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class="mw-page-title-main">Eleanor J. Gibson</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="إليانور جاي جيبسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إليانور جاي جيبسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Cek_Gibson" title="Eleanor Cek Gibson – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Eleanor Cek Gibson" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%DB%8C._%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="النور جی. قیبسون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="النور جی. قیبسون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eleanor J. Gibson" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Gibson" title="Eleanor Gibson – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Eleanor Gibson" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Eleanor J. Gibson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%DB%8C._%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="النور جی. گیبسون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="النور جی. گیبسون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Gibson" title="Eleanor Gibson – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Eleanor Gibson" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Eleanor J. Gibson" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eleanor J. Gibson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Гибсон, Элеанор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гибсон, Элеанор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Eleanor J. 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Eleanor J. Gibson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Eleanor_Gibson_(1993).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Eleanor_Gibson_%281993%29.jpg/220px-Eleanor_Gibson_%281993%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Eleanor_Gibson_%281993%29.jpg/330px-Eleanor_Gibson_%281993%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Eleanor_Gibson_%281993%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="289" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Eleanor Gibson - Keynote Address - 1993 APS Convention</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Eleanor Jack</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1910-12-07</span>)</span>December 7, 1910<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Peoria,_Illinois" title="Peoria, Illinois">Peoria, Illinois</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">December 30, 2002<span style="display:none">(2002-12-30)</span> (aged 92)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Columbia,_South_Carolina" title="Columbia, South Carolina">Columbia, South Carolina</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith College</a> <small>(B.A., 1931) (M.S., 1933)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> <small>(Ph.D., 1938)</small></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Visual cliff,<br /><a href="/wiki/Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">perceptual learning</a>,<br /> differentiation theory,<br />enrichment of embedded structures</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">James J. Gibson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">James J. Gibson Junior <br /> Jean Gibson</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1992) <br /> <a href="/wiki/APA_Award_for_Distinguished_Scientific_Contributions_to_Psychology" title="APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology">APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology</a> (1968) <br /> The American Psychological Foundation Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in Science (1986)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative psychology</a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">ecological psychology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Eleanor Jack Gibson</b> (7 December 1910 – 30 December 2002) was an American <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologist</a> who focused on reading development and perceptual learning in infants. Gibson began her career at Smith College as an instructor in 1932, publishing her first works on research conducted as an undergraduate student. Gibson was able to circumvent the many obstacles she faced due to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and gender discrimination, by finding research opportunities that she could meld with her own interests. Gibson, with her husband <a href="/wiki/James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">James J. Gibson</a>, created the <a href="/wiki/Gibsonian_ecological_theory_of_development" title="Gibsonian ecological theory of development">Gibsonian ecological theory of development</a>, which emphasized how important perception was because it allows humans to adapt to their environments. Perhaps her most well-known contribution to psychology was the "<a href="/wiki/Visual_cliff" title="Visual cliff">visual cliff</a>," which studied <a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">depth perception</a> in both human and animal species, leading to a new understanding of perceptual development in infants. Gibson was elected to the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Education" title="National Academy of Education">National Academy of Education</a> in 1972, and to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1977. In 1992, she was awarded the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eleanor (née Jack) Gibson was born on December 7, 1910, in <a href="/wiki/Peoria,_Illinois" title="Peoria, Illinois">Peoria, Illinois</a>. Her father, William Alexander Jack, was a businessman who specialized in the wholesale of hardware. Her mother, Isabel Grier Jack, was a homemaker who graduated from <a href="/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith College</a>. Gibson had one sibling, Emily Jack, who was born in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibson met her husband, <a href="/wiki/James_J._Gibson" title="James J. Gibson">James Gibson</a>, at the end of her junior year at Smith while attending a graduation garden party. James was an assistant professor, and the day after meeting James, Gibson changed her schedule to include James’ advanced <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a> course. They married in September 1932. Their first child, James J. Gibson, Junior, was born in 1940. Their second child, Jean Gibson, was born in 1943. Gibson decided to take a break from research for a few years in order to focus on her children and teaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibson began attending Smith College at the age of sixteen with the intention of studying languages. She graduated in 1931 with a <a href="/wiki/B.A._degree" class="mw-redirect" title="B.A. degree">B.A. degree</a>. While at Smith, she became interested in experimental psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson completed her <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> at Smith, graduating in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1935, Gibson began her <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>. While attending Yale, Gibson became interested in <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative psychology</a>. Originally, Gibson had asked <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yerkes" title="Robert Yerkes">Robert Yerkes</a> to be her dissertation advisor. He declined, stating that he does not permit women to work in his lab. <a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioural psychologist</a>, became her dissertation supervisor,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite the fact that they did not necessarily have the same theoretical perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson completed her dissertation on differentiation using behaviourist terminology. After a year at Yale, Gibson passed the required exams and moved back to <a href="/wiki/Northampton,_Massachusetts" title="Northampton, Massachusetts">Northampton, Massachusetts</a>, where she continued to teach at Smith. She completed her dissertation two years later in 1938, at which point she received her doctorate from Yale.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibson began working at Smith College as an instructor in 1932. She took a year off in 1935 to pursue her Ph.D. at Yale University, before returning as an instructor at Smith College. In 1940, Gibson became an assistant professor at Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, James Gibson was requested to conduct perception research in the Flying Training Command of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> at which point the family moved to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth,_Texas" title="Fort Worth, Texas">Fort Worth, Texas</a>. After a period of time, they moved to <a href="/wiki/Santa_Ana,_California" title="Santa Ana, California">Santa Ana, California</a>. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> ended, they moved back to Northampton, Massachusetts. Gibson resumed her position at Smith College in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1949, James Gibson took a job at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, requiring that the family move to <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>. Gibson was unable to obtain a job at Cornell due to <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">anti-nepotism</a> policies prohibiting her from working in the same department as her husband. Thus, Gibson became an unpaid research associate. She continued her research by reaching out to other Cornell faculty, working alongside <a href="/wiki/Howard_Liddell_(psychologist)" title="Howard Liddell (psychologist)">Howard Liddell</a>, a professor in psychology. Gibson worked in Liddell's Behaviour Farm Laboratory, giving her experience working with and rearing baby animals.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson's interest in development grew after working with the animals.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liddell's Behaviour Farm is where the discovery of the behaviour that led to the Visual Cliff took place. After conducting research there for two years, Gibson left the Behaviour Farm upon finding out that her control group of goats was given away.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Gibson received funding from the United States Air Force and grants from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> to work on perceptual learning. In order to further explore this topic, Gibson and her husband, James, co-authored a study on the perception of nonsense scribbles, eventually leading to the differentiation theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, when Richard Walk was hired at Cornell University, Gibson and Walk decided to explore discrimination learning on rats who were raised in different environments, eventually leading to the Visual Cliff experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their work together ended when Walk left Cornell University to pursue work at <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1966, James took a job elsewhere and was no longer employed by Cornell University. With anti-nepotism policies no longer an issue, Gibson became a professor at Cornell with tenure. After her academic partnership with Walk ended, Gibson was asked to join an interdisciplinary project with the goal of achieving a better understanding of the reading processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, Gibson became the Susan Linn Sage Professor of Psychology and was given her own lab. At this point, Gibson turned her focus to perception in infants and turned her new lab into an infant perception lab.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1979, Gibson was forced to retire from her faculty position, the same year that her husband, James, passed away. Prior to her retirement, she began visiting other universities, and continued to do so for many years afterwards. Gibson continued to work in her lab until 1987, at which point she moved to <a href="/wiki/Middlebury,_Vermont" title="Middlebury, Vermont">Middlebury, Vermont</a>, to live closer to her daughter.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zeitgeist_(Spirit_of_the_Times)"><span id="Zeitgeist_.28Spirit_of_the_Times.29"></span>Zeitgeist (Spirit of the Times)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Zeitgeist (Spirit of the Times)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eleanor Gibson lived through the period of the Great Depression and when <a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">gender discrimination</a> was considered the norm.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The time and social norms influenced her career. Gibson attended Smith College to complete her B.A. degree and M.S. degree. Smith College, at the time, provided Gibson the opportunity to be in an atmosphere that challenged and encouraged women to be scholars and scientists. Living through the Great Depression impacted her in a way where, due to financial issues and marriage, she could not begin her Ph.D. program until years later. She stayed as an instructor at Smith College for two years teaching labs before she set off to Yale University to obtain her Ph.D.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the spirit of the times, Yale University, unlike Smith College, did not support women's careers. Yale University did not provide financial assistance toward Gibson's post-secondary studies. Smith College awarded Gibson with a scholarship to continue her studies at Yale University, covering her tuition. Eleanor Gibson had strong interests in comparative psychology. Her interests led her to approach <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yerkes" title="Robert Yerkes">Robert Yerkes</a> as her dissertation advisor.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As gender discrimination was the norm, Yerks initially dismissed Gibson. Yerkes did not allow women to work in his laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson faced many gender barriers but sought alternatives to complete her goals. Gibson successfully completed her studies at Yale University, earning her Ph.D. in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gibson's academic career was disrupted due to the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">war</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and after the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She accompanied her husband, James Gibson, to Texas and later California as he conducted research in the Flying Training Command of the <a href="/wiki/Army_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Army Air Force">Army Air Force</a>. Eleanor Gibson continued her academic career at Smith College as a teacher after a 4-year hiatus.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1949, Gibson and her husband left <a href="/wiki/Smith_College" title="Smith College">Smith College</a> and moved to Cornell University.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cornell, at the time, did not hire women as part of their faculty.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cornell also had an anti-nepotism rule that did not allow her to work as a faculty member because her husband, James Gibson, had already been hired into their Psychology department.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson would work as a research associate for 16 years,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> unpaid.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson continued her research whilst facing gender discrimination and anti-nepotism rules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Eleanor Gibson's final years she was focused on writing and publishing books. Her goal was to illustrate her progression of thinking. Her book titled, "An Odyssey in Learning and Perception"<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a collection of her academic papers starting from the 1930s. The book encompasses her 50 years of work toward <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">perceptual learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, before her death, Gibson published a final book. Her final book was initially written as a personal family history but later evolved into a story about the lives of two psychologists.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She titled her final book: "Perceiving the affordances: A portrait of two psychologists."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson died on December 30, 2002, in <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_South_Carolina" title="Columbia, South Carolina">Columbia, South Carolina</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributions_to_psychology">Contributions to psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contributions to psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perceptual_learning">Perceptual learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Perceptual learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gibson was highly influenced by the work of her husband, James Gibson. Together they developed the <a href="/wiki/Gibsonian_ecological_theory_of_development" title="Gibsonian ecological theory of development">Gibsonian ecological theory of development</a>. This theory influenced her research on <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">perceptual learning</a>. </p><p>Gibson believed that a radically different new view of <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">perceptual learning</a> was needed. One of her major studies involved the steps to how children perceive their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson and her husband argued that the aspect of learning is to strengthen your insight or perception of the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of perceptual learning was deemed a part of <a href="#Differentiation_theory">differentiation</a> by Gibson and her husband. Humans first have the tendency to <a href="/wiki/Categorize" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorize">categorize</a> everything that appears similar into groups. In other words, people tend to <a href="/wiki/Overgeneralize" class="mw-redirect" title="Overgeneralize">overgeneralize</a>. With perceptual learning, humans can battle the tendency to overgeneralize by learning to make appropriate distinctions, such as the specific patterns and properties of different stimulus. An example Gibson and her husband used to describe this is that someone who regularly participates in wine tasting can taste the differences in many wines. However, someone participating for the very first time might think many if not all wines taste the same.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gibson worked with her husband James on a joint study to explore the perception of nonsense scribbles to clarify this concept of perceptual learning. The study consisted of three different groups. The first group had ten participants between 6- and 8-year-olds. The second group had ten participants between 8½- and 11-year-olds. The third group had twelve participants that were adults.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The participants were tasked to identify one standard scribble from a set of similar scribbles varying in many different dimensions. The scribbles contained coils ranging from three to five and they were different in lengths. Some coils spiral clockwise while other coils spiral counter-clockwise. The experiment had a deck of cards with a different scribble on each card. Also included within the deck were various cards printed with other figures.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants were given a target to look at for around 5s. They were informed that some of the cards had coils printed on them that are identical to the target. Next, each card was presented to the participant for about 3s.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were tasked in choosing the cards that were identical to the target.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first trial, the deck of cards consist of 17 scribbles that were similar to the target and 12 other prints that were all very different from both the target and each other.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Results showed that three groups learned to identify and differentiate items at various levels and various rates. In the first trial, the group with the youngest participants were able to identify most of the scribbles identical to the target, an average of 13.4. This was followed by the group with the older children who identified more than the third group, an average of 7.9. The group consisting of adults identified the least identical items, an average of 3.0. However, results also indicated that the group of adults were able to achieve perfect identification within an average of 3.1 trials, while the group of older kids achieved it within an average of 4.7 trials.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the contrary, many of the young children in the first group failed to match any correct coil to the target.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of trials needed to achieve perfect identification could not be achieved within the duration of the study.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first the standard scribble was imperceptible from the other scribbles but after repeated tests the standard scribble became clear. The participants were tested until the standard was identified correctly without any correction given. The Gibson's then stated that the stimulus held all the information for perception rather than the participants learning to perceive through an associative process. This resulted in perceptual learning as being redefined as a change in what was perceived by an observer became more sensitive to the different aspects of a stimulus. At the beginning of the study, many of the stimuli or coil, appear to look identical. But with practice, the participants learn to tell the stimuli apart from one another. The process of perceptual learning occurs faster over time through repetition.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gibson states that differentiation is a crucial aspect to both <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>. Perceptual learning allow humans to respond differently yet appropriately to the stimuli in their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson said that the links between the perceiver and their environment is the domain for where perceptual development occurs. She states that a person has only achieved perceptual learning of <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_learning#Selective_reweighting" title="Perceptual learning">specificity</a> if they can differentiate one object from another and if they can identify the properties of that object.<sup id="cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study Gibson did in perceptual learning is the perception of words and spelling patterns. Learning to read is a crucial aspect in child development and is complicated as words can have different meanings when perceived by the reader. Gibson was interested in factors enabling a reader to reach the stage where they can instantly tell words apart. Gibson argues that pronounceability has an impact in reading as certain combinations of the alphabet are easier to pronounce than others. Certain letters pair well in certain positions in words which allows for easier perception. According to Gibson, these particular spelling patterns are pronounced the same. For example, the positions of the letters "glurck" is pronounceable despite it not being an English word. On the other hand, the positions of "ckurgl" is not as easy to pronounce. A person fluent in English may notice that the letters "gl" is the start of many words while "ck" is at the end of many words. Such spelling patterns in words allow a reader to easily perceive the words to pronounce.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Differentiation_theory">Differentiation theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Differentiation theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within her research on perceptual learning, Eleanor Gibson was particularly interested in, what she termed, the <i>differentiation theory</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_1969-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The differentiation theory states that in the information received from sensory stimulation, individuals discriminate objects in the environment and experiences by identifying unique characteristics about them, termed <i>distinctive features</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_1969-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png/220px-Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png/330px-Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png/440px-Eleanor_Gibson_1962_letter-like_forms_study_-_standard_forms_and_transformations.png 2x" data-file-width="1258" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption>Eleanor Gibson 1962 letter-like forms study - standard forms and transformations</figcaption></figure> <p>Eleanor Gibson performed a study to examine how young children discriminate between different "letter-like forms".<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The children used in the study were between ages 4 and 8 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The children were given 13 standard letter-like forms in a column on the left-hand side of the page to examine.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several variations in each letter-like form, termed <a href="/wiki/Geometric_transformation" title="Geometric transformation"><i>transformations</i></a>, were given along the rows.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transformations were either slight changes in appearance by altering the lines in the form ("topological transformation" and "line-to-curve transformation") or a change in the perspective of the letter ("rotational-reversal transformation" and "perspective transformation") while keeping the form identical.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The task given to the children was to determine and indicate which transformations were no different from the standard forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, as age increased, the amount of incorrect differentiations made decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this varied depending on the level of difficulty of the transformations.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results demonstrated that the 4 to 5 year olds had great difficulties with all variations of the forms whereas the 6 to 8 year olds performed much better and were able to discriminate between the standard letter-like forms and the variations shown.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following list is ordered from the transformations that had the largest decrease in errors (largest improvement) to the smallest (least improvement), as age increased: rotational-reversal, line-to-curve, perspective, topological.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results contribute to the research on perceptual learning in that they suggest that children learn distinctive characteristics to be used for differentiation which is a large component of the identification of letters.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_cliff">Visual cliff</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Visual cliff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Eleanor had been studying the development and process of <a href="/wiki/Imprinting_(psychology)" title="Imprinting (psychology)">imprinting</a> in goats when the inspiration for the visual cliff was spontaneously discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While washing one of the baby goats, another was about to be born.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting quickly, she placed the goat on an object elevated off the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newborn did not move from where she placed it, giving some indication of depth perception.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png/220px-NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png/330px-NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png/440px-NIH_visual_cliff_experiment_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Visual cliff used with human infants</figcaption></figure> <p>At the time the visual cliff study had initially been designed, Gibson had been researching with a professor at Cornell, Richard Walk.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Walk & Gibson were examining the development of rats and how this was influenced by their rearing environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Walk & Gibson included dark-reared rats in their experiment, whose raising was extremely time-consuming.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A combination of 1) wanting to get the most use out of the rats along with, 2) inspiration from both Eleanor's experience with the goats and a similar previous experiment done by Lashley & Russell in 1934,<sup id="cite_ref-Lashley,_K._S.,_Russel,_J._T._(1934)_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lashley,_K._S.,_Russel,_J._T._(1934)-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> produced the idea of studying depth perception with the visual cliff.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Walk & Gibson studied visual depth perception in rats, chickens, turtles, lambs, baby goats, pigs, dogs, cats, and monkeys.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the original study with rats, the apparatus was made of two sheets of glass standing "parallel to the floor and 53 inches above it" with a thin board along the middle.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rats were either placed into the experimental group with the shallow and deep side or a control group having no deep side, only shallow.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of the study demonstrated that the rats in the experimental group spent the majority of their time on the shallow side while the rats in the control condition did not show a preference.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A follow-up study was then conducted with an apparatus having both deep sides with no shallow, along with the same control condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results of the follow-up study demonstrated that majority of the rats stayed on the center board and those that did not took longer to walk onto the glass than did rats in the control condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson then used a larger apparatus to test chickens, turtles, lambs, kids (baby goats), pigs, dogs, cats, and monkeys; all showing similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Walk & Gibson further experimented with dark-reared vs. light-reared rats to determine whether the depth perception found previously was innate.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results were similar.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This indicated the possibility that depth perception was inherent in all animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when tested with cats, this result was not found.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This demonstrated the belief that depth perception is innate in some species while in others (such as cats), they must learn depth perception.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, Walk & Gibson examined visual depth perception in human infants with a larger apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The infants ranged from 6 months old to 14 months old.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each child was placed on the center board with his or her mother standing on either the shallow side or the deep side, attempting to motivate the child to crawl toward the mother.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results demonstrated that the majority (approximately 90%) of the infants would crawl onto the shallow side but only approximately 10% would crawl onto the deep side.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was observed that the infants who refused to crawl onto the deep side would either crawl away from their mother when she was standing on that side or would cry.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These results suggest that "the average human infant discriminates depth as soon as it can crawl."<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accolades">Accolades</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Accolades"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout Gibson's lifetime, she received the following awards. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APA_Award_for_Distinguished_Scientific_Contributions_to_Psychology" title="APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology">APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology</a> (1968)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The G. Stanley Hall Award for Distinguished Contribution to Developmental Psychology (1970)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Elected to the National Academy of Sciences (1971)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Elected to the National Academy of Education (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Yale University's <a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Cross_Medal" title="Wilbur Cross Medal">Wilbur Cross Medal</a> (1973)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1977)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_C._Warren" title="Howard C. Warren">Howard C. Warren</a> Medal from the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Experimental_Psychologists" title="Society of Experimental Psychologists">Society of Experimental Psychologists</a> (1977)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Research_in_Child_Development" title="Society for Research in Child Development">Society for Research in Child Development</a> (1981)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The American Psychological Foundation Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in Science (1986)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The National Medal of Science (1992)<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In addition, she received 11 honorary degrees, including degrees from Smith College in 1972 and Yale University in 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Just a couple years following her Visual Cliff Study, on behalf of the chairman and Committee on Scientific Awards, <a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a>, presented Gibson an APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-distinguished_award_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-distinguished_award-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the annual convention, she was recognized for her exceptional studies in perceptual learning and development. Along with <a href="/wiki/James_Birren" title="James Birren">James Birren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muzafer_Sherif" title="Muzafer Sherif">Muzafer Sherif</a>, they were each presented with a writing of their contributions to the field of scientific psychology, as well as a cheque for one thousand dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-distinguished_award_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-distinguished_award-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the start of her acknowledgement. </p><p>Following Gibson's retirement in 1979,<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she continued her involvement through research and faculty appointments at institutions across the world<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina" title="University of South Carolina">University of South Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Connecticut" title="University of Connecticut">University of Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emory_University" title="Emory University">Emory University</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Beijing" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Beijing">University of Beijing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the annual meeting of the APA in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, it was announced that Eleanor Gibson was the recipient of the Psychological Science Gold Medal Award. The Gold Medal Awards were given to American psychologists over the age of 65, whom resided in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson was recognized for her distinguished and lifelong record of accomplishments in the areas of professional, scientific, and public interest, which ultimately landed her a golden medallion and a cheque for two thousand dollars. With her scientific findings, they continues to advance the knowledge of perception to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gibson was among ten psychologists who received the National Medal of Science which was presented by the president, <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 30 years of establishment, the National Medal of Science had been awarded to 304 receivers where Gibson was one of the ten psychologists that received it.<sup id="cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson will be remembered for her Visual Cliff Study, which is currently being taught in undergraduate programs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commemoration">Commemoration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Commemoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the age of 92, Gibson died on December 30, 2002. She was an experimental psychologist who significantly contributed to the many fields of psychology including perception, infant development, and reading.<sup id="cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Observer_(2003)-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1949, she worked as a researcher in the department of psychology at Cornell University. Gibson was then appointed professor in 1966, where she became the first woman to hold an endowed professorship at Cornell. Six years later, she was named the Susan Linn Sage Professor of Psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Observer_(2003)-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gibson not only left an impact on the field of psychology but also an impact on the people she interacted with. Arlene Walker-Andrews, an associate provost and emeritus professor of psychology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Montana" title="University of Montana">University of Montana</a>, was one of Gibson's students at Cornell.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibson provided her with an opportunity to be a part of her research one month into the school year. Arlene was part of a team of graduate researchers, whom were all brand new students but Jackie never failed to give them full credit.<sup id="cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Observer_(2003)-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arlene viewed her as a "gifted mentor" and spoke on her generosity, flexibility, and willingness. She never undervalued the graduate students and always treated them like independent scholars. In appreciation of Gibson, Arlene noted that she was an outstanding model with her work ethic, determination, raw intellect, and dedication to the growth and development of students.<sup id="cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Observer_(2003)-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Published_works">Published works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Published works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eleanor Gibson published two major influential books, expanding the literature of learning in the psychological field. Her two books included: Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson_1969-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and The Psychology of Reading.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In her lifetime, Gibson published several academic works. </p> <ul><li>Gibson, E. J. (1939). Sensory generalization with voluntary reactions. <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology, 24</i>, 237–253. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0062877">10.1037/h0062877</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1940). A systematic application of the concepts of generalization and differentiation to verbal learning. <i>Psychological Review, 47</i>(3), 196–229. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0060582">10.1037/h0060582</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1941). Retroactive inhibition as a function of degree of generalization between tasks. <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology, 28</i>(2), 93–115. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0056366">10.1037/h0056366</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1942). Intra-list generalization as a factor in verbal learning. <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30</i>(3), 185–200. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0058505">10.1037/h0058505</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1952). The role of shock in reinforcement. <i>Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45</i>(1), 18–30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057667">10.1037/h0057667</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1969). <i>Principles of perceptual learning and development</i>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.</li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1980). Eleanor J. Gibson. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), <i>A history of psychology in autobiography</i> (Vol. 7, pp. 239–271). San Francisco, CA: W H Freeman & Co.</li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1988). Exploratory behaviour in the development of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. In Rosenzweig, M. R., Porter, L. W. (Eds.), <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i> (Vol. 39, pp. 1–41). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.</li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1991). <i>An odyssey in learning and perception</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (1994). Has psychology a future? <i>Psychological Science, 5</i>, 69–76. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.1994.tb00633.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00633.x</a></li> <li>Gibson, E. J. (2002). <i>Perceiving the affordances: A portrait of two psychologists</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caudle,_F._M._(2003)_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Caudle, F. M. (2003). Eleanor Jack Gibson (1910-2002). American Psychologist, 58(12), 1090-1091. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.58.12.1090">10.1037/0003-066X.58.12.1090</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eppler,_M._(2006)-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eppler,_M._(2006)_2-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eppler, M. (2006). Eleanor Jack Gibson: 1910-2002. The American Journal of Psychology, 119(1), 121-127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">American psychological foundation awards for 1986: Gold medal Awards. (1987). <i>American Psychologist, 42</i>(4), 327-332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkey, E. N. (2011, July). The woman behind the visual cliff. <i>Monitor on Psychology</i>, <i>42</i>(7). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/07-08/gibson">http://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/07-08/gibson</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Szokolszky, A. (2003). An interview with Eleanor Gibson. <i>Ecological Psychology, 15</i>(4), 271-281. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15326969eco1504_2">10.1207/s15326969eco1504_2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J. (1991). <i>Learning, development, and conceptual change. An odyssey in learning and perception</i>. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J. (2002). <i>Perceiving the affordances: A portrait of two psychologists</i>. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-“Benjafield_2015”-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Benjafield_2015”_8-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjafield, J. G. (2015). A History of Psychology (4th ed.). Don Mills, ON, Canada: Oxford University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-“Gibson_&_Gibson_1955”_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, J. J., & Gibson, E. J. (1955). Perceptual learning: Differentiation or enrichment? Psychological Review, 62(1), 32-41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson_1969-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1969_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J. (1969). <i>Principles of perceptual learning and development</i>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson_et_al._1962-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_et_al._1962_11-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J., Gibson, J. J., Pick, A. D., & Osser, H. (1962). A developmental study of the discrimination of letter-like forms. <i>Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55</i>(6), 897-906. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0043190">10.1037/h0043190</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkey,_N,_E._(2015)_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkey, N, E. (2015). The visual cliff’s forgotten menagerie: rats, goats, babies, and myth-making in the history of psychology. <i>Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences, 51</i>(2), 113-140. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjhbs.21712">10.1002/jhbs.21712</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lashley,_K._S.,_Russel,_J._T._(1934)-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lashley,_K._S.,_Russel,_J._T._(1934)_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lashley, K. S., Russel, J. T. (1934). The mechanism of vision. XI. A preliminary test of innate organization. <i>Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 45</i>, 136-144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson_&_Walk_1960-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_&_Walk_1960_14-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1960). The “visual cliff”. <i>Scientific American, 202</i>(4), 64-71. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0460-64">10.1038/scientificamerican0460-64</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-distinguished_award-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-distinguished_award_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-distinguished_award_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eleanor Jack Gibson: Distinguished scientific contribution award. (1968). American Psychologist, 23(12), 861-863. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0020776">10.1037/h0020776</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Observer_(2003)-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Observer_(2003)_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer">In appreciation: Eleanor Gibson</a>. <i>Observer, 16</i>(4) April 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Department of Psychology. (2015).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hs.umt.edu/psychology/faculty/default.php?s=Walker-Andrews">Walker Andrews</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160605051013/http://hs.umt.edu/psychology/faculty/default.php?s=Walker-Andrews">Archived</a> June 5, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, E. J., & Levin, H. (1975). <i>The psychology of reading</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleanor_J._Gibson&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3406000287.html">"Gibson, Eleanor J." in Encyclopedia.com</a> by <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Skinner_(historian)" title="Patricia Skinner (historian)">Patricia Skinner</a></li> <li>Adolph, K. E., & Vereijken, B. (2005). Esther Thelen (1941–2004). <i>American Psychologist, 60</i>(9), 1032. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.9.1032">Esther Thelen (1941-2004).</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/07-08/gibson">Time Capsule: The woman behind the visual cliff, article published in the APA Monitor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/gibson_eleanor_interview.pdf">Transcript of oral history interview</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/gibson_eleanor_cv.pdf">CV</a> (both in PDF format) from the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Research_in_Child_Development" title="Society for Research in Child Development">Society for Research in Child Development</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feministvoices.com/profiles/eleanor-j-gibson">Eleanor Gibson Profile on Psychology's Feminist Voices</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/RMA02658.html">Finding Aid for Eleanor Gibson Papers</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> Archives</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">United States National Medal of Science</a> <a href="/wiki/Laureate" title="Laureate">laureates</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Behavioral_and_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Behavioral and social science</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal Elgar Miller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eleanor J. Gibson</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Shepard" title="Roger Shepard">Roger N. Shepard</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Kaye_Estes" title="William Kaye Estes">William K. Estes</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/R._Duncan_Luce" title="R. Duncan Luce">R. Duncan Luce</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gordon_H._Bower" title="Gordon H. Bower">Gordon H. Bower</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael I. Posner</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin" title="Mortimer Mishkin">Mortimer Mishkin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Axelrod_(political_scientist)" title="Robert Axelrod (political scientist)">Robert Axelrod</a></dd> <dt>2015</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Biological_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Biological sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">C. B. van Niel</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis P. Rous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George G. Simpson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Van_Slyke" title="Donald Van Slyke">Donald D. Van Slyke</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Knipling" title="Edward F. Knipling">Edward F. Knipling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Albert Lipmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Cumming_Rose" title="William Cumming Rose">William C. Rose</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stewart_Cole" title="Kenneth Stewart Cole">Kenneth S. Cole</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry F. Harlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heidelberger" title="Michael Heidelberger">Michael Heidelberger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred H. Sturtevant</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Horace_Barker" title="Horace Barker">Horace Barker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard B. Brodie</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Bronk" title="Detlev Bronk">Detlev W. Bronk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jay_Laurence_Lush" title="Jay Laurence Lush">Jay Lush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Burrhus Frederic Skinner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Huebner" title="Robert Huebner">Robert Huebner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert B. Sabin</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_W._Sutherland_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Earl W. Sutherland Jr.">Earl W. Sutherland Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_V._Neel" title="James V. Neel">James V. Neel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Augustine_Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="James Augustine Shannon">James Augustine Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hallowell_Davis" title="Hallowell Davis">Hallowell Davis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gyorgy" title="Paul Gyorgy">Paul Gyorgy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sterling_B._Hendricks" title="Sterling B. Hendricks">Sterling B. Hendricks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orville_Vogel" title="Orville Vogel">Orville Alvin Vogel</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Keith_Roberts_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith Roberts Porter">Keith Roberts Porter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Racker" title="Efraim Racker">Efraim Racker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Burris" title="Robert H. Burris">Robert H. Burris</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_C._Crosby" title="Elizabeth C. Crosby">Elizabeth C. Crosby</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_Reece_Stadtman" title="Earl Reece Stadtman">Earl Reece Stadtman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">George Ledyard Stebbins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Alfred_Weiss" title="Paul Alfred Weiss">Paul Alfred Weiss</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1981</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Handler" title="Philip Handler">Philip Handler</a></dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Benzer" title="Seymour Benzer">Seymour Benzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Burton" title="Glenn W. Burton">Glenn W. Burton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Bachrach" title="Howard Bachrach">Howard L. Bachrach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wendell_L._Roelofs" title="Wendell L. Roelofs">Wendell L. Roelofs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berta_Scharrer" title="Berta Scharrer">Berta Scharrer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald A. Henderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Mountcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Mountcastle">Vernon B. Mountcastle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Emil Palade</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._DeBakey" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael E. DeBakey">Michael E. DeBakey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodor_O._Diener" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor O. Diener">Theodor O. Diener</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Eagle" title="Harry Eagle">Harry Eagle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael S. Brown">Michael S. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Norman Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice R. Hilleman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Hamburger" title="Viktor Hamburger">Viktor Hamburger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_W._Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger W. Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harland_G._Wood" title="Harland G. Wood">Harland G. Wood</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert W. Boyer">Herbert W. Boyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr." title="Daniel E. Koshland Jr.">Daniel E. Koshland Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_G._Nathan" title="David G. Nathan">David G. Nathan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Avery" title="Mary Ellen Avery">Mary Ellen Avery</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kates" title="Robert Kates">Robert W. Kates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)" title="Paul Marks (scientist)">Paul A. Marks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Folke_K._Skoog" title="Folke K. Skoog">Folke K. Skoog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Zamecnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Zamecnik">Paul C. Zamecnik</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Singer" title="Maxine Singer">Maxine Singer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Martin Temin</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salome_G._Waelsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Salome G. Waelsch">Salome G. Waelsch</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eisner" title="Thomas Eisner">Thomas Eisner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld" title="Elizabeth F. Neufeld">Elizabeth F. Neufeld</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Patrick" title="Ruth Patrick">Ruth Patrick</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Weinberg">Robert A. Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Janet_Rowley" title="Janet Rowley">Janet Rowley</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Nancy C. Andreasen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George F. Bass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mario_R._Capecchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario R. Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ann_Graybiel" title="Ann Graybiel">Ann Graybiel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gene_Likens" title="Gene Likens">Gene E. Likens</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._McKusick" title="Victor A. McKusick">Victor A. McKusick</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Varmus">Harold Varmus</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Darnell" title="James E. Darnell">James E. Darnell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_M._Witkin" title="Evelyn M. Witkin">Evelyn M. Witkin</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_H._Snyder" title="Solomon H. Snyder">Solomon H. Snyder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Yanofsky" title="Charles Yanofsky">Charles Yanofsky</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman E. Borlaug</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phillip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip A. Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas E. Starzl</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Torsten_N._Wiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsten N. Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_R._Colwell" title="Rita R. Colwell">Rita R. Colwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nina_Fedoroff" title="Nina Fedoroff">Nina Fedoroff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert J. Lefkowitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bert_W._O%27Malley" title="Bert W. O'Malley">Bert W. O'Malley</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis S. Collins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fuchs" title="Elaine Fuchs">Elaine Fuchs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">J. Craig Venter</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_L._Lindquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan L. Lindquist">Susan L. Lindquist</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_L._Brinster" title="Ralph L. Brinster">Ralph L. Brinster</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Shapiro" title="Lucy Shapiro">Lucy Shapiro</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leroy_Hood" title="Leroy Hood">Leroy Hood</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Chisholm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Chisholm">Sallie Chisholm</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/May_Berenbaum" title="May Berenbaum">May Berenbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce Alberts</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_K._Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakesh K. Jain">Rakesh K. Jain</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Falkow" title="Stanley Falkow">Stanley Falkow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">Mary-Claire King</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Levin" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Levin">Simon Levin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chemistry</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">F. Albert Cotton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stork" title="Gilbert Stork">Gilbert Stork</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Zare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard N. Zare">Richard N. Zare</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_B._Gray" title="Harry B. Gray">Harry B. Gray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Tseh_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Tseh Lee">Yuan Tseh Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_S._Marvel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl S. Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Westheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Westheimer">Frank H. Westheimer</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Summer_Johnson" title="William Summer Johnson">William S. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Stockmayer" title="Walter H. Stockmayer">Walter H. Stockmayer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_O._Baker" title="William O. Baker">William O. Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Konrad_E._Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad E. Bloch">Konrad E. Bloch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias J. Corey">Elias J. Corey</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Bernstein" title="Richard Barry Bernstein">Richard B. Bernstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harden_M._McConnell" title="Harden M. McConnell">Harden M. McConnell</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elkan_Blout" title="Elkan Blout">Elkan Blout</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Roberts" title="John D. Roberts">John D. Roberts</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ensign_Simmons_Jr." title="Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.">Howard E. Simmons Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Hackerman" title="Norman Hackerman">Norman Hackerman</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_S._Hammond" title="George S. Hammond">George S. Hammond</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isabella_L._Karle" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella L. Karle">Isabella L. Karle</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davidson_(biologist)" title="Norman Davidson (biologist)">Norman Davidson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Darleane_C._Hoffman" title="Darleane C. Hoffman">Darleane C. Hoffman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Johnston" title="Harold S. Johnston">Harold S. Johnston</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Cahn" title="John W. Cahn">John W. Cahn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_M._Whitesides" title="George M. Whitesides">George M. Whitesides</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Stuart A. Rice</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(chemist)" title="John Ross (chemist)">John Ross</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_Solomon" title="Susan Solomon">Susan Solomon</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Baldeschwieler" title="John D. Baldeschwieler">John D. Baldeschwieler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_F._Hirschmann" title="Ralph F. Hirschmann">Ralph F. Hirschmann</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernest_R._Davidson" title="Ernest R. Davidson">Ernest R. Davidson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_A._Somorjai" title="Gábor A. Somorjai">Gábor A. Somorjai</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_I._Brauman" class="mw-redirect" title="John I. Brauman">John I. Brauman</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Lippard" title="Stephen J. Lippard">Stephen J. Lippard</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tobin_J._Marks" title="Tobin J. Marks">Tobin J. Marks</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_H._Caruthers" title="Marvin H. Caruthers">Marvin H. Caruthers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dervan" title="Peter Dervan">Peter B. Dervan</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Sayed" title="Mostafa El-Sayed">Mostafa A. El-Sayed</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Fowler" title="Joanna Fowler">Joanna Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/JoAnne_Stubbe" title="JoAnne Stubbe">JoAnne Stubbe</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Benkovic" title="Stephen J. Benkovic">Stephen J. Benkovic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marye_Anne_Fox" title="Marye Anne Fox">Marye Anne Fox</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Stang" title="Peter J. Stang">Peter J. Stang</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_J._Bard" title="Allen J. Bard">Allen J. Bard</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/M._Frederick_Hawthorne" title="M. Frederick Hawthorne">M. Frederick Hawthorne</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judith_P._Klinman" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith P. Klinman">Judith P. Klinman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Meinwald" title="Jerrold Meinwald">Jerrold Meinwald</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond" title="Geraldine L. Richmond">Geraldine L. Richmond</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/A._Paul_Alivisatos" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Paul Alivisatos">A. Paul Alivisatos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Engineering_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Engineering sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1962</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robinson Pierce">John Robinson Pierce</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Draper">Charles S. Draper</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Ammann" title="Othmar Ammann">Othmar H. Ammann</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Dryden" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh L. Dryden">Hugh L. Dryden</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Johnson">Clarence L. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igor_I._Sikorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor I. Sikorsky">Igor I. Sikorsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nathan_M._Newmark" title="Nathan M. Newmark">Nathan M. Newmark</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_St._Clair_Kilby" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack St. Clair Kilby">Jack St. Clair Kilby</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="George E. Mueller">George E. Mueller</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Edgerton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold E. Edgerton">Harold E. Edgerton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Whitcomb" title="Richard T. Whitcomb">Richard T. Whitcomb</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner" title="Rudolf Kompfner">Rudolf Kompfner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Brazelton_Peck" title="Ralph Brazelton Peck">Ralph Brazelton Peck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abel_Wolman" title="Abel Wolman">Abel Wolman</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Hayward_Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hayward Pickering">William Hayward Pickering</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Terman" title="Frederick Terman">Frederick E. Terman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Morris_Cohen_(scientist)" title="Morris Cohen (scientist)">Morris Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Goldmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Goldmark">Peter C. Goldmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_M%C3%BCller" title="Erwin Wilhelm Müller">Erwin Wilhelm Müller</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Emmett_N._Leith" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmett N. Leith">Emmett N. Leith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_D._Mindlin" title="Raymond D. Mindlin">Raymond D. Mindlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Noyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert N. Noyce">Robert N. Noyce</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_R._Parker" title="Earl R. Parker">Earl R. Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Heinemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward H. Heinemann">Edward H. Heinemann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Katz" title="Donald L. Katz">Donald L. Katz</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hewlett" title="Bill Hewlett">Bill Hewlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_G._Trump" title="John G. Trump">John G. Trump</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wolfgang_Liepmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wolfgang Liepmann">Hans Wolfgang Liepmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tung-Yen_Lin" title="Tung-Yen Lin">Tung-Yen Lin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver" title="Bernard M. Oliver">Bernard M. Oliver</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byron_Bird" title="Robert Byron Bird">Robert Byron Bird</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Bolton_Seed" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Bolton Seed">H. Bolton Seed</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Weber_(engineer)" title="Ernst Weber (engineer)">Ernst Weber</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Drucker" title="Daniel C. Drucker">Daniel C. Drucker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_M._Hawkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis M. Hawkins">Willis M. Hawkins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_W._Housner" title="George W. Housner">George W. Housner</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_George_Drickamer" title="Harry George Drickamer">Harry George Drickamer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Grier" title="Herbert E. Grier">Herbert E. Grier</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak Jr.">Nick Holonyak Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luna_B._Leopold" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna B. Leopold">Luna B. Leopold</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Guyford_Stever" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Guyford Stever">H. Guyford Stever</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Calvin F. Quate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ray_W._Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray W. Clough">Ray W. Clough</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hermann_A._Haus" title="Hermann A. Haus">Hermann A. Haus</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_L._Flanagan" title="James L. Flanagan">James L. Flanagan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar N. Patel</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eli_Ruckenstein" title="Eli Ruckenstein">Eli Ruckenstein</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Kenneth N. Stevens</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Yuan-Cheng B. Fung</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Acrivos" title="Andreas Acrivos">Andreas Acrivos</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Beranek" title="Leo Beranek">Leo Beranek</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Prausnitz" title="John Prausnitz">John M. Prausnitz</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_N._Lightfoot" title="Edwin N. Lightfoot">Edwin N. Lightfoot</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jan_D._Achenbach" title="Jan D. Achenbach">Jan D. Achenbach</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert S. Langer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">David J. Wineland</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_E._K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n" title="Rudolf E. Kálmán">Rudolf E. Kálmán</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amnon_Yariv" title="Amnon Yariv">Amnon Yariv</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shu_Chien" title="Shu Chien">Shu Chien</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kailath" title="Thomas Kailath">Thomas Kailath</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mathematical,_statistical,_and_computer_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz" title="Solomon Lefschetz">Solomon Lefschetz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marston_Morse" title="Marston Morse">H. Marston Morse</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zariski" title="Oscar Zariski">Oscar Zariski</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Milnor" title="John Milnor">John Milnor</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman" title="Jerzy Neyman">Jerzy Neyman</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Feller" title="William Feller">William Feller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brauer" title="Richard Brauer">Richard Brauer</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Backus" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Backus">John W. Backus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shiing-Shen_Chern" title="Shiing-Shen Chern">Shiing-Shen Chern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_O._Friedrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt O. Friedrichs">Kurt Otto Friedrichs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hassler_Whitney" title="Hassler Whitney">Hassler Whitney</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Doob" title="Joseph L. Doob">Joseph L. Doob</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_H._Stone" title="Marshall H. Stone">Marshall H. Stone</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isadore_Singer" title="Isadore Singer">Isadore Singer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Zygmund" title="Antoni Zygmund">Antoni Zygmund</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Bott" title="Raoul Bott">Raoul Bott</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freedman" title="Michael Freedman">Michael Freedman</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_E._Gomory" title="Ralph E. Gomory">Ralph E. Gomory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keller" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph B. Keller">Joseph B. Keller</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Karlin" title="Samuel Karlin">Samuel Karlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane" title="Saunders Mac Lane">Saunders Mac Lane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Spencer" title="Donald C. Spencer">Donald C. Spencer</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_F._Carrier" title="George F. Carrier">George F. Carrier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene" title="Stephen Cole Kleene">Stephen Cole Kleene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Calder%C3%B3n" title="Alberto Calderón">Alberto Calderón</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal" title="Martin David Kruskal">Martin David Kruskal</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nirenberg" title="Louis Nirenberg">Louis Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Smale" title="Stephen Smale">Stephen Smale</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cathleen_Synge_Morawetz" title="Cathleen Synge Morawetz">Cathleen Synge Morawetz</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Felix_Browder" title="Felix Browder">Felix Browder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald R. Coifman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calyampudi_Radhakrishna_Rao" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao">Calyampudi R. Rao</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Glimm" title="James Glimm">James G. Glimm</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_R._de_Boor" title="Carl R. de Boor">Carl R. de Boor</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sullivan" title="Dennis Sullivan">Dennis P. Sullivan</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Efron" title="Bradley Efron">Bradley Efron</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Bass" title="Hyman Bass">Hyman Bass</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Viterbi" title="Andrew Viterbi">Andrew J. Viterbi</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_B._Mumford" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Mumford">David B. Mumford</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Tapia" title="Richard A. Tapia">Richard A. Tapia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/S._R._Srinivasa_Varadhan" title="S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan">S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb" title="Solomon W. Golomb">Solomon W. Golomb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barry_Mazur" title="Barry Mazur">Barry Mazur</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Chorin" title="Alexandre Chorin">Alexandre Chorin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Blackwell" title="David Blackwell">David Blackwell</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Artin" title="Michael Artin">Michael Artin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis W. Alvarez</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Rubey" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rubey">William Rubey</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Van Vleck">John H. Van Vleck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Hammett">Louis Hammett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doughty_Bartlett" title="Paul Doughty Bartlett">Paul Bartlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Panofsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Panofsky">Wolfgang Panofsky</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saul_Winstein" title="Saul Winstein">Saul Winstein</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Djerassi" title="Carl Djerassi">Carl Djerassi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arie_Jan_Haagen-Smit" title="Arie Jan Haagen-Smit">Arie Jan Haagen-Smit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Haensel" title="Vladimir Haensel">Vladimir Haensel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rathbun_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rathbun Wilson">Robert Rathbun Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" class="mw-redirect" title="Linus Carl Pauling">Linus Carl Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Sanborn_Pitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer">Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_A._Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans A. Bethe">Hans A. Bethe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_O._Hirschfelder" title="Joseph O. Hirschfelder">Joseph O. Hirschfelder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sarett" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Sarett">Lewis Sarett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Rossini" title="Frederick Rossini">Frederick Rossini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Verner_Suomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner Suomi">Verner Suomi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard P. Feynman">Richard P. Feynman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Mark">Herman Mark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Purcell" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward M. Purcell">Edward M. Purcell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Sinfelt" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sinfelt">John Sinfelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Lyman Spitzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Margaret_Burbidge" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Margaret Burbidge">E. Margaret Burbidge</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Munk" title="Walter Munk">Walter Munk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_J._Buchsbaum" title="Solomon J. Buchsbaum">Solomon J. Buchsbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Crane" title="H. Richard Crane">H. Richard Crane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Robert Hofstadter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Chen-Ning Yang</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Lauterbur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Lauterbur">Paul C. Lauterbur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_A._Van_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Van Allen">James A. Van Allen</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ching-wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Ching-wu">Paul Ching-Wu Chu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Parker" title="Eugene Parker">Eugene Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Sharp" title="Robert P. Sharp">Robert Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan M. Cormack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._McMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. McMillan">Edwin M. McMillan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Revelle" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Schawlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Schawlow">Arthur L. Schawlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Stone" title="Edward C. Stone">Ed Stone</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Shoemaker">Eugene M. Shoemaker</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Press" title="Frank Press">Frank Press</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Dehmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Dehmelt">Hans Dehmelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Goldreich" title="Peter Goldreich">Peter Goldreich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace S. Broecker</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild" title="Martin Schwarzschild">Martin Schwarzschild</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Wetherill" title="George Wetherill">George Wetherill</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Don_L._Anderson" title="Don L. Anderson">Don L. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_E._Lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis E. Lamb">Willis E. Lamb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_P._Ostriker" title="Jeremiah P. Ostriker">Jeremiah P. Ostriker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_F._White" title="Gilbert F. White">Gilbert F. White</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Keeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Keeling">Charles Keeling</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Brent_Dalrymple" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brent Dalrymple">G. Brent Dalrymple</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert N. Clayton</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Lonnie Thompson</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fay_Ajzenberg-Selove" title="Fay Ajzenberg-Selove">Fay Ajzenberg-Selove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pence_Slichter" title="Charles Pence Slichter">Charles P. Slichter</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berni_Alder" title="Berni Alder">Berni Alder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (astronomer)">James E. Gunn</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Esther_M._Conwell" title="Esther M. Conwell">Esther M. Conwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_M._Washington" title="Warren M. Washington">Warren M. Washington</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sean_Solomon" title="Sean Solomon">Sean C. Solomon</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Ann Jackson</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q299908#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q299908#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q299908#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109124411">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/69029865">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/39339/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfWTPv6rmHwdFGdv7KKh3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/129517933">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79079310">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12473852r">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12473852r">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00440856">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gibson, Eleanor J."><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV074087">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0116049&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p067629024">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90589722">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Gibson, Eleanor J. (Eleanor Jack)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000041160&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=185529">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007297292305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00477149?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/033931437">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6dp1gw8">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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