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class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Murder </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Murder-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edition_of_the_Almagest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edition_of_the_Almagest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Edition of the Almagest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edition_of_the_Almagest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Independent writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reputed_inventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reputed_inventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Reputed inventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reputed_inventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Early modern period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nineteenth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nineteenth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Nineteenth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nineteenth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Twentieth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twenty-first_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-first_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Twenty-first century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-first_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hypatia</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 94 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-94" aria-hidden="true" > 94 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="هيباتيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هيباتيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Հիփաթիա – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հիփաթիա" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatiya" title="Hipatiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hipatiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="হাইপেশিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হাইপেশিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Гіпація Александрыйская – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гіпація Александрыйская" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Гіпатыя Александрыйская – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гіпатыя Александрыйская" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Хипатия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хипатия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%A0cia" title="Hipàcia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hipàcia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Гипати – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гипати" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_z_Alexandrie" title="Hypatia z Alexandrie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hypatia z Alexandrie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_af_Alexandria" title="Hypatia af Alexandria – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hypatia af Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Υπατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia_Alexandriakoa" title="Hipatia Alexandriakoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hipatia Alexandriakoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="هیپاتیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هیپاتیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatie" title="Hypatie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hypatie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9E%88%ED%8C%8C%ED%8B%B0%EC%95%84" title="히파티아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="히파티아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Հիպատիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հիպատիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="हाईपेशिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हाईपेशिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatija" title="Hipatija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hipatija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_de_Alexandria" title="Hypatia de Alexandria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Hypatia de Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BDpat%C3%ADa" title="Hýpatía – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hýpatía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipazia" title="Ipazia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ipazia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94" title="היפאטיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היפאטיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჰიპატია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰიპატია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гипатия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гипатия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia_wa_Aleksandria" title="Hipatia wa Aleksandria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hipatia wa Aleksandria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AEpat%C3%AEa" title="Hîpatîa – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hîpatîa" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гипатия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гипатия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatija" title="Hipatija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hipatija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatija" title="Hipatija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hipatija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriai_H%C3%BCpatia" title="Alexandriai Hüpatia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alexandriai Hüpatia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хипатија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хипатија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatie" title="Hypatie – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hypatie" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="ഹൈപ്പേഷിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹൈപ്പേഷിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჰიპატია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჰიპატია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="هيباتيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هيباتيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%A1tia" title="Hipátia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Hipátia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="अलेक्जेन्ड्रीयायाम्ह हेपाटिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अलेक्जेन्ड्रीयायाम्ह हेपाटिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%A5%E3%83%91%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2" title="ヒュパティア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒュパティア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_av_Alexandria" title="Hypatia av Alexandria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hypatia av Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gipatiya" title="Gipatiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gipatiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86" title="ਹਾਈਪੇਸ਼ਿਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹਾਈਪੇਸ਼ਿਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ہائیپیشیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہائیپیشیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="هیپاتیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هیپاتیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipassia_%C3%ABd_Lissandria" title="Ipassia ëd Lissandria – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ipassia ëd Lissandria" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_z_Aleksandrii" title="Hypatia z Aleksandrii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hypatia z Aleksandrii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%A1tia" title="Hipátia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hipátia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_din_Alexandria" title="Hypatia din Alexandria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Hypatia din Alexandria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гипатия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гипатия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ip%C3%A0zzia" title="Ipàzzia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ipàzzia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F" title="හයිපේෂියා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="හයිපේෂියා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatija" title="Hipatija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hipatija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatyjo_ze_Aleksandryje" title="Hypatyjo ze Aleksandryje – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Hypatyjo ze Aleksandryje" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ھیپاتیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھیپاتیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хипатија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хипатија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatija" title="Hipatija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hipatija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_Aleksandrialainen" title="Hypatia Aleksandrialainen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hypatia Aleksandrialainen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="கைப்பேசியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கைப்பேசியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ไฮพาเทีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไฮพาเทีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Ҳипотиё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳипотиё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipatia" title="Hipatia – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hipatia" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гіпатія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гіпатія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ہائپیشیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہائپیشیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hypatia" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E5%B8%95%E6%8F%90%E5%A8%85" title="希帕提娅 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="希帕提娅" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">4th-century Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hypatia (disambiguation)">Hypatia (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Hypatia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350–370 AD <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">March 415 AD (aged 45–65)<a href="#cite_note-MacTutorMath-1">[1]</a> <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Alexandria, Province of Egypt, Eastern Roman Empire</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Hypatia<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a> (born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350–370 - March 415 AD)<a href="#cite_note-MacTutorMath-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonist">Neoplatonist</a> philosopher, astronomer, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>: at that time a major city of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. In Alexandria, Hypatia was a prominent thinker who taught subjects including <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a>, and in her lifetime was renowned as a great teacher and a wise counselor. Not the only fourth century Alexandrian <a href="/wiki/Female_mathematician" class="mw-redirect" title="Female mathematician">female mathematician</a>, Hypatia was preceded by <a href="/wiki/Pandrosion" title="Pandrosion">Pandrosion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> However, Hypatia is the first female mathematician whose life is reasonably well recorded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2012-8">[7]</a> She wrote a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a>'s thirteen-volume <a href="/wiki/Arithmetica" title="Arithmetica">Arithmetica</a>, which may survive in part, having been interpolated into Diophantus's original text, and another commentary on <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</a>'s treatise on <a href="/wiki/Conic_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Conic sections">conic sections</a>, which has not survived. Many modern scholars also believe that Hypatia may have edited the surviving text of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, based on the title of her father <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon</a>'s commentary on Book III of the Almagest. Hypatia constructed <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">hydrometers</a>, but did not invent either of these, which were both in use long before she was born. She was tolerant toward <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Christians</a> and taught many Christian students, including <a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a>, the future bishop of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a>. Ancient sources record that Hypatia was widely beloved by pagans and Christians alike and that she established great influence with the political elite in Alexandria. Toward the end of her life, Hypatia advised <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(prefect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orestes (prefect)">Orestes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Roman_Egypt" title="List of governors of Roman Egypt">Roman prefect of Alexandria</a>, who was in the midst of a political feud with <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">bishop of Alexandria</a>. Rumors spread accusing her of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril and, in March 415 AD, she was murdered by a mob of Christians led by a <a href="/wiki/Reader_(liturgy)" title="Reader (liturgy)">lector</a> named Peter.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin1994235–237-10">[9]</a> Hypatia's murder shocked the empire and transformed her into a "<a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a> for philosophy", leading future Neoplatonists such as the historian <a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 458 – c. 538) to become increasingly fervent in their <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">opposition to Christianity</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Hypatia was co-opted as a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Christian virtue</a> and scholars believe she was part of the basis for the legend of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Alexandria" title="Catherine of Alexandria">Saint Catherine of Alexandria</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, she became a symbol of opposition to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>. In the nineteenth century, European literature, especially <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsley" title="Charles Kingsley">Charles Kingsley</a>'s 1853 novel <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(novel)" title="Hypatia (novel)">Hypatia</a>, romanticized her as "the last of the <a href="/wiki/Greeks#Names" title="Greeks">Hellenes</a>". In the twentieth century, Hypatia became seen as an icon for <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> and a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">feminist movement</a>. Since the late twentieth century, some portrayals have associated Hypatia's death with the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>, despite the historical fact that the library no longer existed during Hypatia's lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182–183-11">[10]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upbringing">Upbringing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Upbringing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg/330px-Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg/495px-Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg/660px-Euclid_Vat_ms_no_190_I_prop_47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1351" /></a><figcaption>Hypatia's father <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a> is best known for having edited the existing text of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007107-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200660-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112-14">[13]</a> shown here in a ninth-century manuscript</figcaption></figure> Hypatia was the daughter of the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 335 – c. 405 AD).<a href="#cite_note-Ockham-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008191–192-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199666–70-17">[16]</a> According to classical historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_J._Watts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward J. Watts (page does not exist)">Edward J. Watts</a>, Theon was the head of a school called the "Mouseion", which was named in emulation of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Mouseion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008191–192-16">[15]</a> whose membership had ceased in the 260s AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008150-18">[17]</a> Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative. Theon rejected the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> and may have taken pride in teaching a pure, <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinian</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008192-19">[18]</a> Although he was widely seen as a great mathematician at the time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007107-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> Theon's mathematical work has been deemed by modern standards as essentially "minor",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007107-12">[11]</a> "trivial",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112-14">[13]</a> and "completely unoriginal".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> His primary achievement was the production of a new edition of Euclid's Elements, in which he corrected scribal errors that had been made over the course of nearly 700 years of copying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007107-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200660-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112-14">[13]</a> Theon's edition of Euclid's Elements became the most widely used edition of the textbook for centuries<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200660-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199347-21">[20]</a> and almost totally supplanted all other editions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199347-21">[20]</a> Nothing is known about Hypatia's mother, who is never mentioned in any of the extant sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201721-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200752-24">[23]</a> Theon dedicates his commentary on Book IV of Ptolemy's Almagest to an individual named Epiphanius, addressing him as "my dear son",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200753-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199670-26">[25]</a> indicating that he may have been Hypatia's brother,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200753-25">[24]</a> but the Greek word Theon uses (teknon) does not always mean "son" in the biological sense and was often used merely to signal strong feelings of paternal connection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200753-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199670-26">[25]</a> Hypatia's exact year of birth is still under debate, with suggested dates ranging from 350 to 370 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201049-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200751–52-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199668-29">[28]</a> Many scholars have followed <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoche" title="Richard Hoche">Richard Hoche</a> in inferring that Hypatia was born around 370. According to Damascius's lost work Life of Isidore, preserved in the entry for Hypatia in the <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a>, a tenth-century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> encyclopedia, Hypatia flourished during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a>. Hoche reasoned that Damascius's description of her physical beauty would imply that she was at most 30 at that time, and the year 370 was 30 years prior to the midpoint of Arcadius's reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenella1984126–128-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoche1860435–474-31">[30]</a> In contrast, theories that she was born as early as 350 are based on the wording of the chronicler <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a> (c. 491 – 578), who calls her old at the time of her death in 415.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199668-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Robert Penella argues that both theories are weakly based, and that her birth date should be left unspecified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenella1984126–128-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career">Career</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Career">edit</a>]</div> Hypatia was a Neoplatonist, but, like her father, she rejected the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> and instead embraced the original <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> formulated by <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008192-19">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_school" title="Alexandrian school">Alexandrian school</a> was renowned at the time for its philosophy, and Alexandria was regarded as second only to Athens as the philosophical capital of the Greco-Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201049-27">[26]</a> Hypatia taught students from all over the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201020-33">[32]</a> According to Damascius, she lectured on the writings of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-socrates-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBregman198255-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199349–50-37">[36]</a> He also states that she walked through Alexandria in a tribon, a kind of cloak associated with philosophers, giving <a href="/wiki/Impromptu" title="Impromptu">impromptu</a> public lectures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakes2007364-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199656-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997311-40">[39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg/220px-Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg/330px-Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg/440px-Letter_of_Synesius_to_Hypatia_b2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Original Greek text of one of <a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a>'s seven extant letters to Hypatia from a 1553 printed edition</figcaption></figure> According to Watts, two main varieties of Neoplatonism were taught in Alexandria during the late fourth century. The first was the overtly pagan religious Neoplatonism taught at the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum" title="Serapeum">Serapeum</a>, which was greatly influenced by the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a> The second variety was the more moderate and less polemical variety championed by Hypatia and her father Theon, which was based on the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200–201-42">[41]</a> Although Hypatia was a pagan, she was tolerant of Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBregman198238–39-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199358–59-44">[43]</a> In fact, every one of her known students was Christian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199358-45">[44]</a> One of her most prominent pupils was <a href="/wiki/Synesius_of_Cyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="Synesius of Cyrene">Synesius of Cyrene</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201049-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201767–70-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a> who went on to become a bishop of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a> (now in eastern <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>) in 410.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201788-49">[48]</a> Afterward, he continued to exchange letters with Hypatia<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199628-50">[49]</a> and his extant letters are the main sources of information about her career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanev2015100-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201788–90-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200663-53">[52]</a> Seven letters by Synesius to Hypatia have survived,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a> but none from her addressed to him are extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtaHolt2017283-48">[47]</a> In a letter written in around 395 to his friend Herculianus, Synesius describes Hypatia as "... a person so renowned, her reputation seemed literally incredible. We have seen and heard for ourselves she who honorably presides over the mysteries of philosophy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a> Synesius preserves the legacy of Hypatia's opinions and teachings, such as the pursuit of "the philosophical state of <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">apatheia</a>—complete liberation from emotions and affections".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199653-54">[53]</a> The Christian historian <a href="/wiki/Socrates_of_Constantinople" title="Socrates of Constantinople">Socrates of Constantinople</a>, a contemporary of Hypatia, describes her in his Ecclesiastical History:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not infrequently appeared in public in the presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.<a href="#cite_note-socrates-34">[33]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Philostorgius" title="Philostorgius">Philostorgius</a>, another Christian historian, who was also a contemporary of Hypatia, states that she excelled her father in mathematics<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a> and the lexicographer <a href="/wiki/Hesychius_of_Alexandria" title="Hesychius of Alexandria">Hesychius of Alexandria</a> records that, like her father, she was also an extraordinarily talented astronomer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987173-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017141-55">[54]</a> Damascius writes that Hypatia was "exceedingly beautiful and fair of form",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017117-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200762-57">[56]</a> but nothing else is known regarding her physical appearance<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017116–117-58">[57]</a> and no ancient depictions of her have survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017116-59">[58]</a> Damascius states that Hypatia remained a lifelong <a href="/wiki/Virginity#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" title="Virginity">virgin</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017128–130-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201774–75-61">[60]</a> and that, when one of the men who came to her lectures tried to court her, she tried to soothe his lust by playing the lyre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200762-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201775-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[b]</a> When he refused to abandon his pursuit, she rejected him outright,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200762-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201775-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017128-65">[63]</a> displaying her bloody <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_napkin#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary napkin">menstrual rags</a> and declaring "This is what you really love, my young man, but you do not love beauty for its own sake."<a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200762-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201775-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017128-65">[63]</a> Damascius further relates that the young man was so traumatized that he abandoned his desires for her immediately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200762-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201775-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017128-65">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/220px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/330px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/440px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Drawing from the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle" title="Alexandrian World Chronicle">Alexandrian World Chronicle</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_I_of_Alexandria" title="Theophilus I of Alexandria">Pope Theophilus of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospel</a> in hand, standing triumphantly atop the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum</a> in 391 AD<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201760-66">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> From 382 – 412, the bishop of Alexandria was <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_I_of_Alexandria" title="Theophilus I of Alexandria">Theophilus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196-67">[65]</a> Theophilus was militantly opposed to Iamblichean Neoplatonism<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196-67">[65]</a> and, in 391, he demolished the Serapeum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200449-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201757–61-69">[67]</a> Despite this, Theophilus tolerated Hypatia's school and seems to have regarded Hypatia as his ally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200782-70">[68]</a> Theophilus supported the bishopric of Hypatia's pupil Synesius,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017196-71">[69]</a> who describes Theophilus in his letters with love and admiration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200782-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199695-72">[70]</a> Theophilus also permitted Hypatia to establish close relationships with the Roman prefects and other prominent political leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196-67">[65]</a> Partly as a result of Theophilus's tolerance, Hypatia became extremely popular with the people of Alexandria and exerted profound political influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008195–196-73">[71]</a> Theophilus died unexpectedly in 412.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196-67">[65]</a> He had been training his nephew <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a>, but had not officially named him as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008196–197-74">[72]</a> A violent power struggle over the <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a> broke out between Cyril and his rival <a href="/wiki/Timothy_I_of_Alexandria" title="Timothy I of Alexandria">Timothy</a>. Cyril won and immediately began to punish the opposing faction; he closed the churches of the <a href="/wiki/Novatianism" title="Novatianism">Novatianists</a>, who had supported Timothy, and confiscated their property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a> Hypatia's school seems to have immediately taken a strong distrust toward the new bishop,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200782-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199695-72">[70]</a> as evidenced by the fact that, in all his vast correspondences, Synesius only ever wrote one letter to Cyril, in which he treats the younger bishop as inexperienced and misguided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199695-72">[70]</a> In a letter written to Hypatia in 413, Synesius requests her to intercede on behalf of two individuals impacted by the ongoing civil strife in Alexandria,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008139-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200783-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997310–311-78">[76]</a> insisting, "You always have power, and you can bring about good by using that power."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008139-76">[74]</a> He also reminds her that she had taught him that a Neoplatonic philosopher must introduce the highest moral standards to political life and act for the benefit of their fellow citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008139-76">[74]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Socrates_Scholasticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Socrates Scholasticus">Socrates Scholasticus</a>, in 414, following an exchange of hostilities and a Jewish-led massacre, Cyril closed all the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> in Alexandria, confiscated all the property belonging to the Jews, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt#Byzantine_or_Eastern_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">expelled a number of Jews from the city</a>; Scholasticus suggests all the Jews were expelled, while <a href="/wiki/John_of_Niki%C3%BB" title="John of Nikiû">John of Nikiu</a> notes it was only those involved in the massacre.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orestes_(prefect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orestes (prefect)">Orestes</a>, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, who was also a close friend of Hypatia<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a> and a recent convert to Christianity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200436–37-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997312-82">[80]</a> was outraged by Cyril's actions and sent a scathing report to the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200436-83">[81]</a> The conflict escalated and a riot broke out in which the <a href="/wiki/Parabalani" title="Parabalani">parabalani</a>, a group of Christian clerics under Cyril's authority, nearly killed Orestes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a> As punishment, Orestes had Ammonius, the monk who had started the riot, publicly tortured to death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200437-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997306-85">[83]</a> Cyril tried to proclaim Ammonius a martyr,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200437-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997306–307-86">[84]</a> but Christians in Alexandria were disgusted,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200437-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997307,_313-87">[85]</a> since Ammonius had been killed for inciting a riot and attempting to murder the governor, not for his faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200437-84">[82]</a> Prominent Alexandrian Christians intervened and forced Cyril to drop the matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200437-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997307,_313-87">[85]</a> Nonetheless, Cyril's feud with Orestes continued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997307-88">[86]</a> Orestes frequently consulted Hypatia for advice<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197–198-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010239–240-90">[88]</a> because she was well-liked among both pagans and Christians alike, she had not been involved in any previous stages of the conflict, and she had an impeccable reputation as a wise counselor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008198-91">[89]</a> Despite Hypatia's popularity, Cyril and his allies attempted to discredit her and undermine her reputation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008199–200-92">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997312–313-93">[91]</a> Socrates Scholasticus mentions rumors accusing Hypatia of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010239–240-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997312–313-93">[91]</a> Traces of other rumors that spread among the Christian populace of Alexandria may be found in the writings of the seventh-century Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> bishop <a href="/wiki/John_of_Niki%C3%BB" title="John of Nikiû">John of Nikiû</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997312–313-93">[91]</a> who alleges in his Chronicle that Hypatia had engaged in <a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">satanic</a> practices and had intentionally hampered the church's influence over Orestes:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997312–313-93">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-johnofnikiu-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grout-96">[94]</a> <blockquote>And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through her Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honoured her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom... And he not only did this, but he drew many believers to her, and he himself received the unbelievers at his house.<a href="#cite_note-johnofnikiu-94">[92]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg/500px-Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg/960px-Mort_de_la_philosophe_Hypatie.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Figuier" title="Louis Figuier">Louis Figuier</a> in Vies des savants illustres, depuis l'antiquité jusqu'au dix-neuvième siècle from 1866, representing the author's imagining of what the assault against Hypatia might have looked like</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Murder">Murder</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Murder">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Socrates_Scholasticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Socrates Scholasticus">Socrates Scholasticus</a>, during the Christian season of <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a> in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a <a href="/wiki/Reader_(liturgy)" title="Reader (liturgy)">lector</a> named Peter raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017114–115-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997313-99">[97]</a> They dragged her into a building known as the <a href="/wiki/Caesareum_of_Alexandria" title="Caesareum of Alexandria">Kaisarion</a>, a former pagan temple and center of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult of ancient Rome">Roman imperial cult</a> in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008198-91">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997313-99">[97]</a> There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using <a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">ostraka</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199693-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017115–116-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008198–199-102">[100]</a> which can either be translated as "<a href="/wiki/Roof_tiles" title="Roof tiles">roof tiles</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oyster shells</a>" or simply "shards".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a> Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017116-103">[101]</a> They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017116-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008198–199-102">[100]</a> According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the "vilest criminals" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017116-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008199-104">[102]</a> Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the <a href="/wiki/Parabalani" title="Parabalani">parabalani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997235–236,_314-105">[103]</a> Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely "a crowd of Alexandrian laymen".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997314-106">[104]</a> Socrates Scholasticus presents Hypatia's murder as entirely politically motivated and makes no mention of any role that Hypatia's paganism might have played in her death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199359-107">[105]</a> Instead, he reasons that "she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, "Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010240-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008199-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117-109">[107]</a> The Canadian mathematician Ari Belenkiy has argued that Hypatia may have been involved in a controversy over the date of the Christian holiday of Easter 417 and that she was killed on the <a href="/wiki/March_equinox" title="March equinox">vernal equinox</a> while making astronomical observations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelenkiy20109–13-110">[108]</a> Classical scholars <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cameron_(classical_scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Cameron (classical scholar)">Alan Cameron</a> and Edward J. Watts both dismiss this hypothesis, noting that there is absolutely no evidence in any ancient text to support any part of the hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016190-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017157-112">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> Hypatia's death sent shockwaves throughout the empire;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017121-113">[111]</a> for centuries, philosophers had been seen as effectively untouchable during the displays of public violence that sometimes occurred in Roman cities and the murder of a female philosopher at the hand of a mob was seen as "profoundly dangerous and destabilizing".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017121-113">[111]</a> Although no concrete evidence was ever discovered definitively linking Cyril to the murder of Hypatia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a> it was widely believed that he had ordered it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovak2010239–240-90">[88]</a> Even if Cyril had not directly ordered the murder, his <a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">smear campaign</a> against Hypatia had inspired it. The Alexandrian council was alarmed at Cyril's conduct and sent an embassy to Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a> The advisors of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> launched an investigation to determine Cyril's role in the murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117-109">[107]</a> The investigation resulted in the emperors <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the parabalani from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199695–96-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997436-115">[113]</a> The edict restricted the parabalani from attending "any public spectacle whatever" or entering "the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas199767,_436-116">[114]</a> It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaas1997436-115">[113]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a>, Cyril allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117-109">[107]</a> Watts argues that Hypatia's murder was the turning point in Cyril's fight to gain political control of Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197–200-117">[115]</a> Hypatia had been the <a href="/wiki/Linchpin" title="Linchpin">linchpin</a> holding Orestes's opposition against Cyril together, and, without her, the opposition quickly collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008200-41">[40]</a> Two years later, Cyril overturned the law placing the parabalani under Orestes's control and, by the early 420s, Cyril had come to dominate the Alexandrian council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008197–200-117">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Works">edit</a>]</div> Hypatia has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">universal genius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> but she was probably more of a teacher and commentator than an innovator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007111-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194–195-121">[119]</a> No evidence has been found that Hypatia ever published any independent works on philosophy<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008132-122">[120]</a> and she does not appear to have made any groundbreaking mathematical discoveries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007111-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194–195-121">[119]</a> During Hypatia's time period, scholars preserved classical mathematical works and commented on them to develop their arguments, rather than publishing original works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200659–60-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017106-124">[122]</a> It has also been suggested that the closure of the <a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Mouseion</a> and the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum</a> may have led Hypatia and her father to focus their efforts on preserving seminal mathematical books and making them accessible to their students.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008132-122">[120]</a> The Suda mistakenly states that all of Hypatia's writings have been lost,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987174–175-125">[123]</a> but modern scholarship has identified several works by her as extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987174–175-125">[123]</a> This kind of authorial uncertainty is typical of female philosophers from antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels200997–124-126">[124]</a> Hypatia wrote in Greek, which was the language spoken by most educated people in the Eastern Mediterranean at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201049-27">[26]</a> In classical antiquity, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> was seen as being essentially mathematical in character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201274-127">[125]</a> Furthermore, no distinction was made between mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerology</a> or astronomy and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201274-127">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edition_of_the_Almagest">Edition of the Almagest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Edition of the Almagest">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/250px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/500px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 1.5x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Hypatia is known to have edited at least Book III of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199671–2-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016193–194-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017108–111-130">[128]</a> which supported the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the universe shown in this diagram.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201276-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016193–194-129">[127]</a></figcaption></figure> Hypatia is now known to have edited the existing text of Book III of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199671–2-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016193–194-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017108–111-130">[128]</a> It was once thought that Hypatia had merely revised Theon's commentary on the Almagest,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199671–72-132">[130]</a> based on the title of Theon's commentary on the third book of Almagest, which reads "Commentary by Theon of Alexandria on Book III of Ptolemy's Almagest, edition revised by my daughter Hypatia, the philosopher",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199671–72-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199345-133">[131]</a> but, based on analysis of the titles of Theon's other commentaries and similar titles from the time period, scholars have concluded that Hypatia corrected, not her father's commentary, but the text of Almagest itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199671–72-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199345–47-134">[132]</a> Her contribution is thought to be an improved method for the <a href="/wiki/Long_division" title="Long division">long division</a> algorithms needed for astronomical computation. The <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model#Ptolemaic_system" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemaic model</a> of the universe was <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric</a>, meaning it taught that the Sun revolved around the Earth. In the Almagest, Ptolemy proposed a division problem for calculating the number of degrees swept out by the Sun in a single day as it orbits the Earth. In his early commentary, Theon had tried to improve upon Ptolemy's division calculation. In the text edited by Hypatia, a tabular method is detailed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201276-131">[129]</a> This tabular method might be the "astronomical table" which historic sources attribute to Hypatia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201276-131">[129]</a> Classicist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cameron_(classical_scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Cameron (classical scholar)">Alan Cameron</a> additionally states that it is possible Hypatia may have edited, not only Book III, but all nine extant books of the Almagest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016193–194-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_writings">Independent writings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Independent writings">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conic_Sections.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Conic_Sections.svg/220px-Conic_Sections.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Conic_Sections.svg/330px-Conic_Sections.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Conic_Sections.svg/440px-Conic_Sections.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Hypatia wrote a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</a>'s treatise on <a href="/wiki/Conic_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Conic sections">conic sections</a>,<a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017110-136">[134]</a> but this commentary is no longer extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017110-136">[134]</a></figcaption></figure> Hypatia wrote a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a>'s thirteen-volume Arithmetica, which had been written sometime around the year 250 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199220–22-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017109-138">[136]</a> It set out more than 100 mathematical problems, for which solutions are proposed using <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200661-139">[137]</a> For centuries, scholars believed that this commentary had been lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987174–175-125">[123]</a> Only volumes one through six of the Arithmetica have survived in the original Greek,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199221-140">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017110-136">[134]</a> but at least four additional volumes have been preserved in an Arabic translation produced around the year 860.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017109-138">[136]</a> The Arabic text contains numerous expansions not found in the Greek text,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017109-138">[136]</a> including verifications of Diophantus's examples and additional problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> Cameron states that the most likely source of the additional material is Hypatia, since Hypatia is the only ancient writer known to have written a commentary on the Arithmetica and the additions appear to follow the same methods used by her father Theon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> The first person to deduce that the additional material in the Arabic manuscripts came from Hypatia was the nineteenth-century scholar <a href="/wiki/Paul_Tannery" title="Paul Tannery">Paul Tannery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> In 1885, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Little_Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Little Heath">Sir Thomas Heath</a> published the first English translation of the surviving portion of the Arithmetica. Heath argued that surviving text of Arithmetica is actually a school edition produced by Hypatia to aid her students.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199221-140">[138]</a> According to Mary Ellen Waithe, Hypatia used an unusual <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> for <a href="/wiki/Division_(mathematics)" title="Division (mathematics)">division</a> (in the then-standard <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> numeral system), making it easy for scholars to pick out which parts of the text she had written.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a> The consensus that Hypatia's commentary is the source of the additional material in the Arabic manuscripts of the Arithmetica has been challenged by <a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Knorr" title="Wilbur Knorr">Wilbur Knorr</a>, a historian of mathematics, who argues that the interpolations are "of such low level as not to require any real mathematical insight" and that the author of the interpolations can only have been "an essentially trivial mind... in direct conflict with ancient testimonies of Hypatia's high caliber as a philosopher and mathematician."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> Cameron rejects this argument, noting that "Theon too enjoyed a high reputation, yet his surviving work has been judged 'completely unoriginal.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> Cameron also insists that "Hypatia's work on Diophantus was what we today might call a school edition, designed for the use of students rather than professional mathematicians."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2016194-20">[19]</a> Hypatia also wrote a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Conic_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Conic sections">conic sections</a>,<a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017110-136">[134]</a> but this commentary is not extant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaithe1987175-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017110-136">[134]</a> She also created an "Astronomical Canon";<a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a> this is believed to have been either a new edition of the Handy Tables by the Alexandrian <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> or the aforementioned commentary on his Almagest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199672-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin1994-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> Based on a <a href="/wiki/Close_reading" title="Close reading">close reading</a> in comparison with her supposed contributions to the work of Diophantus, Knorr suggests that Hypatia may also have edited <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Measurement_of_a_Circle" title="Measurement of a Circle">Measurement of a Circle</a>, an anonymous text on isometric figures, and a text later used by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Tynemouth_(geometer)" title="John of Tynemouth (geometer)">John of Tynemouth</a> in his work on Archimedes' measurement of the sphere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnorr1989-145">[143]</a> A high degree of mathematical accomplishment would have been needed to comment on Apollonius's advanced mathematics or the astronomical Canon. Because of this, most scholars today recognize that Hypatia must have been among the leading mathematicians of her day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reputed_inventions">Reputed inventions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reputed inventions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabio_(16787706916).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg/250px-Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg/330px-Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg/500px-Astrolabio_%2816787706916%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2801" data-file-height="3007" /></a><figcaption>Hypatia is known to have constructed <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">plane astrolabes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007102–104-146">[144]</a> such as the one shown above, which dates to the eleventh century.</figcaption></figure> One of Synesius's letters describes Hypatia as having taught him how to construct a silver <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">plane astrolabe</a> as a gift for an official.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200663-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007102–104-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199222-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111–113-148">[146]</a> An astrolabe is a device used to calculate date and time based on the positions of the stars and planets. It can also be used to predict where the stars and planets will be on any given date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007102–104-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPasachoffPasachoff2007226-150">[148]</a> A "little astrolabe", or "plane astrolabe", is a kind of astrolabe that used <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">stereographic projection</a> of the celestial sphere to represent the heavens on a plane surface, as opposed to an <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, which was globe-shaped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201276-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a> Armillary spheres were large and normally used for display, whereas a plane astrolabe was portable and could be used for practical measurements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a> The statement from Synesius's letter has sometimes been wrongly interpreted to mean that Hypatia invented the plane astrolabe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOakes2007364-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a> but the plane astrolabe was in use at least 500 years before Hypatia was born.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley200663-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007102–104-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112–113-152">[150]</a> Hypatia may have learned how to construct a plane astrolabe from her father Theon,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmer201276-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199222-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a> who had written two treatises on astrolabes: one entitled Memoirs on the Little Astrolabe and another study on the armillary sphere in Ptolemy's Almagest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a> Theon's treatise is now lost, but it was well known to the Syrian bishop <a href="/wiki/Severus_Sebokht" title="Severus Sebokht">Severus Sebokht</a> (575–667), who describes its contents in his own treatise on astrolabes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> Hypatia and Theon may have also studied Ptolemy's Planisphaerium, which describes the calculations necessary in order to construct an astrolabe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017111–112-154">[152]</a> Synesius's wording indicates that Hypatia did not design or construct the astrolabe, but acted as a guide and mentor during the process of constructing it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017112-14">[13]</a> In another letter, Synesius requests Hypatia to construct him a "hydroscope", a device now known as a <a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">hydrometer</a>, to determine the density or specific gravity of liquids.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin199222-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007104–105-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017113–114-156">[154]</a> Based on this request, some writers have proposed that Hypatia invented the hydrometer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017115-157">[155]</a> The minute detail in which Synesius describes the instrument, however, indicates that he assumes she has never heard of the device,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007105-158">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017114–115-159">[157]</a> but trusts she will be able to replicate it based on a verbal description. Hydrometers were based on <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' 3rd century BC principles, may have been invented by him, and were being described by the 2nd century AD in a poem by the Roman author Remnius.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> Although modern authors frequently credit Hypatia with having developed a variety of other inventions, these other attributions may all be discounted as spurious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007105-158">[156]</a> Booth concludes, "The modern day reputation held by Hypatia as a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer, and mechanical inventor, is disproportionate to the amount of surviving evidence of her life's work. This reputation is either built on myth or hearsay as opposed to evidence. Either that or we are missing all of the evidence that would support it."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017115-157">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> Neoplatonism and paganism both survived for centuries after Hypatia's death,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017151–152-163">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017154–155-164">[162]</a> and new academic lecture halls continued to be built in Alexandria after her death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017151-165">[163]</a> Over the next 200 years, Neoplatonist philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus the Younger</a> made astronomical observations, taught mathematics, and wrote lengthy commentaries on the works of Plato and Aristotle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017151–152-163">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017154–155-164">[162]</a> Hypatia was not the last female Neoplatonist philosopher; later ones include <a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theodora_of_Emesa" title="Theodora of Emesa">Theodora of Emesa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017151-165">[163]</a> According to Watts, however, Hypatia had no appointed successor, no spouse, and no offspring<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2008201-166">[164]</a> and her sudden death not only left her legacy unprotected, but also triggered a backlash against her entire ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017117–119-167">[165]</a> Hypatia, with her tolerance toward Christian students and her willingness to cooperate with Christian leaders, had hoped to establish a precedent that Neoplatonism and Christianity could coexist peacefully and cooperatively. Instead, her death and the subsequent failure by the Christian government to impose justice on her killers destroyed that notion entirely and led future Neoplatonists such as Damascius to consider Christian bishops as "dangerous, jealous figures who were also utterly unphilosophical."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017119-168">[166]</a> Hypatia became seen as a "martyr for philosophy",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017119-168">[166]</a> and her murder led philosophers to adopt attitudes that increasingly emphasized the pagan aspects of their beliefs system<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017119–120-169">[167]</a> and helped create a sense of identity for philosophers as pagan traditionalists set apart from the Christian masses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017120-170">[168]</a> Thus, while Hypatia's death did not bring an end to Neoplatonist philosophy as a whole, Watts argues that it did bring an end to her particular variety of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017155-171">[169]</a> Shortly after Hypatia's murder, a <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forged</a> anti-Christian letter appeared under her name.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> Damascius was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitfield199514-173">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200451-174">[172]</a> A passage from Damascius's Life of Isidore, preserved in the Suda, concludes that Hypatia's murder was due to Cyril's envy over "her wisdom exceeding all bounds and especially in the things concerning astronomy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosser200812-175">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199618-176">[174]</a> Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source attributing direct responsibility to Bishop Cyril.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199618-176">[174]</a> At the same time, Damascius was not entirely kind to Hypatia either; he characterizes her as nothing more than a wandering <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200452–53-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199341–44-178">[176]</a> and compares her unfavorably with his own teacher <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore of Alexandria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWessel200452–53-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199341–44-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199655-179">[177]</a> remarking that "Isidorus greatly outshone Hypatia, not just as a man does over a woman, but in the way a genuine philosopher will over a mere geometer."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin200754-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg/290px-Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg/435px-Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg/580px-Icon_of_Saint_Catherine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="1074" /></a><figcaption>Icon of <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Alexandria" title="Catherine of Alexandria">Saint Catherine of Alexandria</a> from <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a>, Egypt. The legend of Saint Catherine is thought to have been at least partially inspired by Hypatia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135–136-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200710-182">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017152-183">[181]</a></figcaption></figure> Hypatia's death was similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">Christian martyrs</a> in Alexandria, who had been dragged through the streets during the <a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a> in 250.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska2008141-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200711-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017150-186">[184]</a> Other aspects of Hypatia's life also fit the mold for a Christian martyr, especially her lifelong virginity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135–136-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200710–11-187">[185]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, Christians conflated Hypatia's death with stories of the Decian martyrs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135–136-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200710–11-187">[185]</a> and she became part of the basis for the legend of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Catherine of Alexandria">Saint Catherine of Alexandria</a>, a virgin martyr said to have been exceedingly wise and well-educated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135–136-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200710-182">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017152-183">[181]</a> The earliest attestation for the cult of Saint Catherine comes from the eighth century, around three hundred years after Hypatia's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200734-188">[186]</a> One story tells of Saint Catherine being confronted by fifty pagan philosophers seeking to convert her,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017152-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135-189">[187]</a> but instead converting all of them to Christianity through her eloquence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007135–136-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017152-183">[181]</a> Another legend put forth that Saint Catherine had been a student of <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh200711-185">[183]</a> In the Laodikeia of Asia Minor (today <a href="/wiki/Denizli" title="Denizli">Denizli</a> in Turkey) until late 19th century Hypatia was venerated as identical to St. Catherine.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> The Byzantine Suda encyclopedia contains a very long entry about Hypatia, which summarizes two different accounts of her life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017128–129-192">[190]</a> The first eleven lines come from one source and the rest of the entry comes from Damascius's Life of Isidore. Most of the first eleven lines of the entry probably come from <a href="/wiki/Hesychius_of_Miletus" title="Hesychius of Miletus">Hesychius</a>'s Onomatologos,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017129-193">[191]</a> but some parts are of unknown origin, including a statement that she was "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher" (apparently <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore of Alexandria</a>).<a href="#cite_note-suda-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017129-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017130-194">[192]</a> Watts describes this as puzzling, not only because Isidore of Alexandria was not born until long after Hypatia's death, and no other philosopher of that name contemporary with Hypatia is known,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017129–130-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth2017130–131-196">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> but also because it contradicts Damascius's own statement quoted in the same entry about Hypatia being a lifelong virgin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017129–130-195">[193]</a> Watts suggests that someone probably misunderstood the meaning of the word gynē used by Damascius to describe Hypatia in his Life of Isidore, since the same word can mean either "woman" or "wife".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017130-198">[196]</a> The Byzantine and Christian intellectual <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 810/820–893) includes both Damascius's account of Hypatia and Socrates Scholasticus's in his <a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Photius)" title="Bibliotheca (Photius)">Bibliotheke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017130-198">[196]</a> In his own comments, Photios remarks on Hypatia's great fame as a scholar, but does not mention her death, perhaps indicating that he saw her scholarly work as more significant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017130–131-199">[197]</a> The intellectual <a href="/wiki/Eudokia_Makrembolitissa" title="Eudokia Makrembolitissa">Eudokia Makrembolitissa</a> (1021–1096), the second wife of Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X Doukas</a>, was described by the historian <a href="/wiki/Nicephorus_Gregoras" title="Nicephorus Gregoras">Nicephorus Gregoras</a> as a "second Hypatia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199667-200">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early modern period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg/330px-Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg/500px-Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg/580px-Hypatia_-_John_Toland_1720.jpg 2x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>The eighteenth-century English <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deist</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">John Toland</a> used Hypatia's death as the basis for an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">anti-Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemic</a>, in which he changed the details of her murder and introduced new elements not found in any of his sources in order to portray Cyril in the worst possible light.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017135–136-202">[200]</a></figcaption></figure> Early eighteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deist</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">John Toland</a> used the murder of Hypatia as the basis for an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">anti-Catholic</a> tract,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017135–136-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> portraying Hypatia's death in the worst possible light by changing the story and inventing elements not found in any of the ancient sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017135–136-202">[200]</a> A 1721 response by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lewis_(controversialist)" title="Thomas Lewis (controversialist)">Thomas Lewis</a> defended Cyril,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017136–137-204">[202]</a> rejected Damascius's account as unreliable because its author was "a <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">heathen</a>"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017136–137-204">[202]</a> and argued that Socrates Scholasticus was "a <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritan</a>", who was consistently biased against Cyril.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017136–137-204">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, in his Examen important de Milord Bolingbroke ou le tombeau de fanatisme (1736) interpreted Hypatia as a believer in "the laws of rational Nature" and "the capacities of the human mind free of <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a>"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a> and described her death as "a bestial murder perpetrated by Cyril's tonsured hounds, with a fanatical gang at their heels".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19962-201">[199]</a> Later, in an entry for his <a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_philosophique" title="Dictionnaire philosophique">Dictionnaire philosophique</a> (1772), Voltaire again portrayed Hypatia as a freethinking deistic genius brutally murdered by ignorant and misunderstanding Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19963-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017139-206">[204]</a> Most of the entry ignores Hypatia altogether and instead deals with the controversy over whether or not Cyril was responsible for her death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017139-206">[204]</a> Voltaire concludes with the snide remark that "When one strips beautiful women naked, it is not to massacre them."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19963-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017139-206">[204]</a> In his monumental work <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire">The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>, the English historian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> expanded on Toland and Voltaire's misleading portrayals by declaring Cyril as the sole cause of all evil in Alexandria at the beginning of the fifth century<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19963-205">[203]</a> and construing Hypatia's murder as evidence to support his thesis that the rise of Christianity hastened the decline of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19963–4-207">[205]</a> He remarks on Cyril's continued veneration as a Christian saint, commenting that "superstition [Christianity] perhaps would more gently expiate the blood of a virgin, than the banishment of a saint."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19964-208">[206]</a> In response to these accusations, Catholic authors, as well as some French Protestants, insisted with increased vehemence that Cyril had absolutely no involvement in Hypatia's murder and that Peter the Lector was solely responsible. In the course of these heated debates, Hypatia tended to be cast aside and ignored, while the debates focused far more intently on the question of whether Peter the Lector had acted alone or under Cyril's orders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017139-206">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nineteenth_century">Nineteenth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nineteenth century">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg/200px-Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg/300px-Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg/400px-Hypatia_at_the_Haymarket_theatre_-_The_Graphic_-_21_January_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1070" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The play Hypatia, performed at the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal_Haymarket" title="Theatre Royal Haymarket">Haymarket Theatre</a> in January 1893, was based on the novel by Charles Kingsley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017142-209">[207]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia,_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg/200px-Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg/300px-Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg/400px-Hypatia%2C_by_Julia_Margaret_Cameron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3369" data-file-height="4560" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Julia_Margaret_Cameron" title="Julia Margaret Cameron">Julia Margaret Cameron</a>'s 1867 photograph Hypatia, also inspired by Charles Kingsley's novel<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017142-209">[207]</a></div></div></div></div></div> In the nineteenth century European literary authors spun the legend of Hypatia as part of <a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(neoclassicism)" title="Hellenism (neoclassicism)">neo-Hellenism</a>, a movement that romanticised <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a> and their values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a> Interest in the "literary legend of Hypatia" began to rise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19963-205">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodata_Saluzzo_Roero" title="Diodata Saluzzo Roero">Diodata Saluzzo Roero</a>'s 1827 Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a "treacherous" priest.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia_(Charles_Mitchell).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg/220px-Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg/330px-Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg/440px-Hypatia_%28Charles_Mitchell%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1982" data-file-height="3186" /></a><figcaption>Hypatia (1885) by <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Mitchell" title="Charles William Mitchell">Charles William Mitchell</a>, believed to be a depiction of a scene in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsley" title="Charles Kingsley">Charles Kingsley</a>'s 1853 novel <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(novel)" title="Hypatia (novel)">Hypatia</a><a href="#cite_note-DeathofHypatia-211">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201721–22-212">[210]</a></figcaption></figure> In his 1852 Hypatie and 1857 Hypathie et Cyrille, French poet <a href="/wiki/Leconte_de_Lisle" title="Leconte de Lisle">Charles Leconte de Lisle</a> portrayed Hypatia as the epitome of "vulnerable truth and beauty".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards1999112-213">[211]</a> Leconte de Lisle's first poem portrayed Hypatia as a woman born after her time, a victim of the laws of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19964-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201720–21-214">[212]</a> His second poem reverted to the eighteenth-century Deistic portrayal of Hypatia as the victim of Christian brutality,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201721–22-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19964–5-215">[213]</a> but with the twist that Hypatia tries and fails to convince Cyril that Neoplatonism and Christianity are actually fundamentally the same.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201721–22-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19965–6-216">[214]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsley" title="Charles Kingsley">Charles Kingsley</a>'s 1853 novel <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(novel)" title="Hypatia (novel)">Hypatia; Or, New Foes with an Old Face</a> was originally intended as a historical treatise, but instead became a typical mid-<a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> romance with a militantly anti-Catholic message,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19968-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201715-218">[216]</a> portraying Hypatia as a "helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine"<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> with the "spirit of Plato and the body of <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska19969-220">[218]</a> Kingsley's novel was tremendously popular;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017141–142-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199611-222">[220]</a> it was translated into several European languages<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199611-222">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017141-223">[221]</a> and remained continuously in print for the rest of the century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017141-223">[221]</a> It promoted the romantic vision of Hypatia as "the last of the Hellenes"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199611-222">[220]</a> and was quickly adapted into a broad variety of stage productions, the first of which was a play written by Elizabeth Bowers, performed in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in 1859, starring the writer in the titular role.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017141-223">[221]</a> On 2 January 1893, a much higher-profile stage play adaptation Hypatia, written by G. Stuart Ogilvie and produced by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Beerbohm_Tree" title="Herbert Beerbohm Tree">Herbert Beerbohm Tree</a>, opened at the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal_Haymarket" title="Theatre Royal Haymarket">Haymarket Theatre</a> in London. The title role was initially played by <a href="/wiki/Julia_Neilson" title="Julia Neilson">Julia Neilson</a>, and it featured an elaborate musical score written by the composer <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Parry" title="Hubert Parry">Hubert Parry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacqueen-Pope1948337-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcher20139-225">[223]</a> The novel also spawned works of visual art,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017142-209">[207]</a> including an 1867 image portraying Hypatia as a young woman by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">early photographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Julia_Margaret_Cameron" title="Julia Margaret Cameron">Julia Margaret Cameron</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017142-209">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> and an 1885 painting by <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Mitchell" title="Charles William Mitchell">Charles William Mitchell</a> showing a nude Hypatia standing before an altar in a church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017142-209">[207]</a> At the same time, European philosophers and scientists described Hypatia as the last representative of science and free inquiry before a "long <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> decline".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastner201050-119">[117]</a> In 1843, German authors Soldan and Heppe argued in their highly influential History of the Witchcraft Trials that Hypatia may have been, in effect, the first famous "<a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witch</a>" punished under Christian authority (see <a href="/wiki/Witch-hunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch-hunt">witch-hunt</a>).<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> Hypatia was honored as an astronomer when <a href="/wiki/238_Hypatia" title="238 Hypatia">238 Hypatia</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">main belt</a> asteroid discovered in 1884, was named for her. The <a href="/wiki/Lunar_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar crater">lunar crater</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(crater)" title="Hypatia (crater)">Hypatia</a> was also named for her, in addition to craters named for her father Theon. The 180 km Rimae Hypatia are located north of the crater, one degree south of the equator, along the <a href="/wiki/Mare_Tranquillitatis" title="Mare Tranquillitatis">Mare Tranquillitatis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201727-228">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Twentieth century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:435px;max-width:435px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia_(1900_Play).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Hypatia_%281900_Play%29.png/220px-Hypatia_%281900_Play%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Hypatia_%281900_Play%29.png/330px-Hypatia_%281900_Play%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Hypatia_%281900_Play%29.png 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="526" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">An actress, possibly <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anderson_(actress,_born_1859)" title="Mary Anderson (actress, born 1859)">Mary Anderson</a>, in the title role of the play Hypatia, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900. Similarities between this image and the Gaspard portrait at right indicate this one may have served as a model for the Gaspard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725–26,_28-229">[227]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:209px;max-width:209px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypatia_portrait.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hypatia_portrait.png/207px-Hypatia_portrait.png" decoding="async" width="207" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hypatia_portrait.png/311px-Hypatia_portrait.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hypatia_portrait.png/414px-Hypatia_portrait.png 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1722" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">This fictional portrait of Hypatia by Jules Maurice Gaspard, originally the illustration for <a href="/wiki/Elbert_Hubbard" title="Elbert Hubbard">Elbert Hubbard</a>'s 1908 fictional biography, has now become the most iconic and widely reproduced image of her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007163-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847-231">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725–26-232">[230]</a></div></div></div></div></div> In 1908, American writer <a href="/wiki/Elbert_Hubbard" title="Elbert Hubbard">Elbert Hubbard</a> published a putative biography of Hypatia in his series Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Teachers. The book is almost entirely a work of fiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007163-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847–48-233">[231]</a> In it, Hubbard writes that Theon established a program of physical exercise for his daughter, involving "fishing, horseback-riding, and rowing".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200848-234">[232]</a> He states that Theon taught Hypatia to "Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better than to never think at all."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200848-234">[232]</a> Hubbard also writes that, as a young woman, Hypatia traveled to Athens, where she studied under <a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a>. All of this supposed biographical information, however, is completely fictional and is not found in any ancient source. Hubbard even attributes to Hypatia numerous completely fabricated quotations in which she presents modern, rationalist views.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200848-234">[232]</a> The cover illustration for the book, a drawing of Hypatia by artist Jules Maurice Gaspard showing her as a beautiful young woman with her wavy hair tied back in the classical style, has now become the most iconic and widely reproduced image of her.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007163-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847-231">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725–26-232">[230]</a> Around the same time, Hypatia was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminists</a>, and her life and death began to be viewed in the light of the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199616-235">[233]</a> The author Carlo Pascal wrote in 1908 that her murder was an anti-feminist act and brought about a change in the treatment of women, as well as the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> civilization in general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725-236">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dora_Russell" title="Dora Russell">Dora Russell</a> published a book on the inadequate education of women and inequality with the title Hypatia or Woman and Knowledge in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201726–27-237">[235]</a> The prologue explains why she chose the title:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201726–27-237">[235]</a> "Hypatia was a university lecturer denounced by Church dignitaries and torn to pieces by Christians. Such will probably be the fate of this book."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201727-228">[226]</a> Hypatia's death became symbolic for some historians. For example, Kathleen Wider proposes that the murder of Hypatia marked the end of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Greenblatt" title="Stephen Greenblatt">Stephen Greenblatt</a> writes that her murder "effectively marked the downfall of Alexandrian intellectual life".<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wildberg" title="Christian Wildberg">Christian Wildberg</a> notes that <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> continued to flourish in the 5th and 6th centuries, and perhaps until the age of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska1996105-241">[239]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;">Fables should be taught as fables, myths as myths, and miracles as poetic fantasies. To teach superstitions as truths is a most terrible thing. The child mind accepts and believes them, and only through great pain and perhaps tragedy can he be in after years relieved of them. In fact, men will fight for a superstition quite as quickly as for a living truth–often more so, since a superstition is so intangible you can not get at it to refute it, but truth is a point of view, and so is changeable.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Made-up quote attributed to Hypatia in <a href="/wiki/Elbert_Hubbard" title="Elbert Hubbard">Elbert Hubbard</a>'s 1908 fictional biography of her, along with several other similarly spurious quotations<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200848-234">[232]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Falsehoods and misconceptions about Hypatia continued to proliferate throughout the late twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847–48-233">[231]</a> Though Hubbard's fictional biography may have been intended for children,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847-231">[229]</a> Lynn M. Osen relied on it as her main source in her influential 1974 article on Hypatia in her 1974 book <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mathematics_(book)" title="Women in Mathematics (book)">Women in Mathematics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847–48-233">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a> used Hubbard's biography as the main source of information about Hypatia in a medieval history course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeakin2007163-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen200847–48-233">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>'s 1980 <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> series <a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage" title="Cosmos: A Personal Voyage">Cosmos: A Personal Voyage</a> relates a heavily fictionalized retelling of Hypatia's death, which results in the "<a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Great Library of Alexandria</a>" being burned by militant Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a> In actuality, though Christians led by Theophilus did destroy the Serapeum in 391 AD, the Library of Alexandria had already ceased to exist in any recognizable form centuries prior to Hypatia's birth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182–183-11">[10]</a> As a female intellectual, Hypatia became a role model for modern intelligent women and two feminist journals were named after her: the Greek journal Hypatia: Feminist Studies was launched in Athens in 1984, and <a href="/wiki/Hypatia_(journal)" title="Hypatia (journal)">Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy</a> in the United States in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDzielska199616-235">[233]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the Hypatia Trust maintains a library and archive of feminine literary, artistic and scientific work; and, sponsors the Hypatia-in-the-Woods women's retreat in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(State)" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington (State)">Washington</a>, United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201727-228">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judy_Chicago" title="Judy Chicago">Judy Chicago</a>'s large-scale art piece <a href="/wiki/The_Dinner_Party" title="The Dinner Party">The Dinner Party</a> awards Hypatia a <a href="/wiki/Table_setting" title="Table setting">table setting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201722-243">[241]</a> The table runner depicts Hellenistic goddesses weeping over her death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725-236">[234]</a> Chicago states that the social unrest leading to Hypatia's murder resulted from Roman patriarchy and mistreatment of women and that this ongoing unrest can only be brought to an end through the restoration of an original, primeval matriarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201722–23-244">[242]</a> She (anachronistically and incorrectly) concludes that Hypatia's writings were burned in the Library of Alexandria when it was destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201725-236">[234]</a> Major works of twentieth century literature contain references to Hypatia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201714–30-245">[243]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>'s volume "Within a Budding Grove" from <a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_Lost_Time" title="In Search of Lost Time">In Search of Lost Time</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iain_Pears" title="Iain Pears">Iain Pears</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Dream_of_Scipio_(novel)" title="The Dream of Scipio (novel)">The Dream of Scipio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201715-218">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-first_century">Twenty-first century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Twenty-first century">edit</a>]</div> Hypatia has continued to be a popular subject in both fiction and nonfiction by authors in many countries and languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201713–20-246">[244]</a> In 2015, the planet designated <a href="/wiki/Iota_Draconis_b" title="Iota Draconis b">Iota Draconis b</a> was named after Hypatia.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a>'s 2002 novel <a href="/wiki/Baudolino" title="Baudolino">Baudolino</a>, the hero's love interest is a half-satyr, half-woman descendant of a female-only community of Hypatia's disciples, collectively known as "hypatias".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201716-248">[246]</a> Charlotte Kramer's 2006 novel Holy Murder: the Death of Hypatia of Alexandria portrays Cyril as an archetypal villain, while Hypatia is described as brilliant, beloved, and more knowledgeable of scripture than Cyril.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201716–18-249">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ki_Longfellow" title="Ki Longfellow">Ki Longfellow</a>'s novel Flow Down Like Silver (2009) invents an elaborate backstory for why Hypatia first started teaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201718–19-250">[248]</a> <a href="/wiki/Youssef_Ziedan" title="Youssef Ziedan">Youssef Ziedan</a>'s novel <a href="/wiki/Azazeel_(novel)" title="Azazeel (novel)">Azazeel</a> (2012) describes Hypatia's murder through the eyes of a witness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201719–20-251">[249]</a> Bruce MacLennan's 2013 book The Wisdom of Hypatia presents Hypatia as a guide who introduces Neoplatonic philosophy and exercises for modern life.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Plot_to_Save_Socrates" title="The Plot to Save Socrates">The Plot to Save Socrates</a> (2006) by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Levinson" title="Paul Levinson">Paul Levinson</a> and its sequels, Hypatia is a time-traveler from the twenty-first century <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> In the TV series <a href="/wiki/The_Good_Place" title="The Good Place">The Good Place</a> Season 4 Episode 12 "Patty", Hypatia is played by <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Kudrow" title="Lisa Kudrow">Lisa Kudrow</a> as one of the few ancient philosophers eligible for heaven, by not having defended slavery.<a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> The 2009 film <a href="/wiki/Agora_(film)" title="Agora (film)">Agora</a>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Amen%C3%A1bar" title="Alejandro Amenábar">Alejandro Amenábar</a> and starring <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Weisz" title="Rachel Weisz">Rachel Weisz</a> as Hypatia, is a heavily fictionalized dramatization of Hypatia's final years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182–183-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017145-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201713–14-258">[256]</a> The film, which was intended to criticize contemporary <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Christian fundamentalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182-259">[257]</a> has had wide-ranging impact on the popular conception of Hypatia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017145-257">[255]</a> It emphasizes Hypatia's astronomical and mechanical studies rather than her philosophy, portraying her as "less Plato than Copernicus",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017145-257">[255]</a> and emphasizes the restrictions imposed on women by the early Christian church,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017145–146-260">[258]</a> including depictions of Hypatia being <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexually assaulted</a> by one of her father's Christian slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017146-261">[259]</a> and of Cyril reading from <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Timothy#2:8" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Timothy">1 Timothy 2:8–12</a> forbidding women from teaching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017146-261">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBooth201714-262">[260]</a> The film contains numerous historical inaccuracies:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182–183-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts2017146-261">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2014-263">[261]</a> It inflates Hypatia's achievements<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMark2014-263">[261]</a> and incorrectly portrays her as finding a proof of <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> of the universe, which there is no evidence that Hypatia ever studied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a> It also contains a scene based on Carl Sagan's <a href="/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage" title="Cosmos: A Personal Voyage">Cosmos</a> in which Christians raid the Serapeum and burn all of its scrolls, leaving the building itself largely intact. In reality, the Serapeum probably did not have any scrolls in it at that time,<a href="#cite_note-264">[c]</a> and the building was demolished in 391 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016182–183-11">[10]</a> The film also implies that Hypatia is an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a>, directly contradictory to the surviving sources, which all portray her as following the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> that the goal of philosophy was "a mystical union with the divine."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore2016183-151">[149]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science" title="Timeline of women in science">Timeline of women in science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/haɪˈpeɪʃə, -ʃiə/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/53\/En-us-Hypatia.oga\/En-us-Hypatia.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-Hypatia.oga"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/En-us-Hypatia.oga/En-us-Hypatia.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Hypatia.oga" title="File:En-us-Hypatia.oga">ⓘ</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">hy-PAY-shə, -⁠shee-ə</a>;<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: Ὑπατία, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a> pronunciation <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[y.pa.ˈti.a]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Using music to relieve lustful urges was a <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a> remedy<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts201775-62">[61]</a> stemming from an anecdote from the life of <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> relating that, when he encountered some drunken youths trying to break into the home of a virtuous woman, he sang a solemn tune with long <a href="/wiki/Spondee" title="Spondee">spondees</a> and the boys' "raging willfulness" was quelled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiedweg200530-63">[62]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, writing before the Serapeum's destruction in 391 AD, refers to the Serapeum's libraries in the past tense, indicating that the libraries no longer existed by the time of the Serapeum's destruction. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MacTutorMath-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacTutorMath_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacTutorMath_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund F. 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href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArcher2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_Archer_(critic)" title="William Archer (critic)">Archer, William</a> (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WtGengEACAAJ">The Theatrical World For 1893–1897</a>, HardPress, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-314-50827-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-314-50827-7"><bdi>978-1-314-50827-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theatrical+World+For+1893%E2%80%931897&rft.pub=HardPress&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-314-50827-7&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWtGengEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBanev2015" class="citation cs2">Banev, Krastu (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rCF5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100">Theophilus of Alexandria and the First Origenist Controversy: Rhetoric and Power</a>, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872754-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872754-5"><bdi>978-0-19-872754-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theophilus+of+Alexandria+and+the+First+Origenist+Controversy%3A+Rhetoric+and+Power&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872754-5&rft.aulast=Banev&rft.aufirst=Krastu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrCF5BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBelenkiy2010" class="citation cs2">Belenkiy, Ari (1 April 2010), "An astronomical murder?", Astronomy & Geophysics, 51 (2): 2.9 – 2.13, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010A&G....51b...9B">2010A&G....51b...9B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2010.51209.x">10.1111/j.1468-4004.2010.51209.x</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Geophysics&rft.atitle=An+astronomical+murder%3F&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2.9+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2.13%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2010-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2010.51209.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010A%26G....51b...9B&rft.aulast=Belenkiy&rft.aufirst=Ari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBooth2017" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Booth" title="Charlotte Booth">Booth, Charlotte</a> (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RVvdDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT57">Hypatia: Mathematician, Philosopher, Myth</a>, London: Fonthill Media, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78155-546-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78155-546-0"><bdi>978-1-78155-546-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia%3A+Mathematician%2C+Philosopher%2C+Myth&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fonthill+Media&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78155-546-0&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRVvdDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradley2006" class="citation cs2">Bradley, Michael John (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EIdtVPeD7GcC">The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient Times to 1300</a>, New York City: Infobase Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5423-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5423-7"><bdi>978-0-8160-5423-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Mathematics%3A+Ancient+Times+to+1300&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5423-7&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Michael+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEIdtVPeD7GcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBregman1982" class="citation cs2">Bregman, Jay (1982), Brown, Peter (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V_515iG8i14C&pg=PA39">Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-Bishop</a>, The Transformation of the Classical Heritage, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04192-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04192-9"><bdi>978-0-520-04192-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Synesius+of+Cyrene%3A+Philosopher-Bishop&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=The+Transformation+of+the+Classical+Heritage&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04192-9&rft.aulast=Bregman&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV_515iG8i14C%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameronLongSherry1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cameron_(classical_scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Cameron (classical scholar)">Cameron, Alan</a>; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6t44B0-a98C&pg=PA59">Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius</a>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06550-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06550-5"><bdi>978-0-520-06550-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians+and+Politics+at+the+Court+of+Arcadius&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06550-5&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Long%2C+Jacqueline&rft.au=Sherry%2C+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT6t44B0-a98C%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron2016" class="citation cs2">Cameron, Alan (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7ZwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA194">"Hypatia: Life, Death, and Works"</a>, Wandering Poets and Other Essays on Late Greek Literature and Philosophy, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026894-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026894-7"><bdi>978-0-19-026894-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hypatia%3A+Life%2C+Death%2C+and+Works&rft.btitle=Wandering+Poets+and+Other+Essays+on+Late+Greek+Literature+and+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-026894-7&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH7ZwCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCastner2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Castner, Catherine J. (2010), "Hypatia", in Gagarin, Michael; <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fantham" title="Elaine Fantham">Fantham, Elaine</a> (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNV6-HsUppsC&pg=RA3-PA49">The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome</a>, vol. 1: Academy-Bible, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 49–51, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538839-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538839-8"><bdi>978-0-19-538839-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hypatia&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538839-8&rft.aulast=Castner&rft.aufirst=Catherine+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNV6-HsUppsC%26pg%3DRA3-PA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCohen2008" class="citation cs2">Cohen, Martin (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kwj31dqNssAC&pg=PA47">Philosophical Tales: Being an Alternative History Revealing the Characters, the Plots, and the Hidden Scenes that Make Up the True Story of Philosophy</a>, New York City and London: Wiley-Blackwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405140379" title="Special:BookSources/978-1405140379"><bdi>978-1405140379</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Tales%3A+Being+an+Alternative+History+Revealing+the+Characters%2C+the+Plots%2C+and+the+Hidden+Scenes+that+Make+Up+the+True+Story+of+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York+City+and+London&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1405140379&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkwj31dqNssAC%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurtaHolt2017" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA283">Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History</a>, vol. 1: Prehistory to AD 600, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-4598-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-4598-7"><bdi>978-1-4408-4598-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Events+in+Religion%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Pivotal+Events+in+Religious+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-4598-7&rft.aulast=Curta&rft.aufirst=Florin&rft.au=Holt%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdgF9DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeakin1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Michael_A._B._Deakin" title="Michael A. B. Deakin">Deakin, M. A. B.</a> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qedcat.com/function/16.1short.pdf">"Hypatia of Alexandria"</a> (PDF), History of Mathematics Section, Function, 16 (1): 17–22, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.qedcat.com/function/16.1short.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Function&rft.atitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qedcat.com%2Ffunction%2F16.1short.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeakin1994" class="citation cs2">Deakin, Michael A. B. (1994), "Hypatia and her mathematics", <a href="/wiki/American_Mathematical_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="American Mathematical Monthly">American Mathematical Monthly</a>, 101 (3): 234–243, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2975600">10.2307/2975600</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2975600">2975600</a>, <a href="/wiki/MR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="MR (identifier)">MR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1264003">1264003</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=Hypatia+and+her+mathematics&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E243&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathscinet.ams.org%2Fmathscinet-getitem%3Fmr%3D1264003%23id-name%3DMR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2975600%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2975600&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeakin2007" class="citation cs2">Deakin, Michael A. B. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P6X1DJ7UIb4C&pg=PA135">Hypatia of Alexandria: Mathematician and Martyr</a>, Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-520-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-520-7"><bdi>978-1-59102-520-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria%3A+Mathematician+and+Martyr&rft.place=Amherst%2C+NY&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-520-7&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP6X1DJ7UIb4C%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeakin2012" class="citation cs2">Deakin, Michael (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hypatia">"Hypatia"</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Hypatia&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FHypatia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDzielska1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Dzielska" title="Maria Dzielska">Dzielska, Maria</a> (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UCkgLBCh2m0C">Hypatia of Alexandria</a>, Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-43776-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-43776-0"><bdi>978-0-674-43776-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-43776-0&rft.aulast=Dzielska&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUCkgLBCh2m0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDzielska2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Dzielska" title="Maria Dzielska">Dzielska, Maria</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hNtcejI_IGkC&pg=PA129">"Learned women in the Alexandrian scholarship and society of late Hellenism"</a>, in el-Abbadi, Mostafa; 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Geschlechtsspezifische Unterscheidungen Rollenzuschreibungen im Wandel der Zeit</a> (PDF), Kassel University Press, pp. 97–124, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89958-449-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89958-449-3"><bdi>978-3-89958-449-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.uni-kassel.de/upress/online/frei/978-3-89958-449-3.volltext.frei.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zwischen+Philosophie+und+Religion%3A+Weibliche+Intellektuelle+in+Sp%C3%A4tantike+und+Islam&rft.btitle=Gender+schafft+Wissen%2C+Wissenschaft+Gender%3F+Geschlechtsspezifische+Unterscheidungen+Rollenzuschreibungen+im+Wandel+der+Zeit&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E124&rft.pub=Kassel+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-89958-449-3&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-kassel.de%2Fupress%2Fonline%2Ffrei%2F978-3-89958-449-3.volltext.frei.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaas1997" class="citation cs2">Haas, Christopher (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cVHKPW5MRaQC">Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict</a>, Baltimore, MS and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5377-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5377-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-5377-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexandria+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Topography+and+Social+Conflict&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MS+and+London&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5377-7&rft.aulast=Haas&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcVHKPW5MRaQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoche1860" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoche" title="Richard Hoche">Hoche, Richard</a> (January 1860), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448938">"XV. 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(17 February 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/656/historical-accuracy-in-the-film-agora/">"Historical Accuracy in the Film Agora"</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Historical+Accuracy+in+the+Film+Agora&rft.date=2014-02-17&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F656%2Fhistorical-accuracy-in-the-film-agora%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNovak2010" class="citation cs2">Novak, Ralph Martin Jr. (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuhZyh1_j6oC&pg=PA240">Christianity and the Roman Empire: Background Texts</a>, Harrisburg, PA: Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 239–240, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56338-347-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56338-347-2"><bdi>978-1-56338-347-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+the+Roman+Empire%3A+Background+Texts&rft.place=Harrisburg%2C+PA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E240&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-56338-347-2&rft.aulast=Novak&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Martin+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLuhZyh1_j6oC%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOakes2007" class="citation cs2">Oakes, Elizabeth H. 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(2007), "Hypatia", in Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine; Jarrell, Richard; Marché, Jordan D.; Ragep, F. 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(1984), "When was Hypatia born?", <a href="/wiki/Historia_(classical_antiquity_history_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia (classical antiquity history journal)">Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</a>, 33 (1): 126–128, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435877">4435877</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=When+was+Hypatia+born%3F&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E126-%3C%2Fspan%3E128&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4435877%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Penella&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRiedweg2005" class="citation cs2">Riedweg, Christoph (2005) [2002], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC">Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence</a>, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7452-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7452-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-7452-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pythagoras%3A+His+Life%2C+Teachings%2C+and+Influence&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-7452-1&rft.aulast=Riedweg&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA8ixyQJA7_MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosser2008" class="citation cs2">Rosser, Sue Vilhauser (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OB4OgT8OH7sC">Women, Science, and Myth: Gender Beliefs from Antiquity to the Present</a>, Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598840957" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598840957"><bdi>978-1598840957</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Science%2C+and+Myth%3A+Gender+Beliefs+from+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1598840957&rft.aulast=Rosser&rft.aufirst=Sue+Vilhauser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOB4OgT8OH7sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTheodore2016" class="citation cs2">Theodore, Jonathan (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3QPWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183">The Modern Cultural Myth of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>, Manchester, England: Palgrave, Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56997-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56997-4"><bdi>978-1-137-56997-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Cultural+Myth+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Manchester%2C+England&rft.pub=Palgrave%2C+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-56997-4&rft.aulast=Theodore&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3QPWDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaithe1987" class="citation cs2">Waithe, Mary Ellen (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x7ngECDpxmMC&pg=PA173">Ancient Women Philosophers: 600 B.C.–500 A. D</a>, vol. 1, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3368-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3368-2"><bdi>978-90-247-3368-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Women+Philosophers%3A+600+B.C.%E2%80%93500+A.+D&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-90-247-3368-2&rft.aulast=Waithe&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx7ngECDpxmMC%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2007" class="citation cs2">Walsh, Christine (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ojrjh0aJKVsC&pg=PA10">The Cult of St Katherine of Alexandria in Early Medieval Europe</a>, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5861-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-5861-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cult+of+St+Katherine+of+Alexandria+in+Early+Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5861-0&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dojrjh0aJKVsC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatts2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_J._Watts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward J. Watts (page does not exist)">Watts, Edward J.</a> (2008) [2006], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MKolDQAAQBAJ">City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria</a>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520258167" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520258167"><bdi>978-0520258167</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+and+School+in+Late+Antique+Athens+and+Alexandria&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0520258167&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMKolDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatts2017" class="citation cs2">Watts, Edward J. (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0KL_DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA119">Hypatia: The Life and Legend of an Ancient Philosopher</a>, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190659141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190659141"><bdi>978-0190659141</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia%3A+The+Life+and+Legend+of+an+Ancient+Philosopher&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0190659141&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0KL_DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWessel2004" class="citation cs2">Wessel, Susan (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YcgSDAAAQBAJ">Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic</a>, Oxford Early Christian Studies, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926846-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926846-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyril+of+Alexandria+and+the+Nestorian+Controversy%3A+The+Making+of+a+Saint+and+of+a+Heretic&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.series=Oxford+Early+Christian+Studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926846-7&rft.aulast=Wessel&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYcgSDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhitfield1995" class="citation cs2">Whitfield, Bryan J. (Summer 1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902110939/http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/Issues/v06n1/4whitfield.pdf">"The Beauty of Reasoning: A Reexamination of Hypatia and Alexandria"</a> (PDF), <a href="/wiki/The_Mathematics_Educator" title="The Mathematics Educator">The Mathematics Educator</a>, 6 (1): 14–21, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/issues/v06n1/4whitfield.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 September 2006, retrieved 17 April 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mathematics+Educator&rft.atitle=The+Beauty+of+Reasoning%3A+A+Reexamination+of+Hypatia+and+Alexandria&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Whitfield&rft.aufirst=Bryan+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.coe.uga.edu%2Ftme%2Fissues%2Fv06n1%2F4whitfield.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerggren2009" class="citation cs2">Berggren, J. L. (February 2009), "The life and death of Hypatia", Metascience, 18 (1): 93–97, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11016-009-9256-z">10.1007/s11016-009-9256-z</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170359849">170359849</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metascience&rft.atitle=The+life+and+death+of+Hypatia&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E97&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11016-009-9256-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170359849%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Berggren&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBernardi2016" class="citation cs2">Bernardi, Gabriella (2016), "Hypatia of Alexandria (355 or 370 c. to 415)", The Unforgotten Sisters: Female Astronomers and Scientists before Caroline Herschel, Springer Praxis Books, pp. 27–36, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-26127-0_5">10.1007/978-3-319-26127-0_5</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319261270" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319261270"><bdi>978-3319261270</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria+%28355+or+370+c.+to+415%29&rft.btitle=The+Unforgotten+Sisters%3A+Female+Astronomers+and+Scientists+before+Caroline+Herschel&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.pub=Springer+Praxis+Books&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-26127-0_5&rft.isbn=978-3319261270&rft.aulast=Bernardi&rft.aufirst=Gabriella&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrakke2018" class="citation cs2">Brakke, David (2018), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccdl.libraries.claremont.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/cce/id/2159">"Hypatia"</a>, in Torjesen, Karen; Gabra, Gawdat (eds.), Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia, Claremont Graduate University</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hypatia&rft.btitle=Claremont+Coptic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Claremont+Graduate+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Brakke&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccdl.libraries.claremont.edu%2Fcdm%2Fsingleitem%2Fcollection%2Fcce%2Fid%2F2159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCain1986" class="citation cs2">Cain, Kathleen (Spring 1986), "Hypatia, the Alexandrian Library, and M.L.S. (Martyr-Librarian Syndrome)", Community & Junior College Libraries, 4 (3): 35–39, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ107V04N03_05">10.1300/J107V04N03_05</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Community+%26+Junior+College+Libraries&rft.atitle=Hypatia%2C+the+Alexandrian+Library%2C+and+M.L.S.+%28Martyr-Librarian+Syndrome%29&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2FJ107V04N03_05&rft.aulast=Cain&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron1990" class="citation cs2">Cameron, Alan (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/4171">"Isadore of Miletus and Hypatia: On the editing of mathematical texts"</a>, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 31 (1): 103–127</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greek%2C+Roman+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=Isadore+of+Miletus+and+Hypatia%3A+On+the+editing+of+mathematical+texts&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E103-%3C%2Fspan%3E127&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrbs.library.duke.edu%2Farticle%2Fview%2F4171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDonovan2008" class="citation cs2">Donovan, Sandy (2008), Hypatia: Mathematician, Inventor, and Philosopher (Signature Lives: Ancient World), Compass Point Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0756537609" title="Special:BookSources/978-0756537609"><bdi>978-0756537609</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia%3A+Mathematician%2C+Inventor%2C+and+Philosopher+%28Signature+Lives%3A+Ancient+World%29&rft.pub=Compass+Point+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0756537609&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Sandy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMolinaro1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ursule_Molinaro" title="Ursule Molinaro">Molinaro, Ursule</a> (1990), "A Christian Martyr in Reverse: Hypatia", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fullmoonofwomen200moli">A Full Moon of Women: 29 Word Portraits of Notable Women From Different Times and Places + 1 Void of Course</a>, New York City: Dutton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-24848-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-24848-4"><bdi>978-0-525-24848-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Christian+Martyr+in+Reverse%3A+Hypatia&rft.btitle=A+Full+Moon+of+Women%3A+29+Word+Portraits+of+Notable+Women+From+Different+Times+and+Places+%2B+1+Void+of+Course&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-525-24848-4&rft.aulast=Molinaro&rft.aufirst=Ursule&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffullmoonofwomen200moli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNietupski1993" class="citation cs2">Nietupski, Nancy (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sboJPPCBpuQC&pg=PA45">"Hypatia of Alexandria: Mathematician, astronomer and philosopher"</a>, Alexandria, 2, Phanes Press: 45–56, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0933999978" title="Special:BookSources/978-0933999978"><bdi>978-0933999978</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alexandria&rft.atitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria%3A+Mathematician%2C+astronomer+and+philosopher&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0933999978&rft.aulast=Nietupski&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsboJPPCBpuQC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988">. See also The Life of Hypatia from The Suda (Jeremiah Reedy, trans.), pp. 57–58, The Life of Hypatia by Socrates Scholasticus from his Ecclesiastical History 7.13, pp. 59–60, and The Life of Hypatia by John, Bishop of Nikiu, from his Chronicle 84.87–103, pp. 61–63.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFParsons1892" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Reuben_Parsons_(priest)" title="Reuben Parsons (priest)">Parsons, Reuben</a> (1892), "St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Murder of Hypatia", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/somelieserrorsof00parsuoft#page/44/mode/2up">Some Lies and Errors of History</a>, Notre Dame, IN: Office of the "Ave Maria", pp. 44–53</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=St.+Cyril+of+Alexandria+and+the+Murder+of+Hypatia&rft.btitle=Some+Lies+and+Errors+of+History&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+IN&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E44-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.pub=Office+of+the+%22Ave+Maria%22&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=Reuben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fsomelieserrorsof00parsuoft%23page%2F44%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRicheson1940" class="citation cs2">Richeson, A. W. (1940), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jnsilva.ludicum.org/Sherlock/hypatia1.pdf">"Hypatia of Alexandria"</a> (PDF), National Mathematics Magazine, 15 (2): 74–82, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3028426">10.2307/3028426</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3028426">3028426</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Mathematics+Magazine&rft.atitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3028426&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3028426%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Richeson&rft.aufirst=A.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjnsilva.ludicum.org%2FSherlock%2Fhypatia1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRist1965" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Rist" title="John Rist">Rist, J. M.</a> (1965), <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(classics_journal)" title="Phoenix (classics journal)">"Hypatia"</a>, Phoenix, 19 (3): 214–225, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1086284">10.2307/1086284</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1086284">1086284</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phoenix&rft.atitle=Hypatia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E225&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1086284&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1086284%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rist&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRonchey2021" class="citation cs2">Ronchey, Silvia (2021) [2011], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gt7YzQEACAAJ">Hypatia: The True Story</a>, Berlin-New York: DeGruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1107-1757-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1107-1757-0"><bdi>978-3-1107-1757-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia%3A+The+True+Story&rft.place=Berlin-New+York&rft.pub=DeGruyter&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-1107-1757-0&rft.aulast=Ronchey&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgt7YzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchaefer1902" class="citation cs2">Schaefer, Francis (1902), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015022676665;view=1up;seq=449">"St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Murder of Hypatia"</a>, The Catholic University Bulletin, 8: 441–453</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+University+Bulletin&rft.atitle=St.+Cyril+of+Alexandria+and+the+Murder+of+Hypatia&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E441-%3C%2Fspan%3E453&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015022676665%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTeruel2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Teruel, Pedro Jesús (2011), Filosofía y Ciencia en Hipatia (in Spanish), Madrid: Gredos, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1939-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1939-9"><bdi>978-84-249-1939-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Filosof%C3%ADa+y+Ciencia+en+Hipatia&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Gredos&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-84-249-1939-9&rft.aulast=Teruel&rft.aufirst=Pedro+Jes%C3%BAs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVogt1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kari_Vogt" title="Kari Vogt">Vogt, Kari</a> (1993), "'The Hierophant of Philosophy' – Hypatia of Alexandria", in Børresen, Kari Elisabeth; Vogt, Kari (eds.), Women's Studies of the Christian and Islamic Traditions: Ancient, Medieval and Renaissance Foremothers, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 155–175, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-1664-0_3">10.1007/978-94-011-1664-0_3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9401116640" title="Special:BookSources/978-9401116640"><bdi>978-9401116640</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27The+Hierophant+of+Philosophy%27+%E2%80%93+Hypatia+of+Alexandria&rft.btitle=Women%27s+Studies+of+the+Christian+and+Islamic+Traditions%3A+Ancient%2C+Medieval+and+Renaissance+Foremothers&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E155-%3C%2Fspan%3E175&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-1664-0_3&rft.isbn=978-9401116640&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=Kari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZielinski2010" class="citation cs2">Zielinski, Sarah (14 March 2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104184550/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/specialsections/womens-history/Hypatia-Ancient-Alexandrias-Great-Female-Scholar.html">"Hypatia, Alexandria's Great Female Scholar"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/specialsections/womens-history/Hypatia-Ancient-Alexandrias-Great-Female-Scholar.html">the original</a> on 4 January 2014, retrieved 28 May 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Hypatia%2C+Alexandria%27s+Great+Female+Scholar&rft.date=2010-03-14&rft.aulast=Zielinski&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fspecialsections%2Fwomens-history%2FHypatia-Ancient-Alexandrias-Great-Female-Scholar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypatia" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isns.us/">International Society for Neoplatonic Studies</a></li> <li>Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical History, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ecclesiasticalhi00socruoft#page/348/mode/2up">VII.15</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li>(in Greek and Latin) Socrates of Constantinople, Ecclesiastical History, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0380-0440,_Socrates_Scholasticus,_Ecclesiastica_Hstoria_2_(Hussey_Editore),_GR.pdf">VII.15</a> (pp. 760–761), at the Documenta Catholica Omnia</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Hypatia" class="extiw" title="q:Hypatia">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/author:Hypatia" class="extiw" title="s:author:Hypatia">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11903" class="extiw" title="d:Q11903">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Platonists57" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Platonists" title="Template:Platonists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Platonists" title="Template talk:Platonists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Platonists57" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academics98" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristonymus_of_Athens" title="Aristonymus of Athens">Aristonymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriscus_of_Scepsis" title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erastus_of_Scepsis" title="Erastus of Scepsis">Erastus of Scepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Amphipolis" title="Demetrius of Amphipolis">Demetrius of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euaeon_of_Lampsacus" title="Euaeon of Lampsacus">Euaeon of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_of_Aenus" title="Heraclides of Aenus">Heraclides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Python_of_Aenus" title="Python of Aenus">Python of Aenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiaeus_of_Perinthus" title="Hestiaeus of Perinthus">Hestiaeus of Perinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lastheneia_of_Mantinea" title="Lastheneia of Mantinea">Lastheneia of Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Cyzicus" title="Timolaus of Cyzicus">Timolaus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiothea_of_Phlius" title="Axiothea of Phlius">Axiothea of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus_of_Pyrrha" title="Menedemus of Pyrrha">Menedemus of Pyrrha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crantor" title="Crantor">Crantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_(scholarch)" title="Polemon (scholarch)">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Athens" title="Crates of Athens">Crates of Athens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Skeptics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_of_Cnidus" title="Diocles of Cnidus">Diocles of Cnidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecles" title="Telecles">Telecles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evander_(philosopher)" title="Evander (philosopher)">Evander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesinus_of_Pergamon" title="Hegesinus of Pergamon">Hegesinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagnon_of_Tarsus" title="Hagnon of Tarsus">Hagnon of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmadas" title="Charmadas">Charmadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Neapolis" title="Aeschines of Neapolis">Aeschines of Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_of_Alexandria" title="Dio of Alexandria">Dio of Alexandria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Peloplaton" title="Alexander Peloplaton">Alexander Peloplaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen_the_Pagan" title="Origen the Pagan">Origen the Pagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelius" title="Amelius">Amelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_of_Tyre" title="Porphyry of Tyre">Porphyry of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopater_of_Apamea" title="Sopater of Apamea">Sopater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustathius_of_Cappadocia" title="Eustathius of Cappadocia">Eustathius of Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosipatra" title="Sosipatra">Sosipatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesius" title="Aedesius">Aedesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus_(philosopher)" title="Dexippus (philosopher)">Dexippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthius" title="Chrysanthius">Chrysanthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Asine" title="Theodorus of Asine">Theodorus of Asine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Ephesus" title="Maximus of Ephesus">Maximus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Myndus" title="Eusebius of Myndus">Eusebius of Myndus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_of_Epirus" title="Priscus of Epirus">Priscus of Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_(philosopher)" title="Antoninus (philosopher)">Antoninus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius_Victorinus" title="Gaius Marius Victorinus">Gaius Marius Victorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academy7" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermias_(philosopher)" title="Hermias (philosopher)">Hermias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiodotus_of_Alexandria" title="Asclepiodotus of Alexandria">Asclepiodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegias" title="Hegias">Hegias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodotus_(philosopher)" title="Zenodotus (philosopher)">Zenodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapius_of_Athens" title="Agapius of Athens">Agapius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian_of_Lydia" title="Priscian of Lydia">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_the_Invincible" title="David the Invincible">David the Invincible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berthold_of_Moosburg" title="Berthold of Moosburg">Berthold of Moosburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Florentine_Academy50" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy_(Florence)" title="Platonic Academy (Florence)">Florentine Academy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Cudworth" title="Ralph Cudworth">Ralph Cudworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Conway_(philosopher)" title="Anne Conway (philosopher)">Anne Conway</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_(neoplatonist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)">Thomas Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksei Losev</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Roman Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_mathematics550" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_mathematics550" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Ancient Greek mathematics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians">(timeline)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristaeus_the_Elder" title="Aristaeus the Elder">Aristaeus the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Heraclea" title="Bryson of Heraclea">Bryson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpus_of_Antioch" title="Carpus of Antioch">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_(mathematician)" title="Diocles (mathematician)">Diocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinostratus" title="Dinostratus">Dinostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus" title="Dionysodorus">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domninus_of_Larissa" title="Domninus of Larissa">Domninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutocius_of_Ascalon" title="Eutocius of Ascalon">Eutocius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_of_Larissa" title="Heliodorus of Larissa">Heliodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_(mathematician)" title="Leon (mathematician)">Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menaechmus" title="Menaechmus">Menaechmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_(grammarian)" title="Metrodorus (grammarian)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_(mathematician)" title="Nicomedes (mathematician)">Nicomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicoteles_of_Cyrene" title="Nicoteles of Cyrene">Nicoteles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_(geometer)" title="Perseus (geometer)">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philon" title="Philon">Philon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philonides_of_Laodicea" title="Philonides of Laodicea">Philonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_of_Tyre" title="Porphyry of Tyre">Porphyry of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenus_of_Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Serenus of Antinoöpolis">Serenus </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporus_of_Nicaea" title="Sporus of Nicaea">Sporus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(mathematician)" title="Theaetetus (mathematician)">Theaetetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Cyrene" title="Theodorus of Cyrene">Theodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymaridas" title="Thymaridas">Thymaridas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodorus_(mathematician)" title="Zenodorus (mathematician)">Zenodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica" title="Arithmetica">Arithmetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga#Conics" title="Apollonius of Perga">Conics (Apollonius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catoptrics" title="Catoptrics">Catoptrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_(Euclid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (Euclid)">Data (Euclid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements (Euclid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_of_a_Circle" title="Measurement of a Circle">Measurement of a Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Conoids_and_Spheroids" title="On Conoids and Spheroids">On Conoids and Spheroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)">On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)">On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics">Optics (Euclid)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Spirals" title="On Spirals">On Spirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sphere_and_Cylinder" title="On the Sphere and Cylinder">On the Sphere and Cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostomachion" title="Ostomachion">Ostomachion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planisphaerium" title="Planisphaerium">Planisphaerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius%27_Spherics" title="Theodosius' Spherics">Spherics (Theodosius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Spherics (Menelaus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola" class="mw-redirect" title="The Quadrature of the Parabola">The Quadrature of the Parabola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner" title="The Sand Reckoner">The Sand Reckoner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructible_number" title="Constructible number">Constructible numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_trisection" title="Angle trisection">Angle trisection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_the_cube" title="Doubling the cube">Doubling the cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squaring_the_circle" title="Squaring the circle">Squaring the circle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Apollonius" title="Problem of Apollonius">Problem of Apollonius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts and definitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">Angle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_angle" title="Central angle">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle" title="Inscribed angle">Inscribed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_system" title="Axiomatic system">Axiomatic system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axiom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">Chord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circles_of_Apollonius" title="Circles of Apollonius">Circles of Apollonius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_circles" title="Apollonian circles">Apollonian circles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_gasket" title="Apollonian gasket">Apollonian gasket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumscribed_circle" title="Circumscribed circle">Circumscribed circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(mathematics)" title="Commensurability (mathematics)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equation" title="Diophantine equation">Diophantine equation</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_proportion_(mathematics)" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Doctrine of proportion (mathematics)">Doctrine of proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ratio" title="Golden ratio">Golden ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incircle_and_excircles_of_a_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Incircle and excircles of a triangle">Incircle and excircles of a triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">Method of exhaustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">Parallel postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lune_of_Hippocrates" title="Lune of Hippocrates">Lune of Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadratrix_of_Hippias" title="Quadratrix of Hippias">Quadratrix of Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_polygon" title="Regular polygon">Regular polygon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straightedge_and_compass_construction" title="Straightedge and compass construction">Straightedge and compass construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangle_center" title="Triangle center">Triangle center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclid's elements">Elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_bisector_theorem" title="Angle bisector theorem">Angle bisector theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exterior_angle_theorem" title="Exterior angle theorem">Exterior angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_algorithm" title="Euclidean algorithm">Euclidean algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_theorem" title="Euclid's theorem">Euclid's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean_theorem" title="Geometric mean theorem">Geometric mean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_geometric_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek geometric algebra">Greek geometric algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinge_theorem" title="Hinge theorem">Hinge theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscribed angle theorem">Inscribed angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercept_theorem" title="Intercept theorem">Intercept theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_chords_theorem" title="Intersecting chords theorem">Intersecting chords theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_secants_theorem" title="Intersecting secants theorem">Intersecting secants theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_cosines" title="Law of cosines">Law of cosines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons_asinorum" title="Pons asinorum">Pons asinorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent-secant_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangent-secant theorem">Tangent-secant theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem" title="Thales's theorem">Thales's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theorem_of_the_gnomon" title="Theorem of the gnomon">Theorem of the gnomon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius%27s_theorem" title="Apollonius's theorem">Apollonius's theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus%27s_inequality" title="Aristarchus's inequality">Aristarchus's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbar_theorem" title="Crossbar theorem">Crossbar theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heron%27s_formula" title="Heron's formula">Heron's formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_number" title="Irrational number">Irrational numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_sines" title="Law of sines">Law of sines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus%27s_theorem" title="Menelaus's theorem">Menelaus's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus%27s_area_theorem" title="Pappus's area theorem">Pappus's area theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus_II.VIII" title="Diophantus II.VIII">Problem II.8 of Arithmetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_inequality" title="Ptolemy's inequality">Ptolemy's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_table_of_chords" title="Ptolemy's table of chords">Ptolemy's table of chords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_theorem" title="Ptolemy's theorem">Ptolemy's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_Theodorus" title="Spiral of Theodorus">Spiral of Theodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Mouseion of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neusis_construction" title="Neusis construction">Neusis construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Greek_Mathematics" title="A History of Greek Mathematics">A History of Greek Mathematics</a> <ul><li>by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heath_(classicist)" title="Thomas Heath (classicist)">Thomas Heath</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">algebra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra" title="Timeline of algebra">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of arithmetic">arithmetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_numerals_and_arithmetic" title="Timeline of numerals and arithmetic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_calculus_and_mathematical_analysis" title="Timeline of calculus and mathematical analysis">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry" title="Timeline of geometry">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">logic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematical_logic" title="Timeline of mathematical logic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematics" title="Timeline of mathematics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of numbers">numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric counting">prehistoric counting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">numeral systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_numeral_systems" title="List of numeral systems">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Arabian/Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mathematics" title="Japanese mathematics">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/20px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/40px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece portal</a> • <a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11903#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3294" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11903#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3294" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11903#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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