies</a> for depression.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_model_organisms">Important model organisms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Important model organisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_model_organisms" title="List of model organisms">List of model organisms</a></div> Model organisms are drawn from all three <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> of life, as well as <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. The most widely studied <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> model organism is <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> (E. coli), which has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. It is a common, <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative</a> gut bacterium which can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting. It is the most widely used organism in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>, and is an important species in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>, where it has served as the <a href="/wiki/Host_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Host organism">host organism</a> for the majority of work with <a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Simple model <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> include baker's yeast (<a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a>) and fission yeast (<a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a>), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans. For instance, many <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a> genes that are critical for the development of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> have been discovered in yeast. <a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a>, a unicellular <a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green alga</a> with well-studied genetics, is used to study <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>. C. reinhardtii has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictyostelium_discoideum" title="Dictyostelium discoideum">Dictyostelium discoideum</a> is used in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, and is studied as an example of <a href="/wiki/Cell_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell communication">cell communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">programmed cell death</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/220px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/330px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg/440px-Lightmatter_lab_mice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Laboratory mice</a>, widely used in medical research</figcaption></figure> Among invertebrates, the <a href="/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">fruit fly</a> <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a> is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> and others. They are easily raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>, few <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, and easily induced observable mutations.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_genetics-88">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a> is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. It was first proposed as a model for neuronal development by <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> in 1963, and has been extensively used in many different contexts since then.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> C. elegans was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and as of 2012, the only organism to have its <a href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">connectome</a> (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> is currently the most popular model plant. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,<a href="#cite_note-TAIR-93">[93]</a> and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.<a href="#cite_note-TAIR-93">[93]</a> A. thaliana was the first plant to have its <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequenced</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TAIR-93">[93]</a> Among <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pigs</a> (Cavia porcellus) were used by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, becoming a byword for "laboratory animal", but are less commonly used today. The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse (<a href="/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a>). Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary <a href="/wiki/Wheel-running" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheel-running">wheel-running</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The rat (<a href="/wiki/Rattus_norvegicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rattus norvegicus">Rattus norvegicus</a>) is particularly useful as a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from <a href="/wiki/Xenopus_tropicalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenopus tropicalis">Xenopus tropicalis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a> (African clawed frog) are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience.<a href="#cite_note-wallingford-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harland-96">[96]</a> Likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> (Danio rerio) has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy during this time period. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways. Other important model organisms and some of their uses include: <a href="/wiki/T4_phage" class="mw-redirect" title="T4 phage">T4 phage</a> (viral infection), <a href="/wiki/Tetrahymena_thermophila" title="Tetrahymena thermophila">Tetrahymena thermophila</a> (intracellular processes), <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (<a href="/wiki/Transposon" class="mw-redirect" title="Transposon">transposons</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydras</a> (<a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>),<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">cats</a> (neurophysiology), <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chickens</a> (development), <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dogs</a> (respiratory and cardiovascular systems), <a href="/wiki/Turquoise_killifish" class="mw-redirect" title="Turquoise killifish">Nothobranchius furzeri</a> (aging),<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> non-human primates such as the <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Ferret" title="Ferret">ferrets</a> (<a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a>)<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_model_organisms">Selected model organisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Selected model organisms">edit</a>]</div> The organisms below have become model organisms because they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility. For example, <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> was one of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic manipulation</a> has been developed. The <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> of all model species have been <a href="/wiki/Genome_sequencing_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome sequencing project">sequenced</a>, including their <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondrial</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> genomes. <a href="/wiki/Model_organism_databases" class="mw-redirect" title="Model organism databases">Model organism databases</a> exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Model Organism </th> <th>Common name </th> <th>Informal classification </th> <th>Usage (examples) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#ffdead;">Virus </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">Phi X 174</a> </td> <td>ΦX174 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> </td> <td>evolution<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#ffdead;">Prokaryotes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> </td> <td>E. coli </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td> <td>bacterial genetics, metabolism </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens" title="Pseudomonas fluorescens">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a> </td> <td>P. fluorescens </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td> <td>evolution, adaptive radiation<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6" style="background:#ffdead;">Eukaryotes, unicellular </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dictyostelium_discoideum" title="Dictyostelium discoideum">Dictyostelium discoideum</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">Amoeba</a> </td> <td>immunology, host–pathogen interactions<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a> </td> <td>Brewer's yeast Baker's yeast </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a> </td> <td>cell division, organelles, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a> </td> <td>Fission yeast </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a> </td> <td>cell cycle, cytokinesis, chromosome biology, telomeres, DNA metabolism, cytoskeleton organization, industrial applications<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a> </td> <td>hydrogen production<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrahymena_thermophila" title="Tetrahymena thermophila">Tetrahymena thermophila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrahymena_pyriformis" title="Tetrahymena pyriformis">T. pyriformis</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliate</a> </td> <td>education,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> biomedical research<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a> </td> <td>surface sea temperature<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;">Plants </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a> </td> <td>Thale cress </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a> </td> <td>population genetics<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a> </td> <td>Spreading earthmoss </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a> </td> <td>molecular farming<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Populus_trichocarpa#Use_as_a_model_organism" title="Populus trichocarpa">Populus trichocarpa</a> </td> <td>Balsam poplar </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> </td> <td>drought tolerance, lignin biosynthesis, wood formation, plant biology, morphology, genetics, and ecology<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;">Animals, nonvertebrate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a> </td> <td>Nematode, Roundworm </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">Worm</a> </td> <td>differentiation, development </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a> </td> <td>Fruit fly </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insect</a> </td> <td>developmental biology, human brain degenerative disease<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Callosobruchus_maculatus" title="Callosobruchus maculatus">Callosobruchus maculatus</a> </td> <td>Cowpea Weevil </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insect</a> </td> <td>developmental biology </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="9" style="background:#ffdead;">Animals, vertebrate </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Danio_rerio" class="mw-redirect" title="Danio rerio">Danio rerio</a> </td> <td>Zebrafish </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a> </td> <td>embryonic development </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mummichog" title="Mummichog">Fundulus heteroclitus</a> </td> <td>Mummichog </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_endocrinology" title="Behavioral endocrinology">effect of hormones on behavior</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nothobranchius_furzeri" title="Nothobranchius furzeri">Nothobranchius furzeri</a> </td> <td>Turquoise killifish </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a> </td> <td>aging, disease, evolution </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_rice_fish" title="Japanese rice fish">Oryzias latipes</a> </td> <td>Japanese rice fish </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a> </td> <td>fish biology, sex determination<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anolis_carolinensis" title="Anolis carolinensis">Anolis carolinensis</a> </td> <td>Carolina anole </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptile</a> </td> <td>reptile biology, evolution </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">Mus musculus</a> </td> <td>House mouse </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammal</a> </td> <td>disease model for humans </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallus_gallus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallus gallus">Gallus gallus</a> </td> <td>Red junglefowl </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Bird</a> </td> <td>embryological development and organogenesis </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australian_zebra_finch" title="Australian zebra finch">Taeniopygia castanotis</a> </td> <td>Australian zebra finch </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Bird</a> </td> <td>vocal learning, neurobiology<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_clawed_frog" title="Western clawed frog">Xenopus tropicalis</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> </td> <td>African clawed frog Western clawed frog </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibian</a> </td> <td>embryonic development </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Limitations">edit</a>]</div> Many animal models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such as rats and mice, may be selectively <a href="/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle" title="Sedentary lifestyle">sedentary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obese" class="mw-redirect" title="Obese">obese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glucose_intolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucose intolerance">glucose intolerant</a>. This may confound their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases as these can be affected by dietary energy intake and <a href="/wiki/Exercise" title="Exercise">exercise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Similarly, there are differences between the immune systems of model organisms and humans that lead to significantly altered responses to stimuli,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jubb-Young-Hume-122">[122]</a> although the underlying principles of genome function may be the same.<a href="#cite_note-Jubb-Young-Hume-122">[122]</a> The impoverished environments inside standard laboratory cages deny research animals of the mental and physical challenges are necessary for healthy emotional development.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Without day-to-day variety, risks and rewards, and complex environments, some have argued that animal models are irrelevant models of human experience.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some <a href="/wiki/Toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxins">toxins</a> than humans; have a lower total <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> fraction in the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, a lower <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic">enzymatic</a> capacity, lower activity of the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>, and a different set of <a href="/wiki/Pentraxins" title="Pentraxins">pentraxins</a> involved in the <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammatory process">inflammatory process</a>; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_8" title="Interleukin 8">IL-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/IL-37" class="mw-redirect" title="IL-37">IL-37</a>, <a href="/wiki/TLR10" class="mw-redirect" title="TLR10">TLR10</a>, <a href="/wiki/ICAM3" title="ICAM3">ICAM-3</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S-76">[76]</a> Laboratory mice reared in <a href="/wiki/Specific-pathogen-free" title="Specific-pathogen-free">specific-pathogen-free</a> (SPF) conditions usually have a rather immature immune system with a deficit of <a href="/wiki/Memory_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory T cells">memory T cells</a>. These mice may have limited diversity of the <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a>, which directly affects the immune system and the development of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, <a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">herpesviruses</a>) are activated in humans, but not in <a href="/wiki/Specific-pathogen-free" title="Specific-pathogen-free">SPF</a> mice, with <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">septic</a> complications and may change the resistance to bacterial <a href="/wiki/Coinfections" class="mw-redirect" title="Coinfections">coinfections</a>. “Dirty” mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human pathologies. In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">human population</a> is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, <a href="/wiki/Outbred" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbred">outbred</a>, and nonlinear mice.<a href="#cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unintended_bias">Unintended bias</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Unintended bias">edit</a>]</div> Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from <a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal, Canada</a> which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Another study in 2016 suggested that gut <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiomes</a> in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Alternatives">edit</a>]</div> Ethical concerns, as well as the cost, maintenance and relative inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of disease. Cell culture, or in vitro studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does not require the sacrifice of an animal for mechanistic studies. Human, inducible <a href="/wiki/Pluripotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotent">pluripotent</a> stem cells can[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and cell regeneration. Imaging studies (such as MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects. Recent advances in genetics and genomics can identify disease-associated genes, which can be targeted for therapies. Many biomedical researchers argue that there is no substitute for a living organism when studying complex interactions in disease pathology or treatments.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> Debate about the ethical use of animals in research dates at least as far back as 1822 when the British Parliament under pressure from British and Indian intellectuals enacted the first law for animal protection preventing cruelty to cattle.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> This was followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 and 1849, which criminalized ill-treating, over-driving, and torturing animals. In 1876, under pressure from the <a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="National Anti-Vivisection Society">National Anti-Vivisection Society</a>, the Cruelty to Animals Act was amended to include regulations governing the use of animals in research. This new act stipulated that 1) experiments must be proven absolutely necessary for instruction, or to save or prolong human life; 2) animals must be properly anesthetized; and 3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over. Today, these three principles are central to the laws and guidelines governing the use of animals and research. In the U.S., the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (see also <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Animal_Welfare_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory Animal Welfare Act">Laboratory Animal Welfare Act</a>) set standards for animal use and care in research. This law is enforced by APHIS's Animal Care program.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In academic settings in which NIH funding is used for animal research, institutions are governed by the NIH Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). At each site, OLAW guidelines and standards are upheld by a local review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All laboratory experiments involving living animals are reviewed and approved by this committee. In addition to proving the potential for benefit to human health, minimization of pain and distress, and timely and humane euthanasia, experimenters must justify their protocols based on the principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> "Replacement" refers to efforts to engage alternatives to animal use. This includes the use of computer models, non-living tissues and cells, and replacement of “higher-order” animals (primates and mammals) with “lower” order animals (e.g. cold-blooded animals, invertebrates) wherever possible.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> "Reduction" refers to efforts to minimize number of animals used during the course of an experiment, as well as prevention of unnecessary replication of previous experiments. To satisfy this requirement, mathematical calculations of statistical power are employed to determine the minimum number of animals that can be used to get a statistically significant experimental result. "Refinement" refers to efforts to make experimental design as painless and efficient as possible in order to minimize the suffering of each animal subject. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_invertebrates" title="Animal testing on invertebrates">Animal testing on invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_rodents" title="Animal testing on rodents">Animal testing on rodents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_model" title="Cellular model">Cellular model</a> (numerical), e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium" title="Mycoplasma genitalium">Mycoplasma genitalium</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a> genome database of model organisms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_Model_Organism_Database" title="Generic Model Organism Database">Generic Model Organism Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animal_testing" title="History of animal testing">History of animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">History of model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_research_on_Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="History of research on Arabidopsis thaliana">History of research</a> on <a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_research_on_Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="History of research on Caenorhabditis elegans">History of research</a> on <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouse_models_of_breast_cancer_metastasis" title="Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis">Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouse_model_of_colorectal_and_intestinal_cancer" title="Mouse model of colorectal and intestinal cancer">Mouse model of colorectal and intestinal cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RefSeq" title="RefSeq">RefSeq</a> - the Reference Sequence database</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFieldsJohnston2005" class="citation journal cs1">Fields, S.; Johnston, M (2005-03-25). "CELL BIOLOGY: Whither Model Organism Research?". Science. 307 (5717): 1885–1886. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1108872">10.1126/science.1108872</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15790833">15790833</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:82519062">82519062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=CELL+BIOLOGY%3A+Whither+Model+Organism+Research%3F&rft.volume=307&rft.issue=5717&rft.pages=1885-1886&rft.date=2005-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A82519062%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15790833&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1108872&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Johnston%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Griffiths, E. C. (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emily-griffiths.postgrad.shef.ac.uk/models.pdf">What is a model?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120312220527/http://www.emily-griffiths.postgrad.shef.ac.uk/models.pdf">Archived</a> March 12, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1986" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Michael Allen (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yTfNH3cScKAC">The Case for Animal Experimention: An Evolutionary and Ethical Perspective</a>. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05501-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05501-8"><bdi>978-0-520-05501-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11754940">11754940</a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Case+for+Animal+Experimention%3A+An+Evolutionary+and+Ethical+Perspective&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11754940&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05501-8&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Michael+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyTfNH3cScKAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllmonRoss2018" class="citation journal cs1">Allmon, Warren D.; Ross, Robert M. (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12052-017-0075-1">"Evolutionary remnants as widely accessible evidence for evolution: the structure of the argument for application to evolution education"</a>. Evolution: Education and Outreach. 11 (1): 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12052-017-0075-1">10.1186/s12052-017-0075-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29281160">29281160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution%3A+Education+and+Outreach&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+remnants+as+widely+accessible+evidence+for+evolution%3A+the+structure+of+the+argument+for+application+to+evolution+education&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12052-017-0075-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29281160%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Allmon&rft.aufirst=Warren+D.&rft.au=Ross%2C+Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs12052-017-0075-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RSM2015-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSM2015_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSM2015_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSM2015_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSM2015_5-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Society_of_Medicine2015" class="citation web cs1">Royal Society of Medicine (13 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/publications/2015/animals-in-research/">"Statement of the Royal Society's position on the use of animals in research"</a>. <q>From antibiotics and insulin to blood transfusions and treatments for cancer or HIV, virtually every medical achievement in the past century has depended directly or indirectly on research using animals, including veterinary medicine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+of+the+Royal+Society%27s+position+on+the+use+of+animals+in+research&rft.date=2015-05-13&rft.au=Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Ftopics-policy%2Fpublications%2F2015%2Fanimals-in-research%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NRCIOM-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NRCIOM_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRCIOM_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_and_Institute_of_Medicine1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> and <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzorAAAAYAAJ">Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research</a>. National Academies Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309038393" title="Special:BookSources/9780309038393"><bdi>9780309038393</bdi></a>. NAP:13195. <q>The...methods of scientific inquiry have greatly reduced the incidence of human disease and have substantially increased life expectancy. Those results have come largely through experimental methods based in part on the use of animals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Use+of+Laboratory+Animals+in+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780309038393&rft.au=National+Research+Council+and+Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzorAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nature2007-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nature2007_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nature2007_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieschkeCurrie2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lieschke, Graham J.; Currie, Peter D. (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view". Nature Reviews Genetics. 8 (5): 353–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2091">10.1038/nrg2091</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17440532">17440532</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13857842">13857842</a>. <q>Biomedical research depends on the use of animal models to understand the pathogenesis of human disease at a cellular and molecular level and to provide systems for developing and testing new therapies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Animal+models+of+human+disease%3A+zebrafish+swim+into+view&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=353-367&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13857842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17440532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2091&rft.aulast=Lieschke&rft.aufirst=Graham+J.&rft.au=Currie%2C+Peter+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NRCIOMb-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NRCIOMb_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NRCIOMb_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_and_Institute_of_Medicine1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> and <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzorAAAAYAAJ">Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research</a>. National Academies Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780309038393" title="Special:BookSources/9780309038393"><bdi>9780309038393</bdi></a>. NAP:13195. <q>Animal studies have been an essential component of every field of medical research and have been crucial for the acquisition of basic knowledge in biology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Use+of+Laboratory+Animals+in+Biomedical+and+Behavioral+Research&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780309038393&rft.au=National+Research+Council+and+Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzorAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HLAS2011-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HLAS2011_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HLAS2011_9-1">b</a> Hau and Shapiro 2011: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJann_HauSteven_J._Schapiro2011" class="citation book cs1">Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D-IHAaggi_4C">Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume I, Third Edition: Essential Principles and Practices</a>. CRC Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8456-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8456-6"><bdi>978-1-4200-8456-6</bdi></a>. <q>Animal-based research has played a key role in understanding infectious diseases, neuroscience, physiology, and toxicology. Experimental results from animal studies have served as the basis for many key biomedical breakthroughs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Laboratory+Animal+Science%2C+Volume+I%2C+Third+Edition%3A+Essential+Principles+and+Practices&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-8456-6&rft.au=Jann+Hau&rft.au=Steven+J.+Schapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD-IHAaggi_4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJann_HauSteven_J._Schapiro2011" class="citation book cs1">Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yk7TFvsFCBcC">Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume II, Third Edition: Animal Models</a>. CRC Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8458-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8458-0"><bdi>978-1-4200-8458-0</bdi></a>. <q>Most of our basic knowledge of human biochemistry, physiology, endocrinology, and pharmacology has been derived from initial studies of mechanisms in animal models.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Laboratory+Animal+Science%2C+Volume+II%2C+Third+Edition%3A+Animal+Models&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-8458-0&rft.au=Jann+Hau&rft.au=Steven+J.+Schapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyk7TFvsFCBcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-IOM1991-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IOM1991_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IOM1991_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Medicine1991" class="citation book cs1">Institute of Medicine (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencemedicinea00comm">Science, Medicine, and Animals</a>. National Academies Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencemedicinea00comm/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-56994-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-56994-1"><bdi>978-0-309-56994-1</bdi></a>. <q>...without this fundamental knowledge, most of the clinical advances described in these pages would not have occurred.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Medicine%2C+and+Animals&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-309-56994-1&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencemedicinea00comm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobelprize.org-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobelprize.org_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobelprize.org_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1933/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933"</a>. Nobel Web AB. Retrieved 2015-06-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1933&rft.pub=Nobel+Web+AB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1933%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel2-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel2_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel2_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1933/morgan-article.html">"Thomas Hunt Morgan and his Legacy"</a>. Nobel Web AB. Retrieved 2015-06-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thomas+Hunt+Morgan+and+his+Legacy&rft.pub=Nobel+Web+AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1933%2Fmorgan-article.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kandel1999-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel1999_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kandel1999_13-1">b</a> Kandel, Eric. 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Legacies/Morgan/">"Genes, Chromosomes, and the Origins of Modern Biology"</a>, Columbia Magazine </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel3-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel3_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel3_14-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1901/behring-bio.html">Bering Nobel Biography</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cannon2009-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cannon2009_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cannon2009_15-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/c/cannon.htm">Walter B. Cannon Papers, American Philosophical Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090814184304/http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/mole/c/cannon.htm">Archived</a> August 14, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-insulin-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-insulin_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insulin_16-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/study_guide/doctors/insulin.html">Discovery of Insulin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090930142937/http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts/canadian_studies/english/about/study_guide/doctors/insulin.html">Archived</a> September 30, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson2009-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson2009_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson2009_17-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dlife.com/dLife/do/ShowContent/inspiration_expert_advice/famous_people/leonard_thompson.html">Thompson bio ref</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210030429/http://www.dlife.com/dLife/do/ShowContent/inspiration_expert_advice/famous_people/leonard_thompson.html">Archived</a> 2009-02-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-raventos1956-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raventos1956_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raventos1956_18-1">b</a> Raventos J (1956) Br J Pharmacol 11, 394 </li> <li id="cite_note-carrel1912-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carrel1912_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carrel1912_19-1">b</a> Carrel A (1912) Surg. Gynec. Obst. 14: p. 246 </li> <li id="cite_note-williamson1926-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-williamson1926_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-williamson1926_20-1">b</a> Williamson C (1926) J. Urol. 16: p. 231 </li> <li id="cite_note-woodruff1986-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-woodruff1986_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-woodruff1986_21-1">b</a> Woodruff H & Burg R (1986) in Discoveries in Pharmacology vol 3, ed Parnham & Bruinvels, Elsevier, Amsterdam </li> <li id="cite_note-moore1964-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moore1964_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore1964_22-1">b</a> Moore F (1964) Give and Take: the Development of Tissue Transplantation. Saunders, New York </li> <li id="cite_note-gibbon1937-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon1937_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gibbon1937_23-1">b</a> Gibbon JH (1937) Arch. Surg. 34, 1105 </li> <li id="cite_note-rawbw-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rawbw_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rawbw_24-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.rawbw.com/~hinshaw/cgi-bin/id?1375">[1]</a> Hinshaw obituary </li> <li id="cite_note-Streptomycin-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Streptomycin_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Streptomycin_25-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/Ra-Thy/Streptomycin.html">[2]</a> Streptomycin </li> <li id="cite_note-fleming1929-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fleming1929_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fleming1929_26-1">b</a> Fleming A (1929) Br J Exp Path 10, 226 </li> <li id="cite_note-mrc1956-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mrc1956_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mrc1956_27-1">b</a> Medical Research Council (1956) Br. Med. J. 2: p. 454 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlack2013" class="citation book cs1">Slack, Jonathan M. W. (2013). Essential Developmental Biology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/785558800">785558800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Developmental+Biology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F785558800&rft.aulast=Slack&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zam-29"><a href="#cite_ref-zam_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakrabortyHsuWenLin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chakraborty, Chiranjib; Hsu, Chi; Wen, Zhi; Lin, Chang; Agoramoorthy, Govindasamy (2009-02-01). "Zebrafish: A Complete Animal Model for In Vivo Drug Discovery and Development". Current Drug Metabolism. 10 (2): 116–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F138920009787522197">10.2174/138920009787522197</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19275547">19275547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Drug+Metabolism&rft.atitle=Zebrafish%3A+A+Complete+Animal+Model+for+In+Vivo+Drug+Discovery+and+Development&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=116-124&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F138920009787522197&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19275547&rft.aulast=Chakraborty&rft.aufirst=Chiranjib&rft.au=Hsu%2C+Chi&rft.au=Wen%2C+Zhi&rft.au=Lin%2C+Chang&rft.au=Agoramoorthy%2C+Govindasamy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zrug-30"><a href="#cite_ref-zrug_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKariRodeckDicker2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kari, G; Rodeck, U; Dicker, A P (July 2007). "Zebrafish: An Emerging Model System for Human Disease and Drug Discovery". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 82 (1): 70–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.clpt.6100223">10.1038/sj.clpt.6100223</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17495877">17495877</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41443542">41443542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Pharmacology+%26+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Zebrafish%3A+An+Emerging+Model+System+for+Human+Disease+and+Drug+Discovery&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=70-80&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41443542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17495877&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.clpt.6100223&rft.aulast=Kari&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Rodeck%2C+U&rft.au=Dicker%2C+A+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-buck1904-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-buck1904_31-11">l</a> A reference handbook of the medical sciences. William Wood and Co., 1904, Edited by Albert H. Buck. </li> <li id="cite_note-pu2005-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pu2005_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pu2005_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuColemanCoismanSato2005" class="citation journal cs1">Pu, Ruiyu; Coleman, James; Coisman, James; Sato, Eiji; Tanabe, Taishi; Arai, Maki; Yamamoto, Janet K (February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10911555">"Dual-subtype FIV vaccine (Fel-O-Vax® FIV) protection against a heterologous subtype B FIV isolate"</a>. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 7 (1): 65–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfms.2004.08.005">10.1016/j.jfms.2004.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10911555">10911555</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15686976">15686976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26525327">26525327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Feline+Medicine+and+Surgery&rft.atitle=Dual-subtype+FIV+vaccine+%28Fel-O-Vax%C2%AE+FIV%29+protection+against+a+heterologous+subtype+B+FIV+isolate&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-70&rft.date=2005-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10911555%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26525327%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15686976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jfms.2004.08.005&rft.aulast=Pu&rft.aufirst=Ruiyu&rft.au=Coleman%2C+James&rft.au=Coisman%2C+James&rft.au=Sato%2C+Eiji&rft.au=Tanabe%2C+Taishi&rft.au=Arai%2C+Maki&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+Janet+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10911555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dryden2005-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dryden2005_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dryden2005_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrydenPayne2005" class="citation journal cs1">Dryden, MW; Payne, PA (2005). "Preventing parasites in cats". Veterinary Therapeutics. 6 (3): 260–7. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16299672">16299672</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Veterinary+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Preventing+parasites+in+cats&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=260-7&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16299672&rft.aulast=Dryden&rft.aufirst=MW&rft.au=Payne%2C+PA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bundle-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bundle_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bundle_34-1">b</a> Sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Michael_Conn2013" class="citation book cs1">P. Michael Conn (29 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVLVLIV8rD0C">Animal Models for the Study of Human Disease</a>. Academic Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415912-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-415912-9"><bdi>978-0-12-415912-9</bdi></a>. <q>...animal models are central to the effective study and discovery of treatments for human diseases.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Models+for+the+Study+of+Human+Disease&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2013-05-29&rft.isbn=978-0-12-415912-9&rft.au=P.+Michael+Conn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVLVLIV8rD0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieschkeCurrie2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lieschke, Graham J.; Currie, Peter D. (May 2007). "Animal models of human disease: zebrafish swim into view". Nature Reviews Genetics. 8 (5): 353–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2091">10.1038/nrg2091</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17440532">17440532</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13857842">13857842</a>. <q>Biomedical research depends on the use of animal models to understand the pathogenesis of human disease at a cellular and molecular level and to provide systems for developing and testing new therapies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=Animal+models+of+human+disease%3A+zebrafish+swim+into+view&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=353-367&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13857842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17440532&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2091&rft.aulast=Lieschke&rft.aufirst=Graham+J.&rft.au=Currie%2C+Peter+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce_K._H._ChowRobert_T._H._NgBryan_E._Ogden2008" class="citation book cs1">Pierce K. H. Chow; Robert T. H. Ng; Bryan E. Ogden (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NtWM8gD9Z2MC">Using Animal Models in Biomedical Research: A Primer for the Investigator</a>. World Scientific. pp. 1–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-281-202-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-281-202-5"><bdi>978-981-281-202-5</bdi></a>. <q>Arguments regarding whether biomedical science can advance without the use of animals are frequently mooted and make as much sense as questioning if clinical trials are necessary before new medical therapies are allowed to be widely used in the general population [pg. 1] ...animal models are likely to remain necessary until science develops alternative models and systems that are equally sound and robust [pg. 2].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Using+Animal+Models+in+Biomedical+Research%3A+A+Primer+for+the+Investigator&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-981-281-202-5&rft.au=Pierce+K.+H.+Chow&rft.au=Robert+T.+H.+Ng&rft.au=Bryan+E.+Ogden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNtWM8gD9Z2MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJann_HauSteven_J._Schapiro2011" class="citation book cs1">Jann Hau; Steven J. Schapiro (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D-IHAaggi_4C">"The contribution of laboratory animals to medical progress"</a>. Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Volume I, Third Edition: Essential Principles and Practices. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8456-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8456-6"><bdi>978-1-4200-8456-6</bdi></a>. <q>Animal models are required to connect [modern biological technologies] in order to understand whole organisms, both in healthy and diseased states. In turn, these animal studies are required for understanding and treating human disease [pg. 2] ...In many cases, though, there will be no substitute for whole-animal studies because of the involvement of multiple tissue and organ systems in both normal and aberrant physiological conditions [pg. 15].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+contribution+of+laboratory+animals+to+medical+progress&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Laboratory+Animal+Science%2C+Volume+I%2C+Third+Edition%3A+Essential+Principles+and+Practices&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-8456-6&rft.au=Jann+Hau&rft.au=Steven+J.+Schapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD-IHAaggi_4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Society_of_Medicine2023" class="citation web cs1">Royal Society of Medicine (24 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/about-us/what-we-do/supporting-researchers/animal-testing/">"Statement of the Royal Society's position on the use of animals in research"</a>. <q>At present the use of animals remains the only way for some areas of research to progress.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+of+the+Royal+Society%27s+position+on+the+use+of+animals+in+research&rft.date=2023-05-24&rft.au=Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fabout-us%2Fwhat-we-do%2Fsupporting-researchers%2Fanimal-testing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-geula1998-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-geula1998_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-geula1998_35-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuelaWuSaroffLorenzo1998" class="citation journal cs1">Guela, Changiz; Wu, Chuang-Kuo; Saroff, Daniel; Lorenzo, Alfredo; Yuan, Menglan; Yankner, Bruce A. (July 1998). "Aging renders the brain vulnerable to amyloid β-protein neurotoxicity". Nature Medicine. 4 (7): 827–831. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm0798-827">10.1038/nm0798-827</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9662375">9662375</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45108486">45108486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Aging+renders+the+brain+vulnerable+to+amyloid+%CE%B2-protein+neurotoxicity&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=827-831&rft.date=1998-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45108486%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9662375&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm0798-827&rft.aulast=Guela&rft.aufirst=Changiz&rft.au=Wu%2C+Chuang-Kuo&rft.au=Saroff%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Lorenzo%2C+Alfredo&rft.au=Yuan%2C+Menglan&rft.au=Yankner%2C+Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AIDS2005-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AIDS2005_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AIDS2005_36-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aidsreviews.com/files/2005_7_2_67_83.pdf">AIDS Reviews 2005;7:67-83 Antiretroviral Drug Studies in Nonhuman Primates: a Valid Animal Model for Innovative Drug Efficacy and Pathogenesis Experiments</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217131711/http://www.aidsreviews.com/files/2005_7_2_67_83.pdf">Archived</a> December 17, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jameson1994-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jameson1994_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jameson1994_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesonMcDonnellMariniKorngold1994" class="citation journal cs1">Jameson, Bradford A.; McDonnell, James M.; Marini, Joseph C.; Korngold, Robert (April 1994). "A rationally designed CD4 analogue inhibits experimental allergic encephalomyelitis". Nature. 368 (6473): 744–746. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Natur.368..744J">1994Natur.368..744J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F368744a0">10.1038/368744a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8152486">8152486</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4370797">4370797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+rationally+designed+CD4+analogue+inhibits+experimental+allergic+encephalomyelitis&rft.volume=368&rft.issue=6473&rft.pages=744-746&rft.date=1994-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F368744a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4370797%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8152486&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Natur.368..744J&rft.aulast=Jameson&rft.aufirst=Bradford+A.&rft.au=McDonnell%2C+James+M.&rft.au=Marini%2C+Joseph+C.&rft.au=Korngold%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lyuksyutova1984-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lyuksyutova1984_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lyuksyutova1984_38-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyuksyutovaLu_C-CMilanesioKing2003" class="citation journal cs1">Lyuksyutova, AL; Lu C-C, Milanesio N; Milanesio, N; King, LA; Guo, N; Wang, Y; Nathans, J; Tessier-Lavigne, M; et al. (2003). "Anterior-posterior guidance of commissural axons by Wnt-Frizzled signaling". Science. 302 (5652): 1984–8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Sci...302.1984L">2003Sci...302.1984L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1089610">10.1126/science.1089610</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14671310">14671310</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39309990">39309990</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Anterior-posterior+guidance+of+commissural+axons+by+Wnt-Frizzled+signaling&rft.volume=302&rft.issue=5652&rft.pages=1984-8&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1089610&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39309990%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14671310&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Sci...302.1984L&rft.aulast=Lyuksyutova&rft.aufirst=AL&rft.au=Lu+C-C%2C+Milanesio+N&rft.au=Milanesio%2C+N&rft.au=King%2C+LA&rft.au=Guo%2C+N&rft.au=Wang%2C+Y&rft.au=Nathans%2C+J&rft.au=Tessier-Lavigne%2C+M&rft.au=Zou%2C+Y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hedrich-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hedrich_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hedrich_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHedrich,_Hans2004" class="citation book cs1">Hedrich, Hans, ed. (2004-08-21). "The house mouse as a laboratory model: a historical perspective". The Laboratory Mouse. Elsevier Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080542539" title="Special:BookSources/9780080542539"><bdi>9780080542539</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+house+mouse+as+a+laboratory+model%3A+a+historical+perspective&rft.btitle=The+Laboratory+Mouse&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2004-08-21&rft.isbn=9780080542539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGradaMervisFalanga2018" class="citation journal cs1">Grada, Ayman; Mervis, Joshua; Falanga, Vincent (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005">"Research Techniques Made Simple: Animal Models of Wound Healing"</a>. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 138 (10): 2095–2105.e1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005">10.1016/j.jid.2018.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30244718">30244718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Investigative+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Research+Techniques+Made+Simple%3A+Animal+Models+of+Wound+Healing&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2095-2105.e1&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30244718&rft.aulast=Grada&rft.aufirst=Ayman&rft.au=Mervis%2C+Joshua&rft.au=Falanga%2C+Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jid.2018.08.005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141013041340/http://academic.uprm.edu/~ephoebus/id85.htm">"Pinel Chapter 6 - Human Brain Damage & Animal Models"</a>. Academic.uprm.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.uprm.edu/~ephoebus/id85.htm">the original</a> on 2014-10-13. Retrieved 2014-01-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pinel+Chapter+6+-+Human+Brain+Damage+%26+Animal+Models&rft.pub=Academic.uprm.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.uprm.edu%2F~ephoebus%2Fid85.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Cohen BJ, Loew FM. (1984) Laboratory Animal Medicine: Historical Perspectives in Laboratory Animal Medicine Academic Press, Inc: Orlando, FL, USA; Fox JG, Cohen BJ, Loew FM (eds) </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid11544370-43"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid11544370_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMockFouet2001" class="citation journal cs1">Mock M, Fouet A (2001). "Anthrax". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 55: 647–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.55.1.647">10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.647</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11544370">11544370</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annu.+Rev.+Microbiol.&rft.atitle=Anthrax&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=647-71&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.micro.55.1.647&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11544370&rft.aulast=Mock&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Fouet%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Kohler, Lords of the Fly, chapter 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Steensma-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Steensma_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteensmaKyle_Robert_A.Shampo_Marc_A.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Steensma, David P.; Kyle Robert A.; Shampo Marc A. (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2966381">"Abbie Lathrop, the "Mouse Woman of Granby": Rodent Fancier and Accidental Genetics Pioneer"</a>. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 85 (11): e83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4065%2Fmcp.2010.0647">10.4065/mcp.2010.0647</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2966381">2966381</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21061734">21061734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic+Proceedings&rft.atitle=Abbie+Lathrop%2C+the+%22Mouse+Woman+of+Granby%22%3A+Rodent+Fancier+and+Accidental+Genetics+Pioneer&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e83&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2966381%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21061734&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4065%2Fmcp.2010.0647&rft.aulast=Steensma&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft.au=Kyle+Robert+A.&rft.au=Shampo+Marc+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2966381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillai" class="citation web cs1">Pillai, Shiv. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131220022416/https://immunology.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history">"History of Immunology at Harvard"</a>. Harvard Medical School:About us. Harvard Medical School. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://immunology.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history">the original</a> on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Medical+School%3AAbout+us&rft.atitle=History+of+Immunology+at+Harvard&rft.aulast=Pillai&rft.aufirst=Shiv&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimmunology.hms.harvard.edu%2Fabout-us%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A130374b.htm">[3]</a> John Cade and Lithium </li> <li id="cite_note-whalen2005-48"><a href="#cite_ref-whalen2005_48-0">^</a> Whalen FX, Bacon DR & Smith HM (2005) Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 19, 323 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100311191427/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05093/481117.stm">"Developing a medical milestone: The Salk polio vaccine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05093/481117.stm">the original</a> on 2010-03-11. Retrieved 2015-06-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Developing+a+medical+milestone%3A+The+Salk+polio+vaccine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Fpg%2F05093%2F481117.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> Virus-typing of polio by Salk </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905022100/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05094/482468.stm">"Tireless polio research effort bears fruit and indignation"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05094/482468.stm">the original</a> on 2008-09-05. Retrieved 2008-08-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tireless+polio+research+effort+bears+fruit+and+indignation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Fpg%2F05094%2F482468.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> Salk polio virus </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/polio/virusvaccine/vacraces2.htm">[4]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604021151/http://americanhistory.si.edu/polio/virusvaccine/vacraces2.htm">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> History of polio vaccine </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animalresearch.info/en/resources/163/-the-work-on-polio-prevention-was-long-dela/">"the work on [polio] prevention was long delayed by... misleading experimental models of the disease in monkeys" | ari.info</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebody.com/cdc/tb165.html">PMPA blocks SIV in monkeys</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebody.com/bp/dec99/medical.html">PMPA is tenofovir</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020803.html">What are model organisms?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061028072001/http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020803.html">Archived</a> October 28, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nih.gov/science/models/">NIH model organisms</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070822041956/http://www.nih.gov/science/models/">Archived</a> August 22, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leica-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Leica_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leica-microsystems.com/applications/life-science/model-organisms-in-research/#:~:text=Model%20organisms%20are%20typically%20chosen,%2C%20organ%2C%20and%20system%20level.">"Model Organisms in Research"</a>. Leica Microsystems. Retrieved 13 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Leica+Microsystems&rft.atitle=Model+Organisms+in+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.leica-microsystems.com%2Fapplications%2Flife-science%2Fmodel-organisms-in-research%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DModel%2520organisms%2520are%2520typically%2520chosen%2C%252C%2520organ%252C%2520and%2520system%2520level.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHedges2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hedges, S. Blair (November 2002). "The origin and evolution of model organisms". Nature Reviews Genetics. 3 (11): 838–849. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg929">10.1038/nrg929</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12415314">12415314</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10956647">10956647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+origin+and+evolution+of+model+organisms&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=838-849&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10956647%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12415314&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg929&rft.aulast=Hedges&rft.aufirst=S.+Blair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBejeranoPheasantMakuninStephen2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bejerano, G.; Pheasant, M.; Makunin, I.; Stephen, S.; Kent, W. J.; Mattick, J. S.; Haussler, D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bx.psu.edu/~ross/ComparGeno/BejeranoUCEsSci.pdf">"Ultraconserved Elements in the Human Genome"</a> (PDF). Science. 304 (5675): 1321–1325. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sci...304.1321B">2004Sci...304.1321B</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.380.9305">10.1.1.380.9305</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1098119">10.1126/science.1098119</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15131266">15131266</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2790337">2790337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ultraconserved+Elements+in+the+Human+Genome&rft.volume=304&rft.issue=5675&rft.pages=1321-1325&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2790337%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Sci...304.1321B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.380.9305%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15131266&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1098119&rft.aulast=Bejerano&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Pheasant%2C+M.&rft.au=Makunin%2C+I.&rft.au=Stephen%2C+S.&rft.au=Kent%2C+W.+J.&rft.au=Mattick%2C+J.+S.&rft.au=Haussler%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bx.psu.edu%2F~ross%2FComparGeno%2FBejeranoUCEsSci.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chinwalla2002-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chinwalla2002_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chinwalla2002_60-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChinwallaWaterstonLindblad-TohBirney2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chinwalla, A. T.; Waterston, L. L.; Lindblad-Toh, K. D.; Birney, G. A.; Rogers, L. A.; Abril, R. S.; Agarwal, T. A.; Agarwala, L. W.; Ainscough, E. R.; Alexandersson, J. D.; An, T. L.; Antonarakis, W. E.; Attwood, J. O.; Baertsch, M. N.; Bailey, K. H.; Barlow, C. S.; Beck, T. C.; Berry, B.; Birren, J.; Bloom, E.; Bork, R. H.; Botcherby, M. C.; Bray, R. K.; Brent, S. P.; Brown, P.; Brown, E.; Bult, B.; Burton, T.; Butler, D. G.; et al. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01262">"Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome"</a>. Nature. 420 (6915): 520–562. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.420..520W">2002Natur.420..520W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01262">10.1038/nature01262</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12466850">12466850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Initial+sequencing+and+comparative+analysis+of+the+mouse+genome&rft.volume=420&rft.issue=6915&rft.pages=520-562&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12466850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01262&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.420..520W&rft.aulast=Chinwalla&rft.aufirst=A.+T.&rft.au=Waterston%2C+L.+L.&rft.au=Lindblad-Toh%2C+K.+D.&rft.au=Birney%2C+G.+A.&rft.au=Rogers%2C+L.+A.&rft.au=Abril%2C+R.+S.&rft.au=Agarwal%2C+T.+A.&rft.au=Agarwala%2C+L.+W.&rft.au=Ainscough%2C+E.+R.&rft.au=Alexandersson%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=An%2C+T.+L.&rft.au=Antonarakis%2C+W.+E.&rft.au=Attwood%2C+J.+O.&rft.au=Baertsch%2C+M.+N.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+K.+H.&rft.au=Barlow%2C+C.+S.&rft.au=Beck%2C+T.+C.&rft.au=Berry%2C+B.&rft.au=Birren%2C+J.&rft.au=Bloom%2C+E.&rft.au=Bork%2C+R.+H.&rft.au=Botcherby%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=Bray%2C+R.+K.&rft.au=Brent%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Brown%2C+P.&rft.au=Brown%2C+E.&rft.au=Bult%2C+B.&rft.au=Burton%2C+T.&rft.au=Butler%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature01262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehrer-SawatzkiCooper2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kehrer-Sawatzki, H.; Cooper, D. N. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhumu.20420">"Understanding the recent evolution of the human genome: Insights from human-chimpanzee genome comparisons"</a>. Human Mutation. 28 (2): 99–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhumu.20420">10.1002/humu.20420</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17024666">17024666</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42037159">42037159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Mutation&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+recent+evolution+of+the+human+genome%3A+Insights+from+human-chimpanzee+genome+comparisons&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-130&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42037159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17024666&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhumu.20420&rft.aulast=Kehrer-Sawatzki&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+D.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fhumu.20420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehrer-SawatzkiCooper2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kehrer-Sawatzki, Hildegard; Cooper, David N. (2007-01-18). "Structural divergence between the human and chimpanzee genomes". Human Genetics. 120 (6): 759–778. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-006-0270-6">10.1007/s00439-006-0270-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17066299">17066299</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6484568">6484568</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Structural+divergence+between+the+human+and+chimpanzee+genomes&rft.volume=120&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=759-778&rft.date=2007-01-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6484568%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17066299&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00439-006-0270-6&rft.aulast=Kehrer-Sawatzki&rft.aufirst=Hildegard&rft.au=Cooper%2C+David+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrüferMunchHellmannAkagi2012" class="citation journal cs1">Prüfer, K.; Munch, K.; Hellmann, I.; Akagi, K.; Miller, J. R.; Walenz, B.; Koren, S.; Sutton, G.; Kodira, C.; Winer, R.; Knight, J. R.; Mullikin, J. C.; Meader, S. J.; Ponting, C. P.; Lunter, G.; Higashino, S.; Hobolth, A.; Dutheil, J.; Karakoç, E.; Alkan, C.; Sajjadian, S.; Catacchio, C. R.; Ventura, M.; Marques-Bonet, T.; Eichler, E. E.; André, C.; Atencia, R.; Mugisha, L.; Junhold, J. R.; Patterson, N. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3498939">"The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes"</a>. Nature. 486 (7404): 527–531. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.486..527P">2012Natur.486..527P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11128">10.1038/nature11128</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3498939">3498939</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22722832">22722832</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+bonobo+genome+compared+with+the+chimpanzee+and+human+genomes&rft.volume=486&rft.issue=7404&rft.pages=527-531&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3498939%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22722832&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature11128&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Natur.486..527P&rft.aulast=Pr%C3%BCfer&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Munch%2C+K.&rft.au=Hellmann%2C+I.&rft.au=Akagi%2C+K.&rft.au=Miller%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Walenz%2C+B.&rft.au=Koren%2C+S.&rft.au=Sutton%2C+G.&rft.au=Kodira%2C+C.&rft.au=Winer%2C+R.&rft.au=Knight%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Mullikin%2C+J.+C.&rft.au=Meader%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Ponting%2C+C.+P.&rft.au=Lunter%2C+G.&rft.au=Higashino%2C+S.&rft.au=Hobolth%2C+A.&rft.au=Dutheil%2C+J.&rft.au=Karako%C3%A7%2C+E.&rft.au=Alkan%2C+C.&rft.au=Sajjadian%2C+S.&rft.au=Catacchio%2C+C.+R.&rft.au=Ventura%2C+M.&rft.au=Marques-Bonet%2C+T.&rft.au=Eichler%2C+E.+E.&rft.au=Andr%C3%A9%2C+C.&rft.au=Atencia%2C+R.&rft.au=Mugisha%2C+L.&rft.au=Junhold%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Patterson%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3498939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGradaMervisFalanga2018" class="citation journal cs1">Grada, Ayman; Mervis, Joshua; Falanga, Vincent (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005">"Research Techniques Made Simple: Animal Models of Wound Healing"</a>. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 138 (10): 2095–2105.e1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005">10.1016/j.jid.2018.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30244718">30244718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Investigative+Dermatology&rft.atitle=Research+Techniques+Made+Simple%3A+Animal+Models+of+Wound+Healing&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2095-2105.e1&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jid.2018.08.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30244718&rft.aulast=Grada&rft.aufirst=Ayman&rft.au=Mervis%2C+Joshua&rft.au=Falanga%2C+Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jid.2018.08.005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuinaMillerKeeney2014" class="citation journal cs1">Duina, Andrea A.; Miller, Mary E.; Keeney, Jill B. (May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4012490">"Budding Yeast for Budding Geneticists: A Primer on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model System"</a>. Genetics. 197 (1): 33–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1534%2Fgenetics.114.163188">10.1534/genetics.114.163188</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-6731">0016-6731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4012490">4012490</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24807111">24807111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Budding+Yeast+for+Budding+Geneticists%3A+A+Primer+on+the+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae+Model+System&rft.volume=197&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-48&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4012490%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0016-6731&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24807111&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1534%2Fgenetics.114.163188&rft.aulast=Duina&rft.aufirst=Andrea+A.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary+E.&rft.au=Keeney%2C+Jill+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4012490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsonBettonRobinsonThomas2000" class="citation journal cs1">Olson, Harry; Betton, Graham; Robinson, Denise; Thomas, Karluss; Monro, Alastair; Kolaja, Gerald; Lilly, Patrick; Sanders, James; Sipes, Glenn; Bracken, William; Dorato, Michael; Van Deun, Koen; Smith, Peter; Berger, Bruce; Heller, Allen (August 2000). "Concordance of the Toxicity of Pharmaceuticals in Humans and in Animals". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 32 (1): 56–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Frtph.2000.1399">10.1006/rtph.2000.1399</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11029269">11029269</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17158127">17158127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Regulatory+Toxicology+and+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Concordance+of+the+Toxicity+of+Pharmaceuticals+in+Humans+and+in+Animals&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-67&rft.date=2000-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17158127%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11029269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Frtph.2000.1399&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft.au=Betton%2C+Graham&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Denise&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Karluss&rft.au=Monro%2C+Alastair&rft.au=Kolaja%2C+Gerald&rft.au=Lilly%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Sanders%2C+James&rft.au=Sipes%2C+Glenn&rft.au=Bracken%2C+William&rft.au=Dorato%2C+Michael&rft.au=Van+Deun%2C+Koen&rft.au=Smith%2C+Peter&rft.au=Berger%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Heller%2C+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidsonLindseyDavis1987" class="citation journal cs1">Davidson, M. K.; Lindsey, J. R.; Davis, J. K. (1987). "Requirements and selection of an animal model". Israel Journal of Medical Sciences. 23 (6): 551–555. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3312096">3312096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Journal+of+Medical+Sciences&rft.atitle=Requirements+and+selection+of+an+animal+model&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=551-555&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3312096&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=M.+K.&rft.au=Lindsey%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Davis%2C+J.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid750165-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid750165_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid750165_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughesLang1978" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, H. C.; Lang, C. (1978). "Basic Principles in Selecting Animal Species for Research Projects". Clinical Toxicology. 13 (5): 611–621. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F15563657808988266">10.3109/15563657808988266</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/750165">750165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Toxicology&rft.atitle=Basic+Principles+in+Selecting+Animal+Species+for+Research+Projects&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=611-621&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F15563657808988266&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F750165&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=H.+C.&rft.au=Lang%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid9092952-69"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid9092952_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite_HS1997" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">White HS (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x">"Clinical significance of animal seizure models and mechanism of action studies of potential antiepileptic drugs"</a>. Epilepsia. 38 Suppl 1 (s1): S9–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x">10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9092952">9092952</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46126941">46126941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Epilepsia&rft.atitle=Clinical+significance+of+animal+seizure+models+and+mechanism+of+action+studies+of+potential+antiepileptic+drugs&rft.volume=38+Suppl+1&rft.issue=s1&rft.pages=S9-17&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46126941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9092952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x&rft.au=White+HS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1528-1157.1997.tb04523.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlushakovGlushakovaDoréCarney2016" class="citation book cs1">Glushakov, Alexander V.; Glushakova, Olena Y.; Doré, Sylvain; Carney, Paul R.; Hayes, Ronald L. (2016). "Animal Models of Posttraumatic Seizures and Epilepsy". Injury Models of the Central Nervous System. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1462. pp. 481–519. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4939-3816-2_27">10.1007/978-1-4939-3816-2_27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-3814-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-3814-8"><bdi>978-1-4939-3814-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6036905">6036905</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27604735">27604735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animal+Models+of+Posttraumatic+Seizures+and+Epilepsy&rft.btitle=Injury+Models+of+the+Central+Nervous+System&rft.series=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=481-519&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6036905%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27604735&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4939-3816-2_27&rft.isbn=978-1-4939-3814-8&rft.aulast=Glushakov&rft.aufirst=Alexander+V.&rft.au=Glushakova%2C+Olena+Y.&rft.au=Dor%C3%A9%2C+Sylvain&rft.au=Carney%2C+Paul+R.&rft.au=Hayes%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23175810-71"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23175810_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaljeTamtèRichterMohammed2012" class="citation journal cs1">Halje P, Tamtè M, Richter U, Mohammed M, Cenci MA, Petersson P (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6621755">"Levodopa-induced dyskinesia is strongly associated with resonant cortical oscillations"</a>. Journal of Neuroscience. 32 (47): 16541–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6621755">6621755</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23175810">23175810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Levodopa-induced+dyskinesia+is+strongly+associated+with+resonant+cortical+oscillations.&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=16541-51&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6621755%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23175810&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.3047-12.2012&rft.aulast=Halje&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Tamt%C3%A8%2C+M&rft.au=Richter%2C+U&rft.au=Mohammed%2C+M&rft.au=Cenci%2C+MA&rft.au=Petersson%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6621755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17943249-72"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17943249_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolton2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bolton, C. (October 2007). "The translation of drug efficacy from in vivo models to human disease with special reference to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis". Inflammopharmacology. 15 (5): 183–187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10787-007-1607-z">10.1007/s10787-007-1607-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17943249">17943249</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8366509">8366509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inflammopharmacology&rft.atitle=The+translation+of+drug+efficacy+from+in+vivo+models+to+human+disease+with+special+reference+to+experimental+autoimmune+encephalomyelitis+and+multiple+sclerosis&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=183-187&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8366509%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17943249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10787-007-1607-z&rft.aulast=Bolton&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid12442622-73"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid12442622_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLekerConstantini2002" class="citation book cs1">Leker, R. R.; Constantini, S. (2002). "Experimental Models in Focal Cerebral Ischemia: Are we there yet?". Research and Publishing in Neurosurgery. Acta Neurochirurgica. Supplement. Vol. 83. pp. 55–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-7091-6743-4_10">10.1007/978-3-7091-6743-4_10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-7399-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7091-7399-2"><bdi>978-3-7091-7399-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12442622">12442622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Experimental+Models+in+Focal+Cerebral+Ischemia%3A+Are+we+there+yet%3F&rft.btitle=Research+and+Publishing+in+Neurosurgery&rft.series=Acta+Neurochirurgica.+Supplement&rft.pages=55-59&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12442622&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-7091-6743-4_10&rft.isbn=978-3-7091-7399-2&rft.aulast=Leker&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rft.au=Constantini%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid18586227-74"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid18586227_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangFieldsDoré2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wang J, Fields J, Doré S (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725309">"The development of an improved preclinical mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage using double infusion of autologous whole blood"</a>. Brain Res. 1222: 214–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainres.2008.05.058">10.1016/j.brainres.2008.05.058</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725309">4725309</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18586227">18586227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Res&rft.atitle=The+development+of+an+improved+preclinical+mouse+model+of+intracerebral+hemorrhage+using+double+infusion+of+autologous+whole+blood&rft.volume=1222&rft.pages=214-21&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4725309%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18586227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainres.2008.05.058&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Fields%2C+J&rft.au=Dor%C3%A9%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4725309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid18193028-75"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid18193028_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRynkowskiKimKomotarOtten2008" class="citation journal cs1">Rynkowski, Michal A; Kim, Grace H; Komotar, Ricardo J; Otten, Marc L; Ducruet, Andrew F; Zacharia, Brad E; Kellner, Christopher P; Hahn, David K; Merkow, Maxwell B; Garrett, Matthew C; Starke, Robert M; Cho, Byung-Moon; Sosunov, Sergei A; Connolly, E Sander (January 2008). "A mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage using autologous blood infusion". Nature Protocols. 3 (1): 122–128. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.513">10.1038/nprot.2007.513</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18193028">18193028</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22553744">22553744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Protocols&rft.atitle=A+mouse+model+of+intracerebral+hemorrhage+using+autologous+blood+infusion&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=122-128&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22553744%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18193028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.513&rft.aulast=Rynkowski&rft.aufirst=Michal+A&rft.au=Kim%2C+Grace+H&rft.au=Komotar%2C+Ricardo+J&rft.au=Otten%2C+Marc+L&rft.au=Ducruet%2C+Andrew+F&rft.au=Zacharia%2C+Brad+E&rft.au=Kellner%2C+Christopher+P&rft.au=Hahn%2C+David+K&rft.au=Merkow%2C+Maxwell+B&rft.au=Garrett%2C+Matthew+C&rft.au=Starke%2C+Robert+M&rft.au=Cho%2C+Byung-Moon&rft.au=Sosunov%2C+Sergei+A&rft.au=Connolly%2C+E+Sander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S_76-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mouse_Models_of_Sepsis_and_Septic_S_76-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorneev2019" class="citation journal cs1">Korneev, K. V. (18 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0026893319050108">"Mouse Models of Sepsis and Septic Shock"</a>. Molecular Biology. 53 (5): 704–717. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0026893319050108">10.1134/S0026893319050108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31661479">31661479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Mouse+Models+of+Sepsis+and+Septic+Shock&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=704-717&rft.date=2019-10-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0026893319050108&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31661479&rft.aulast=Korneev&rft.aufirst=K.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1134%252FS0026893319050108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEiblKleihuesJatWiestler1994" class="citation journal cs1">Eibl RH, Kleihues P, Jat PS, Wiestler OD (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1887088">"A model for primitive neuroectodermal tumors in transgenic neural transplants harboring the SV40 large T antigen"</a>. Am J Pathol. 144 (3): 556–564. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1887088">1887088</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8129041">8129041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Pathol&rft.atitle=A+model+for+primitive+neuroectodermal+tumors+in+transgenic+neural+transplants+harboring+the+SV40+large+T+antigen&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=556-564&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1887088%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8129041&rft.aulast=Eibl&rft.aufirst=RH&rft.au=Kleihues%2C+P&rft.au=Jat%2C+PS&rft.au=Wiestler%2C+OD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1887088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadnerEl-ShabrawiEiblBrüstle1993" class="citation journal cs1">Radner H, El-Shabrawi Y, Eibl RH, Brüstle O, Kenner L, Kleihues P, Wiestler OD (1993). "Tumor induction by ras and myc oncogenes in fetal and neonatal brain: modulating effects of developmental stage and retroviral dose". Acta Neuropathologica. 86 (5): 456–465. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00228580">10.1007/bf00228580</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8310796">8310796</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2972931">2972931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Neuropathologica&rft.atitle=Tumor+induction+by+ras+and+myc+oncogenes+in+fetal+and+neonatal+brain%3A+modulating+effects+of+developmental+stage+and+retroviral+dose&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=456-465&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2972931%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8310796&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00228580&rft.aulast=Radner&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=El-Shabrawi%2C+Y&rft.au=Eibl%2C+RH&rft.au=Br%C3%BCstle%2C+O&rft.au=Kenner%2C+L&rft.au=Kleihues%2C+P&rft.au=Wiestler%2C+OD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid15099561-79"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid15099561_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomo-DelarcheDrexhage2004" class="citation journal cs1">Homo-Delarche F, Drexhage HA (2004). "Immune cells, pancreas development, regeneration and type 1 diabetes". Trends Immunol. 25 (5): 222–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.it.2004.02.012">10.1016/j.it.2004.02.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15099561">15099561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Immunol.&rft.atitle=Immune+cells%2C+pancreas+development%2C+regeneration+and+type+1+diabetes&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=222-9&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.it.2004.02.012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15099561&rft.aulast=Homo-Delarche&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Drexhage%2C+HA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid14702631-80"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid14702631_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHisaedaMaekawaIwakawaOkada2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hisaeda, Hajime; Maekawa, Yoichi; Iwakawa, Daiji; Okada, Hiroko; Himeno, Kunisuke; Kishihara, Kenji; Tsukumo, Shin-ichi; Yasutomo, Koji (January 2004). "Escape of malaria parasites from host immunity requires CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells". Nature Medicine. 10 (1): 29–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm975">10.1038/nm975</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14702631">14702631</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2111178">2111178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Escape+of+malaria+parasites+from+host+immunity+requires+CD4%2BCD25%2B+regulatory+T+cells&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-30&rft.date=2004-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2111178%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14702631&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm975&rft.aulast=Hisaeda&rft.aufirst=Hajime&rft.au=Maekawa%2C+Yoichi&rft.au=Iwakawa%2C+Daiji&rft.au=Okada%2C+Hiroko&rft.au=Himeno%2C+Kunisuke&rft.au=Kishihara%2C+Kenji&rft.au=Tsukumo%2C+Shin-ichi&rft.au=Yasutomo%2C+Koji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16641443-81"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16641443_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoppiCabinianMirelmanSinnis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Coppi A, Cabinian M, Mirelman D, Sinnis P (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472199">"Antimalarial activity of allicin, a biologically active compound from garlic cloves"</a>. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50 (5): 1731–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.50.5.1731-1737.2006">10.1128/AAC.50.5.1731-1737.2006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472199">1472199</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16641443">16641443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrob.+Agents+Chemother.&rft.atitle=Antimalarial+activity+of+allicin%2C+a+biologically+active+compound+from+garlic+cloves&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1731-7&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472199%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16641443&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAAC.50.5.1731-1737.2006&rft.aulast=Coppi&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Cabinian%2C+M&rft.au=Mirelman%2C+D&rft.au=Sinnis%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1472199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16569221-82"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16569221_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrischknechtMartinThieryBourgouin2006" class="citation journal cs1">Frischknecht F, Martin B, Thiery I, Bourgouin C, Menard R (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1450296">"Using green fluorescent malaria parasites to screen for permissive vector mosquitoes"</a>. Malar. J. 5 (1): 23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1475-2875-5-23">10.1186/1475-2875-5-23</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1450296">1450296</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16569221">16569221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Malar.+J.&rft.atitle=Using+green+fluorescent+malaria+parasites+to+screen+for+permissive+vector+mosquitoes&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1450296%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16569221&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1475-2875-5-23&rft.aulast=Frischknecht&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Martin%2C+B&rft.au=Thiery%2C+I&rft.au=Bourgouin%2C+C&rft.au=Menard%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1450296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-endophenotype-83"><a href="#cite_ref-endophenotype_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasler2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hasler, G. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.npp.1300506">"Discovering endophenotypes for major depression"</a>. Neuropsychopharmacology. 29 (10): 1765–1781. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.npp.1300506">10.1038/sj.npp.1300506</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15213704">15213704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Discovering+endophenotypes+for+major+depression&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1765-1781&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.npp.1300506&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15213704&rft.aulast=Hasler&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.npp.1300506&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnanNestler2011" class="citation book cs1">Krishnan, Vaishnav; Nestler, Eric J. (2011). "Animal Models of Depression: Molecular Perspectives". Molecular and Functional Models in Neuropsychiatry. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 7. pp. 121–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F7854_2010_108">10.1007/7854_2010_108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-19702-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-19702-4"><bdi>978-3-642-19702-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3270071">3270071</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21225412">21225412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animal+Models+of+Depression%3A+Molecular+Perspectives&rft.btitle=Molecular+and+Functional+Models+in+Neuropsychiatry&rft.series=Current+Topics+in+Behavioral+Neurosciences&rft.pages=121-147&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3270071%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21225412&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F7854_2010_108&rft.isbn=978-3-642-19702-4&rft.aulast=Krishnan&rft.aufirst=Vaishnav&rft.au=Nestler%2C+Eric+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangTimberlakePrallDwivedi2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Qingzhong; Timberlake, Matthew A.; Prall, Kevin; Dwivedi, Yogesh (July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5605906">"The recent progress in animal models of depression"</a>. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 77: 99–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pnpbp.2017.04.008">10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5605906">5605906</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28396255">28396255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Neuro-Psychopharmacology+and+Biological+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+recent+progress+in+animal+models+of+depression&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=99-109&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5605906%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28396255&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pnpbp.2017.04.008&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Qingzhong&rft.au=Timberlake%2C+Matthew+A.&rft.au=Prall%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Dwivedi%2C+Yogesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5605906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140227212658/http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria">"Bacteria"</a>. Microbiologyonline. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria">the original</a> on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bacteria&rft.pub=Microbiologyonline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microbiologyonline.org.uk%2Fabout-microbiology%2Fintroducing-microbes%2Fbacteria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080723150730/http://genome.jgi-psf.org/chlamy/">"Chlamydomonas reinhardtii resources at the Joint Genome Institute"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genome.jgi-psf.org/chlamy">the original</a> on 2008-07-23. Retrieved 2007-10-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chlamydomonas+reinhardtii+resources+at+the+Joint+Genome+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgenome.jgi-psf.org%2Fchlamy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_genetics-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_genetics_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_H._Sang2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">James H. Sang (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JjLWYKqehRsC&q=drosophila+eggs+day+lifetime&pg=PA157">"Drosophila melanogaster: The Fruit Fly"</a>. In Eric C. R. Reeve (ed.). Encyclopedia of genetics. USA: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, I. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-34-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-34-3"><bdi>978-1-884964-34-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2009-07-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Drosophila+melanogaster%3A+The+Fruit+Fly&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+genetics&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn+Publishers%2C+I&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-34-3&rft.au=James+H.+Sang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJjLWYKqehRsC%26q%3Ddrosophila%2Beggs%2Bday%2Blifetime%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiddle,_Donald_L.1997" class="citation book cs1">Riddle, Donald L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=ce2.TOC">C. elegans II</a>. Plainview, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-532-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-532-3"><bdi>978-0-87969-532-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=C.+elegans+II&rft.place=Plainview%2C+N.Y&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-87969-532-3&rft.au=Riddle%2C+Donald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Fcall%3Dbv.View..ShowTOC%26rid%3Dce2.TOC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner1974" class="citation journal cs1">Brenner, S (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1213120">"The Genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Genetics_(journal)" title="Genetics (journal)">Genetics</a>. 77 (1): 71–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F77.1.71">10.1093/genetics/77.1.71</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1213120">1213120</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4366476">4366476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Genetics+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-94&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1213120%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4366476&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F77.1.71&rft.aulast=Brenner&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1213120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1986" class="citation journal cs1">White, J; et al. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056">"The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans"</a>. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 314 (1165): 1–340. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986RSPTB.314....1W">1986RSPTB.314....1W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056">10.1098/rstb.1986.0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22462104">22462104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5006466">5006466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philos.+Trans.+R.+Soc.+Lond.+B+Biol.+Sci.&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+the+nervous+system+of+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=1165&rft.pages=1-340&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1986.0056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5006466%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22462104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986RSPTB.314....1W&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frstb.1986.0056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJabr2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Jabr, Ferris (2012-10-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=c-elegans-connectome">"The Connectome Debate: Is Mapping the Mind of a Worm Worth It?"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved 2014-01-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Connectome+Debate%3A+Is+Mapping+the+Mind+of+a+Worm+Worth+It%3F&rft.date=2012-10-02&rft.aulast=Jabr&rft.aufirst=Ferris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dc-elegans-connectome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TAIR-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TAIR_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAIR_93-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAIR_93-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabidopsis.org/portals/education/aboutarabidopsis.jsp#hist">About Arabidopsis on The Arabidopsis Information Resource page</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">TAIR</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolbRezendeHolnessRadtke2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kolb, E. M.; Rezende, E. L.; Holness, L.; Radtke, A.; Lee, S. K.; Obenaus, A.; Garland Jr, T. (2013). <a href="/wiki/Midbrain" title="Midbrain">"Mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have larger midbrains: support for the mosaic model of brain evolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Experimental Biology">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 216 (3): 515–523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.076000">10.1242/jeb.076000</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23325861">23325861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Mice+selectively+bred+for+high+voluntary+wheel+running+have+larger+midbrains%3A+support+for+the+mosaic+model+of+brain+evolution&rft.volume=216&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=515-523&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.076000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23325861&rft.aulast=Kolb&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rft.au=Rezende%2C+E.+L.&rft.au=Holness%2C+L.&rft.au=Radtke%2C+A.&rft.au=Lee%2C+S.+K.&rft.au=Obenaus%2C+A.&rft.au=Garland+Jr%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-wallingford-95"><a href="#cite_ref-wallingford_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallingfordLiuZheng2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wallingford, J.; Liu, K.; Zheng, Y. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2010.01.012">"MISSING"</a>. Current Biology. 20 (6): R263–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2010.01.012">10.1016/j.cub.2010.01.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20334828">20334828</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235311984">235311984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=MISSING&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=R263-4&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235311984%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20334828&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2010.01.012&rft.aulast=Wallingford&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Liu%2C+K.&rft.au=Zheng%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2010.01.012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harland-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Harland_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlandGrainger2011" class="citation journal cs1">Harland, R.M.; Grainger, R.M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3601910">"MISSING"</a>. Trends in Genetics. 27 (12): 507–15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tig.2011.08.003">10.1016/j.tig.2011.08.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3601910">3601910</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21963197">21963197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Genetics&rft.atitle=MISSING&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=507-15&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3601910%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21963197&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tig.2011.08.003&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=R.M.&rft.au=Grainger%2C+R.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3601910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpitsbergenKent2003" class="citation journal cs1">Spitsbergen JM, Kent ML (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1909756">"The state of the art of the zebrafish model for toxicology and toxicologic pathology research—advantages and current limitations"</a>. Toxicol Pathol. 31 (Suppl): 62–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01926230390174959">10.1080/01926230390174959</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1909756">1909756</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12597434">12597434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toxicol+Pathol&rft.atitle=The+state+of+the+art+of+the+zebrafish+model+for+toxicology+and+toxicologic+pathology+research%E2%80%94advantages+and+current+limitations&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=Suppl&rft.pages=62-87&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1909756%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12597434&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01926230390174959&rft.aulast=Spitsbergen&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Kent%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1909756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapmanKirknessSimakovHampson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, J. A.; Kirkness, E. F.; Simakov, O.; Hampson, S. E.; Mitros, T.; Weinmaier, T.; Rattei, T.; Balasubramanian, P. G.; Borman, J.; Busam, D.; Disbennett, K.; Pfannkoch, C.; Sumin, N.; Sutton, G. G.; Viswanathan, L. D.; Walenz, B.; Goodstein, D. M.; Hellsten, U.; Kawashima, T.; Prochnik, S. E.; Putnam, N. H.; Shu, S.; Blumberg, B.; Dana, C. E.; Gee, L.; Kibler, D. F.; Law, L.; Lindgens, D.; Martinez, D. E.; et al. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4479502">"The dynamic genome of Hydra"</a>. Nature. 464 (7288): 592–596. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.464..592C">2010Natur.464..592C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08830">10.1038/nature08830</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4479502">4479502</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20228792">20228792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+dynamic+genome+of+Hydra&rft.volume=464&rft.issue=7288&rft.pages=592-596&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4479502%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20228792&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08830&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Natur.464..592C&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Kirkness%2C+E.+F.&rft.au=Simakov%2C+O.&rft.au=Hampson%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Mitros%2C+T.&rft.au=Weinmaier%2C+T.&rft.au=Rattei%2C+T.&rft.au=Balasubramanian%2C+P.+G.&rft.au=Borman%2C+J.&rft.au=Busam%2C+D.&rft.au=Disbennett%2C+K.&rft.au=Pfannkoch%2C+C.&rft.au=Sumin%2C+N.&rft.au=Sutton%2C+G.+G.&rft.au=Viswanathan%2C+L.+D.&rft.au=Walenz%2C+B.&rft.au=Goodstein%2C+D.+M.&rft.au=Hellsten%2C+U.&rft.au=Kawashima%2C+T.&rft.au=Prochnik%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Putnam%2C+N.+H.&rft.au=Shu%2C+S.&rft.au=Blumberg%2C+B.&rft.au=Dana%2C+C.+E.&rft.au=Gee%2C+L.&rft.au=Kibler%2C+D.+F.&rft.au=Law%2C+L.&rft.au=Lindgens%2C+D.&rft.au=Martinez%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Peng%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4479502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarelBenayounMachadoSingh2015" class="citation journal cs1">Harel, I.; Benayoun, B. R. N. A.; Machado, B.; Singh, P. P.; Hu, C. K.; Pech, M. F.; Valenzano, D. R.; Zhang, E.; Sharp, S. C.; Artandi, S. E.; Brunet, A. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4344913">"A Platform for Rapid Exploration of Aging and Diseases in a Naturally Short-Lived Vertebrate"</a>. Cell. 160 (5): 1013–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2015.01.038">10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.038</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4344913">4344913</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25684364">25684364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=A+Platform+for+Rapid+Exploration+of+Aging+and+Diseases+in+a+Naturally+Short-Lived+Vertebrate&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1013-26&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4344913%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25684364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2015.01.038&rft.aulast=Harel&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Benayoun%2C+B.+R.+N.+A.&rft.au=Machado%2C+B.&rft.au=Singh%2C+P.+P.&rft.au=Hu%2C+C.+K.&rft.au=Pech%2C+M.+F.&rft.au=Valenzano%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+E.&rft.au=Sharp%2C+S.+C.&rft.au=Artandi%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Brunet%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4344913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimKimKimKim2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Young-Il; Kim, Seong-Gyu; Kim, Se-Mi; Kim, Eun-Ha; Park, Su-Jin; Yu, Kwang-Min; Chang, Jae-Hyung; Kim, Eun Ji; Lee, Seunghun; Casel, Mark Anthony B.; Um, Jihye; Song, Min-Suk; Jeong, Hye Won; Lai, Van Dam; Kim, Yeonjae (2020-05-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7144857">"Infection and Rapid Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Ferrets"</a>. Cell Host & Microbe. 27 (5): 704–709.e2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chom.2020.03.023">10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1931-3128">1931-3128</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7144857">7144857</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32259477">32259477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Host+%26+Microbe&rft.atitle=Infection+and+Rapid+Transmission+of+SARS-CoV-2+in+Ferrets&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=704-709.e2&rft.date=2020-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7144857%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1931-3128&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32259477&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chom.2020.03.023&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Young-Il&rft.au=Kim%2C+Seong-Gyu&rft.au=Kim%2C+Se-Mi&rft.au=Kim%2C+Eun-Ha&rft.au=Park%2C+Su-Jin&rft.au=Yu%2C+Kwang-Min&rft.au=Chang%2C+Jae-Hyung&rft.au=Kim%2C+Eun+Ji&rft.au=Lee%2C+Seunghun&rft.au=Casel%2C+Mark+Anthony+B.&rft.au=Um%2C+Jihye&rft.au=Song%2C+Min-Suk&rft.au=Jeong%2C+Hye+Won&rft.au=Lai%2C+Van+Dam&rft.au=Kim%2C+Yeonjae&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7144857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWichmanBrown2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wichman, Holly A.; Brown, Celeste J. (2010-08-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2935103">"Experimental evolution of viruses: Microviridae as a model system"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1552): 2495–2501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0053">10.1098/rstb.2010.0053</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2935103">2935103</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20643739">20643739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Experimental+evolution+of+viruses%3A+Microviridae+as+a+model+system&rft.volume=365&rft.issue=1552&rft.pages=2495-2501&rft.date=2010-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2935103%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20643739&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0053&rft.aulast=Wichman&rft.aufirst=Holly+A.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Celeste+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2935103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKassen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kassen, Rees (2009-06-24). "Toward a General Theory of Adaptive Radiation". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1168 (1): 3–22. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NYASA1168....3K">2009NYASA1168....3K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04574.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04574.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19566701">19566701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Toward+a+General+Theory+of+Adaptive+Radiation&rft.volume=1168&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=2009-06-24&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19566701&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04574.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009NYASA1168....3K&rft.aulast=Kassen&rft.aufirst=Rees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnBosmaniBarischRaykov2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dunn, Joe Dan; Bosmani, Cristina; Barisch, Caroline; Raykov, Lyudmil; Lefrançois, Louise H.; Cardenal-Muñoz, Elena; López-Jiménez, Ana Teresa; Soldati, Thierry (2018-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5758549">"Eat Prey, Live: Dictyostelium discoideum As a Model for Cell-Autonomous Defenses"</a>. Frontiers in Immunology. 8: 1906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffimmu.2017.01906">10.3389/fimmu.2017.01906</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5758549">5758549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29354124">29354124</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Immunology&rft.atitle=Eat+Prey%2C+Live%3A+Dictyostelium+discoideum+As+a+Model+for+Cell-Autonomous+Defenses&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=1906&rft.date=2018-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5758549%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29354124&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffimmu.2017.01906&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Joe+Dan&rft.au=Bosmani%2C+Cristina&rft.au=Barisch%2C+Caroline&rft.au=Raykov%2C+Lyudmil&rft.au=Lefran%C3%A7ois%2C+Louise+H.&rft.au=Cardenal-Mu%C3%B1oz%2C+Elena&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez-Jim%C3%A9nez%2C+Ana+Teresa&rft.au=Soldati%2C+Thierry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5758549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pombase.org/browse-curation/fission-yeast-go-slim-terms">Fission Yeast GO slim terms | PomBase</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockRutherfordHarrisHayles2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lock, A; Rutherford, K; Harris, MA; Hayles, J; Oliver, SG; Bähler, J; Wood, V (13 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6324063">"PomBase 2018: user-driven reimplementation of the fission yeast database provides rapid and intuitive access to diverse, interconnected information"</a>. Nucleic Acids Research. 47 (D1): D821–D827. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgky961">10.1093/nar/gky961</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6324063">6324063</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30321395">30321395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Research&rft.atitle=PomBase+2018%3A+user-driven+reimplementation+of+the+fission+yeast+database+provides+rapid+and+intuitive+access+to+diverse%2C+interconnected+information.&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=D1&rft.pages=D821-D827&rft.date=2018-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6324063%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30321395&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgky961&rft.aulast=Lock&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Rutherford%2C+K&rft.au=Harris%2C+MA&rft.au=Hayles%2C+J&rft.au=Oliver%2C+SG&rft.au=B%C3%A4hler%2C+J&rft.au=Wood%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6324063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatyrovaHallenbeck2017" class="citation journal cs1">Batyrova, Khorcheska; Hallenbeck, Patrick C. (2017-03-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5372659">"Hydrogen Production by a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Strain with Inducible Expression of Photosystem II"</a>. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18 (3): 647. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijms18030647">10.3390/ijms18030647</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5372659">5372659</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28300765">28300765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Molecular+Sciences&rft.atitle=Hydrogen+Production+by+a+Chlamydomonas+reinhardtii+Strain+with+Inducible+Expression+of+Photosystem+II&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=647&rft.date=2017-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5372659%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28300765&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijms18030647&rft.aulast=Batyrova&rft.aufirst=Khorcheska&rft.au=Hallenbeck%2C+Patrick+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5372659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithWileyCassidy-Hanley2012" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Joshua J.; Wiley, Emily A.; Cassidy-Hanley, Donna M. (2012). "Tetrahymena in the Classroom". Tetrahymena Thermophila. Methods in Cell Biology. Vol. 109. pp. 411–430. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-385967-9.00016-5">10.1016/B978-0-12-385967-9.00016-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123859679" title="Special:BookSources/9780123859679"><bdi>9780123859679</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3587665">3587665</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22444155">22444155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tetrahymena+in+the+Classroom&rft.btitle=Tetrahymena+Thermophila&rft.series=Methods+in+Cell+Biology&rft.pages=411-430&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3587665%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22444155&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-385967-9.00016-5&rft.isbn=9780123859679&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft.au=Wiley%2C+Emily+A.&rft.au=Cassidy-Hanley%2C+Donna+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefanidou2014" class="citation book cs1">Stefanidou, Maria (2014). "The use of the protozoan Tetrahymena as a cell model". In Castillo, Victor; Harris, Rodney (eds.). Protozoa: Biology, Classification and Role in Disease. Nova Science Publishers. pp. 69–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62417-073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62417-073-7"><bdi>978-1-62417-073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+use+of+the+protozoan+Tetrahymena+as+a+cell+model&rft.btitle=Protozoa%3A+Biology%2C+Classification+and+Role+in+Disease&rft.pages=69-88&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62417-073-7&rft.aulast=Stefanidou&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFielding2013" class="citation journal cs1">Fielding, Samuel R. (March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.2013.58.2.0663">"Emiliania huxleyi specific growth rate dependence on temperature"</a>. Limnology and Oceanography. 58 (2): 663–666. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013LimOc..58..663F">2013LimOc..58..663F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.2013.58.2.0663">10.4319/lo.2013.58.2.0663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Limnology+and+Oceanography&rft.atitle=Emiliania+huxleyi+specific+growth+rate+dependence+on+temperature&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=663-666&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4319%2Flo.2013.58.2.0663&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013LimOc..58..663F&rft.aulast=Fielding&rft.aufirst=Samuel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4319%252Flo.2013.58.2.0663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlattHortonHuangLi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Platt, Alexander; Horton, Matthew; Huang, Yu S.; Li, Yan; Anastasio, Alison E.; Mulyati, Ni Wayan; Ågren, Jon; Bossdorf, Oliver; Byers, Diane; Donohue, Kathleen; Dunning, Megan; Holub, Eric B.; Hudson, Andrew; Le Corre, Valérie; Loudet, Olivier; Roux, Fabrice; Warthmann, Norman; Weigel, Detlef; Rivero, Luz; Scholl, Randy; Nordborg, Magnus; <a href="/wiki/Joy_Bergelson" title="Joy Bergelson">Bergelson, Joy</a>; Borevitz, Justin O. (2010-02-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820523">"The Scale of Population Structure in Arabidopsis thaliana"</a>. PLOS Genetics. 6 (2): e1000843. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000843">10.1371/journal.pgen.1000843</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820523">2820523</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20169178">20169178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Scale+of+Population+Structure+in+Arabidopsis+thaliana&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e1000843&rft.date=2010-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2820523%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20169178&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1000843&rft.aulast=Platt&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Horton%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Huang%2C+Yu+S.&rft.au=Li%2C+Yan&rft.au=Anastasio%2C+Alison+E.&rft.au=Mulyati%2C+Ni+Wayan&rft.au=%C3%85gren%2C+Jon&rft.au=Bossdorf%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Byers%2C+Diane&rft.au=Donohue%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Dunning%2C+Megan&rft.au=Holub%2C+Eric+B.&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Le+Corre%2C+Val%C3%A9rie&rft.au=Loudet%2C+Olivier&rft.au=Roux%2C+Fabrice&rft.au=Warthmann%2C+Norman&rft.au=Weigel%2C+Detlef&rft.au=Rivero%2C+Luz&rft.au=Scholl%2C+Randy&rft.au=Nordborg%2C+Magnus&rft.au=Bergelson%2C+Joy&rft.au=Borevitz%2C+Justin+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2820523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohlenderParsonsHoernsteinRempfer2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bohlender, Lennard L.; Parsons, Juliana; Hoernstein, Sebastian N. W.; Rempfer, Christine; Ruiz-Molina, Natalia; Lorenz, Timo; Rodríguez Jahnke, Fernando; Figl, Rudolf; Fode, Benjamin; Altmann, Friedrich; Reski, Ralf; Decker, Eva L. (2020-12-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7775405">"Stable Protein Sialylation in Physcomitrella"</a>. Frontiers in Plant Science. 11: 610032. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.610032">10.3389/fpls.2020.610032</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7775405">7775405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33391325">33391325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Stable+Protein+Sialylation+in+Physcomitrella&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=610032&rft.date=2020-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7775405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33391325&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpls.2020.610032&rft.aulast=Bohlender&rft.aufirst=Lennard+L.&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Juliana&rft.au=Hoernstein%2C+Sebastian+N.+W.&rft.au=Rempfer%2C+Christine&rft.au=Ruiz-Molina%2C+Natalia&rft.au=Lorenz%2C+Timo&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Jahnke%2C+Fernando&rft.au=Figl%2C+Rudolf&rft.au=Fode%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=Altmann%2C+Friedrich&rft.au=Reski%2C+Ralf&rft.au=Decker%2C+Eva+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7775405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/4/357/1716508">"Revisiting the sequencing of the first tree genome: Populus trichocarpa | Tree Physiology | Oxford Academic"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revisiting+the+sequencing+of+the+first+tree+genome%3A+Populus+trichocarpa+%7C+Tree+Physiology+%7C+Oxford+Academic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ftreephys%2Farticle%2F33%2F4%2F357%2F1716508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindquistBonini2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lindquist, Susan L.; Bonini, Nancy M. (22 Jun 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhmi.org/news/parkinsons-disease-mechanism-discovered">"Parkinson's Disease Mechanism Discovered"</a>. Science Express. Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Retrieved 11 Jul 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Express&rft.atitle=Parkinson%27s+Disease+Mechanism+Discovered&rft.date=2006-06-22&rft.aulast=Lindquist&rft.aufirst=Susan+L.&rft.au=Bonini%2C+Nancy+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhmi.org%2Fnews%2Fparkinsons-disease-mechanism-discovered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimRaphayelLaDowMcGurk2014" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, H; Raphayel, A; LaDow, E; McGurk, L; Weber, R; Trojanowski, J; Lee, V; Finkbeiner, S; Gitler, A; Bonini, N (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3934366">"Therapeutic modulation of eIF2α-phosphorylation rescues TDP-43 toxicity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease models"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_Genetics" title="Nature Genetics">Nature Genetics</a>. 46 (2): 152–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng.2853">10.1038/ng.2853</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3934366">3934366</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24336168">24336168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Therapeutic+modulation+of+eIF2%CE%B1-phosphorylation+rescues+TDP-43+toxicity+in+amyotrophic+lateral+sclerosis+disease+models&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=152-60&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3934366%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24336168&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng.2853&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Raphayel%2C+A&rft.au=LaDow%2C+E&rft.au=McGurk%2C+L&rft.au=Weber%2C+R&rft.au=Trojanowski%2C+J&rft.au=Lee%2C+V&rft.au=Finkbeiner%2C+S&rft.au=Gitler%2C+A&rft.au=Bonini%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3934366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Non-Mammalian Hormone-Behavior Systems <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/fundulus-heteroclitus">https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/fundulus-heteroclitus</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegfried2017" class="citation book cs1">Siegfried, K.R. (2017). "Molecular and Chromosomal Aspects of Sex Determination". Reference Module in Life Sciences. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-809633-8.03245-3">10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.03245-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809633-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809633-8"><bdi>978-0-12-809633-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Molecular+and+Chromosomal+Aspects+of+Sex+Determination&rft.btitle=Reference+Module+in+Life+Sciences&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-809633-8.03245-3&rft.isbn=978-0-12-809633-8&rft.aulast=Siegfried&rft.aufirst=K.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMello2014" class="citation journal cs1">Mello, Claudio V. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4571486">"The Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata: An Avian Model for Investigating the Neurobiological Basis of Vocal Learning"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Protocols" title="Cold Spring Harbor Protocols">Cold Spring Harbor Protocols</a>. 2014 (12): 1237–1242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fpdb.emo084574">10.1101/pdb.emo084574</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4571486">4571486</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25342070">25342070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Protocols&rft.atitle=The+Zebra+Finch%2C+Taeniopygia+guttata%3A+An+Avian+Model+for+Investigating+the+Neurobiological+Basis+of+Vocal+Learning&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1237-1242&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4571486%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25342070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1101%2Fpdb.emo084574&rft.aulast=Mello&rft.aufirst=Claudio+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4571486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807211657/http://www.genomeweb.com//node/939634?hq_e=el&hq_m=701632&hq_l=1&hq_v=2de76155bb">"JGI-Led Team Sequences Frog Genome"</a>. GenomeWeb.com. Genome Web. 29 April 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomeweb.com//node/939634?hq_e=el&hq_m=701632&hq_l=1&hq_v=2de76155bb">the original</a> on August 7, 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GenomeWeb.com&rft.atitle=JGI-Led+Team+Sequences+Frog+Genome&rft.date=2010-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genomeweb.com%2F%2Fnode%2F939634%3Fhq_e%3Del%26hq_m%3D701632%26hq_l%3D1%26hq_v%3D2de76155bb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinJiMaudsleyMattson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Martin B, Ji S, Maudsley S, Mattson MP (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852022">""Control" laboratory rodents are metabolically morbid: Why it matters"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (14): 6127–6133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.6127M">2010PNAS..107.6127M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0912955107">10.1073/pnas.0912955107</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2852022">2852022</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20194732">20194732</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=%22Control%22+laboratory+rodents+are+metabolically+morbid%3A+Why+it+matters&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=6127-6133&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2852022%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20194732&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0912955107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.6127M&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Ji%2C+S&rft.au=Maudsley%2C+S&rft.au=Mattson%2C+MP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2852022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMestasHughes2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mestas, Javier; Hughes, Christopher C. W. (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.172.5.2731">"Of Mice and Not Men: Differences between Mouse and Human Immunology"</a>. The Journal of Immunology. 172 (5): 2731–2738. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.172.5.2731">10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.2731</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14978070">14978070</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10536403">10536403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Immunology&rft.atitle=Of+Mice+and+Not+Men%3A+Differences+between+Mouse+and+Human+Immunology&rft.volume=172&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=2731-2738&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10536403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14978070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4049%2Fjimmunol.172.5.2731&rft.aulast=Mestas&rft.aufirst=Javier&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Christopher+C.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4049%252Fjimmunol.172.5.2731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeokWarrenCuencaMindrinos2013" class="citation journal cs1">Seok, Junhee; Warren, H. Shaw; Cuenca, Alex G.; Mindrinos, Michael N.; Baker, Henry V.; Xu, Weihong; Richards, Daniel R.; McDonald-Smith, Grace P.; Gao, Hong; Hennessy, Laura; Finnerty, Celeste C.; López, Cecilia M.; Honari, Shari; Moore, Ernest E.; Minei, Joseph P.; Cuschieri, Joseph; Bankey, Paul E.; Johnson, Jeffrey L.; Sperry, Jason; Nathens, Avery B.; Billiar, Timothy R.; West, Michael A.; Jeschke, Marc G.; Klein, Matthew B.; Gamelli, Richard L.; Gibran, Nicole S.; Brownstein, Bernard H.; Miller-Graziano, Carol; Calvano, Steve E.; Mason, Philip H.; Cobb, J. Perren; Rahme, Laurence G.; Lowry, Stephen F.; Maier, Ronald V.; Moldawer, Lyle L.; Herndon, David N.; Davis, Ronald W.; Xiao, Wenzhong; Tompkins, Ronald G.; Abouhamze, Amer; Balis, Ulysses G. J.; Camp, David G.; De, Asit K.; Harbrecht, Brian G.; Hayden, Douglas L.; Kaushal, Amit; O’Keefe, Grant E.; Kotz, Kenneth T.; Qian, Weijun; Schoenfeld, David A.; Shapiro, Michael B.; Silver, Geoffrey M.; Smith, Richard D.; Storey, John D.; Tibshirani, Robert; Toner, Mehmet; Wilhelmy, Julie; Wispelwey, Bram; Wong, Wing H (2013-02-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3587220">"Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (9): 3507–3512. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..110.3507S">2013PNAS..110.3507S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1222878110">10.1073/pnas.1222878110</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3587220">3587220</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23401516">23401516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Genomic+responses+in+mouse+models+poorly+mimic+human+inflammatory+diseases&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=3507-3512&rft.date=2013-02-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3587220%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23401516&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1222878110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PNAS..110.3507S&rft.aulast=Seok&rft.aufirst=Junhee&rft.au=Warren%2C+H.+Shaw&rft.au=Cuenca%2C+Alex+G.&rft.au=Mindrinos%2C+Michael+N.&rft.au=Baker%2C+Henry+V.&rft.au=Xu%2C+Weihong&rft.au=Richards%2C+Daniel+R.&rft.au=McDonald-Smith%2C+Grace+P.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Hong&rft.au=Hennessy%2C+Laura&rft.au=Finnerty%2C+Celeste+C.&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez%2C+Cecilia+M.&rft.au=Honari%2C+Shari&rft.au=Moore%2C+Ernest+E.&rft.au=Minei%2C+Joseph+P.&rft.au=Cuschieri%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Bankey%2C+Paul+E.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Jeffrey+L.&rft.au=Sperry%2C+Jason&rft.au=Nathens%2C+Avery+B.&rft.au=Billiar%2C+Timothy+R.&rft.au=West%2C+Michael+A.&rft.au=Jeschke%2C+Marc+G.&rft.au=Klein%2C+Matthew+B.&rft.au=Gamelli%2C+Richard+L.&rft.au=Gibran%2C+Nicole+S.&rft.au=Brownstein%2C+Bernard+H.&rft.au=Miller-Graziano%2C+Carol&rft.au=Calvano%2C+Steve+E.&rft.au=Mason%2C+Philip+H.&rft.au=Cobb%2C+J.+Perren&rft.au=Rahme%2C+Laurence+G.&rft.au=Lowry%2C+Stephen+F.&rft.au=Maier%2C+Ronald+V.&rft.au=Moldawer%2C+Lyle+L.&rft.au=Herndon%2C+David+N.&rft.au=Davis%2C+Ronald+W.&rft.au=Xiao%2C+Wenzhong&rft.au=Tompkins%2C+Ronald+G.&rft.au=Abouhamze%2C+Amer&rft.au=Balis%2C+Ulysses+G.+J.&rft.au=Camp%2C+David+G.&rft.au=De%2C+Asit+K.&rft.au=Harbrecht%2C+Brian+G.&rft.au=Hayden%2C+Douglas+L.&rft.au=Kaushal%2C+Amit&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Keefe%2C+Grant+E.&rft.au=Kotz%2C+Kenneth+T.&rft.au=Qian%2C+Weijun&rft.au=Schoenfeld%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+Michael+B.&rft.au=Silver%2C+Geoffrey+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Richard+D.&rft.au=Storey%2C+John+D.&rft.au=Tibshirani%2C+Robert&rft.au=Toner%2C+Mehmet&rft.au=Wilhelmy%2C+Julie&rft.au=Wispelwey%2C+Bram&rft.au=Wong%2C+Wing+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3587220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jubb-Young-Hume-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jubb-Young-Hume_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jubb-Young-Hume_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJubbYoungHumeBickmore2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jubb, Alasdair W; Young, Robert S; Hume, David A; Bickmore, Wendy A (15 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4707550">"Enhancer turnover is associated with a divergent transcriptional response to glucocorticoid in mouse and human macrophages"</a>. Journal of Immunology. 196 (2): 813–822. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4049%2Fjimmunol.1502009">10.4049/jimmunol.1502009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4707550">4707550</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26663721">26663721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Immunology&rft.atitle=Enhancer+turnover+is+associated+with+a+divergent+transcriptional+response+to+glucocorticoid+in+mouse+and+human+macrophages&rft.volume=196&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=813-822&rft.date=2016-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4707550%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26663721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4049%2Fjimmunol.1502009&rft.aulast=Jubb&rft.aufirst=Alasdair+W&rft.au=Young%2C+Robert+S&rft.au=Hume%2C+David+A&rft.au=Bickmore%2C+Wendy+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4707550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLahvis2019" class="citation cs2">Lahvis, Garet (5 December 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/talks/garet_lahvis_the_inescapable_problem_of_lab_animal_restraint">The inescapable problem of lab animal restraint</a>, retrieved 2020-10-26</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+inescapable+problem+of+lab+animal+restraint&rft.date=2019-12-05&rft.aulast=Lahvis&rft.aufirst=Garet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ted.com%2Ftalks%2Fgaret_lahvis_the_inescapable_problem_of_lab_animal_restraint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLahvis2017" class="citation journal cs1">Lahvis, Garet P (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5503508">"Unbridle biomedical research from the laboratory cage"</a>. eLife. 6: e27438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7554%2FeLife.27438">10.7554/eLife.27438</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5503508">5503508</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28661398">28661398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=eLife&rft.atitle=Unbridle+biomedical+research+from+the+laboratory+cage&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=e27438&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5503508%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28661398&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2FeLife.27438&rft.aulast=Lahvis&rft.aufirst=Garet+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5503508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/christmas-specials/21712058-evolution-scientific-mainstay-worlds-favourite-lab-animal-has-been-found">"The world's favourite lab animal has been found wanting, but there are new twists in the mouse's tale"</a>. The Economist. Retrieved 2017-01-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+world%27s+favourite+lab+animal+has+been+found+wanting%2C+but+there+are+new+twists+in+the+mouse%27s+tale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fchristmas-specials%2F21712058-evolution-scientific-mainstay-worlds-favourite-lab-animal-has-been-found&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatsnelson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Katsnelson, Alla (2014-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2014.15106">"Male researchers stress out rodents"</a>. Nature: nature.2014.15106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2014.15106">10.1038/nature.2014.15106</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87534627">87534627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Male+researchers+stress+out+rodents&rft.pages=nature.2014.15106&rft.date=2014-04-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature.2014.15106&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87534627%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Katsnelson&rft.aufirst=Alla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature.2014.15106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/male-scent-may-compromise-biomedical-research">"Male Scent May Compromise Biomedical Research"</a>. Science | AAAS. 2014-04-28. Retrieved 2017-01-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%7C+AAAS&rft.atitle=Male+Scent+May+Compromise+Biomedical+Research&rft.date=2014-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fmale-scent-may-compromise-biomedical-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/mouse-microbes-may-make-scientific-studies-harder-replicate">"Mouse microbes may make scientific studies harder to replicate"</a>. Science | AAAS. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2017-01-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%7C+AAAS&rft.atitle=Mouse+microbes+may+make+scientific+studies+harder+to+replicate&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fmouse-microbes-may-make-scientific-studies-harder-replicate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/Transparency/Basics/ucm194932.htm">"FDA: Why are animals used for testing medical products?"</a>. FDA. 2019-06-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FDA&rft.atitle=FDA%3A+Why+are+animals+used+for+testing+medical+products%3F&rft.date=2019-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FAboutFDA%2FTransparency%2FBasics%2Fucm194932.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130105120605/http://www.toxicology.org/ms/air4.asp">"Society Of Toxicology: Advancing valid alternatives"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toxicology.org/ms/air4.asp">the original</a> on 2013-01-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Society+Of+Toxicology%3A+Advancing+valid+alternatives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toxicology.org%2Fms%2Fair4.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214034848/http://homepage.tinet.ie/~pnowlan/Chapter-77.htm">British animal protection legislation</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://awic.nal.usda.gov/government-and-professional-resources/federal-laws/animal-welfare-act">AWA policies</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/investigatorsneed2know.pdf">NIH need-to-know</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000815070936/http://www.nih.gov/science/models/">list of common model organisms approved for use by the NIH</a>) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx2014" class="citation journal cs1">Marx, Vivien (June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmeth.2966">"Models: stretching the skills of cell lines and mice"</a>. Nature Methods. 11 (6): 617–620. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmeth.2966">10.1038/nmeth.2966</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24874573">24874573</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11798233">11798233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Methods&rft.atitle=Models%3A+stretching+the+skills+of+cell+lines+and+mice&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=617-620&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11798233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24874573&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmeth.2966&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Vivien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnmeth.2966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinKing2016" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Bob; King, Nicole (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5077642">"The Future of Cell Biology: Emerging Model Organisms"</a>. Trends in Cell Biology. 26 (11): 818–824. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tcb.2016.08.005">10.1016/j.tcb.2016.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5077642">5077642</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27639630">27639630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Future+of+Cell+Biology%3A+Emerging+Model+Organisms&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=818-824&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5077642%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27639630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tcb.2016.08.005&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=King%2C+Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5077642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloydFranklinLutzMagnuson2015" class="citation journal cs1">Lloyd, Kent; Franklin, Craig; Lutz, Cat; Magnuson, Terry (June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4636083">"Reproducibility: Use mouse biobanks or lose them"</a>. Nature. 522 (7555): 151–153. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.522..151L">2015Natur.522..151L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F522151a">10.1038/522151a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4636083">4636083</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26062496">26062496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Reproducibility%3A+Use+mouse+biobanks+or+lose+them&rft.volume=522&rft.issue=7555&rft.pages=151-153&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4636083%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26062496&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F522151a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.522..151L&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Kent&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Craig&rft.au=Lutz%2C+Cat&rft.au=Magnuson%2C+Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4636083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModel+organism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Trust description of model organisms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orip.nih.gov/comparative-medicine/programs/vertebrate-models/">National Institutes of Health Comparative Medicine Program Vertebrate Models</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nigms.nih.gov/Education/Pages/modelorg_factsheet.aspx/">NIH Using Model Organisms to Study Human Disease</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/model_organism/">National Institutes of Health Model Organism Sharing Policy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/air/why_are_animals.htm/">Why are Animals Used in NIH Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fleming.gr/">Disease Animal Models – BSRC Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emice.nci.nih.gov/">Emice</a> – <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.komp.org/">Knock Out Mouse Project – KOMP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mbp.mousebiology.org/">Mouse Biology Program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mmrrc.org/">Mutant Mouse Resource & Research Centers, National Institutes of Health, supported Mouse Repository</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rrrc.us/">Rat Resource & Research Center</a> – <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, supported Rat Repository</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mmrrc.org/about/reproducibility.php/">NIH Model Organism Research Reproducibility and Rigor</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_model_organisms_in_genetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Model_organisms" title="Template:Model organisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Model_organisms" title="Template talk:Model organisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Model_organisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Model organisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_model_organisms_in_genetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a class="mw-selflink selflink">model organisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Lambda phage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_in_molecular_biology" title="Escherichia coli in molecular biology">E. coli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahymena" title="Tetrahymena">Tetrahymena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Budding yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Fission yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">C. elegans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_clawed_frog" title="African clawed frog">Xenopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_rat" title="Laboratory rat">Rat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Developmental_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: thistle"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Developmental_biology" title="Template:Developmental biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Developmental_biology" title="Template talk:Developmental biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Developmental_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Developmental biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Developmental_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">Ageing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartment_(development)" title="Compartment (development)">Compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">Embryogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_embryogenesis" title="Drosophila embryogenesis">Drosophila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_development" title="Fish development">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_in_embryogenesis" title="Polarity in embryogenesis">polarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(biology)" title="Metamerism (biology)">Metamerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">Larva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa">Pupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">Metamorphosis</a> <ul><li>Indirect development: <a href="/wiki/Holometabolism" title="Holometabolism">holometabolism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hypermetamorphosis" title="Hypermetamorphosis">Hypermetamorphosis</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hemimetabolism" title="Hemimetabolism">hemimetabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_development" title="Direct development">Direct development</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ametabolism" title="Ametabolism">ametabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">Ontogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">Regeneration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regeneration_in_humans" title="Regeneration in humans">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&oldid=1251191257">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&oldid=1251191257</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Model_organisms" title="Category:Model organisms">Model organisms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_testing" title="Category:Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2023</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 October 2024, at 21:42 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Model_organism&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-rxt7p","wgBackendResponseTime":183,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.538","walltime":"1.658","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8620,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":293697,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3522,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":4,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":466424,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1438.022 1 -total"," 69.45% 998.683 1 Template:Reflist"," 45.10% 648.614 69 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.41% 106.557 18 Template:Cite_book"," 6.59% 94.722 1 Template:Model_Organisms"," 6.55% 94.130 2 Template:Navbox"," 6.08% 87.389 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.79% 68.827 3 Template:Cn"," 4.55% 65.370 4 Template:Fix"," 3.95% 56.839 13 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.950","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":6472971,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-jl9dk","timestamp":"20241122141534","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Model organism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model_organism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q213907","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q213907","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-06-22T16:24:40Z","dateModified":"2024-10-14T21:42:59Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg","headline":"organisms used to study biology across species"}</script> </body> </html>