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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism_of_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism_of_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mechanism of action</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanism_of_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Glucagon</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">69 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86" title="غلوكاغون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غلوكاغون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ql%C3%BCkaqon" title="Qlükaqon – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qlükaqon" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A8" title="গ্লুকাগন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গ্লুকাগন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucag%C3%B3" title="Glucagó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glucagó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCG" title="GCG – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="GCG" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8E%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%AB%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%8E%DE%AE%DE%82%DE%B0" title="ގްލޫކަގޮން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ގްލޫކަގޮން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BCkagoon" title="Glükagoon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Glükagoon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Γλυκαγόνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλυκαγόνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucag%C3%B3n" title="Glucagón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glucagón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagono" title="Glukagono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Glukagono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagoi" title="Glukagoi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Glukagoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86" title="گلوکاگون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گلوکاگون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAcag%C3%B3n" title="Glúcagón – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Glúcagón" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicag%C3%B3n" title="Glicagón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glicagón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%80%EB%A3%A8%EC%B9%B4%EA%B3%A4" title="글루카곤 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="글루카곤" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Գլյուկագոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գլյուկագոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="ग्लूकागॉन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ग्लूकागॉन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BAkagon" title="Glúkagon – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Glúkagon" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagone" title="Glucagone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glucagone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9F" title="גלוקגון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גלוקגון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikagons" title="Glikagons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Glikagons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliukagonas" title="Gliukagonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gliukagonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глукагон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Глукагон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="ഗ്ലൂക്കഗോൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗ്ലൂക്കഗോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="ग्लुकॅगॉन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ग्लुकॅगॉन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AB%E3%82%B4%E3%83%B3" title="グルカゴン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グルカゴン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%97%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%A8" title="ଗ୍ଲୁକାଗନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଗ୍ଲୁକାଗନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyukagon" title="Glyukagon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Glyukagon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagoni" title="Glukagoni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Glukagoni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukag%C3%B3n" title="Glukagón – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Glukagón" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глукагон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Глукагон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagoni" title="Glukagoni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Glukagoni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="குளூக்கொகான் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குளூக்கொகான்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="กลูคากอน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กลูคากอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukagon" title="Glukagon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Glukagon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Глюкагон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Глюкагон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="گلوکا گان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گلوکا گان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Glucagon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B0%E9%AB%98%E8%A1%80%E7%B3%96%E7%B4%A0" title="胰高血糖素 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="胰高血糖素" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B0%E9%AB%98%E8%A1%80%E7%B3%96%E7%B4%A0" title="胰高血糖素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="胰高血糖素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%B0%E9%AB%98%E8%A1%80%E7%B3%96%E7%B4%A0" title="胰高血糖素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="胰高血糖素" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Peptide hormone</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the natural hormone. For the medication, see <a href="/wiki/Glucagon_(medication)" title="Glucagon (medication)">Glucagon (medication)</a>.</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:26.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold">glucagon</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Gene_nomenclature" title="Gene nomenclature">Aliases</a></span></th><td colspan="3" style="background:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"></span>GCG(53-81)glucagoneglucagon recombinant</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">External IDs</th><td colspan="3" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/GeneCards" title="GeneCards">GeneCards</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=">[1]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Orthologous_MAtrix" title="Orthologous MAtrix">OMA</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omabrowser.org/oma/vps/n/a">- orthologs</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">RNA expression</a> pattern</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/">Bgee</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th><b><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a></b></th><th><b><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a> (ortholog)</b></th></tr><tr><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px">n/a</ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px">n/a</ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biogps.org/">BioGPS</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png/250px-PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png/375px-PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png/500px-PBB_GE_GCG_206422_at_fs.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="530" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biogps.org/gene/n/a/">More reference expression data</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Orthologs" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthologs">Orthologs</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Species</th><td><b>Human</b></td><td><b>Mouse</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Entrez" title="Entrez">Entrez</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks">n/a</p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks">n/a</p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks">n/a</p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks">n/a</p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/n">n</a><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/a">a</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks">n/a</p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (mRNA)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (protein)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Location (UCSC)</th><td><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></td><td><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PubMed</a> search</th><td><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></td><td><span class="plainlinks">n/a</span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="4" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170617" class="extiw" title="d:Q170617">View/Edit Human</a></td><td colspan="0" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Glucagon</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormone</a>, produced by <a href="/wiki/Alpha_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha cells">alpha cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>. It raises the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> in the bloodstream and is considered to be the main <a href="/wiki/Catabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catabolic">catabolic</a> hormone of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also used as a <a href="/wiki/Glucagon_(medication)" title="Glucagon (medication)">medication</a> to treat a number of health conditions. Its effect is opposite to that of <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, which lowers extracellular glucose.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is produced from <a href="/wiki/Proglucagon" title="Proglucagon">proglucagon</a>, encoded by the <i>GCG</i> gene. </p><p>The pancreas releases glucagon when the amount of glucose in the bloodstream is too low. Glucagon causes the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> to engage in <a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis">glycogenolysis</a>: converting stored <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> into <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, which is released into the bloodstream.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High blood-glucose levels, on the other hand, stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels stable. Glucagon increases energy expenditure and is elevated under conditions of stress.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glucagon belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Glucagon_hormone_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon hormone family">secretin family</a> of hormones. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glucagon is a 29-<a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Polypeptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypeptide">polypeptide</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Primary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary structure">primary structure</a> in humans is: <a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">NH<sub>2</sub></a>-<a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">His</a>-<a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Ser</a>-<a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">Gln</a>-<a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Gly</a>-<a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">Thr</a>-<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>-<a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">Thr</a>-<a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Ser</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Asp</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>-<a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Ser</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">Lys</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a>-<a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">Leu</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Asp</a>-<a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Ser</a>-<a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arg</a>-<a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arg</a>-<a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">Ala</a>-<a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">Gln</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Asp</a>-<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a>-<a href="/wiki/Valine" title="Valine">Val</a>-<a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">Gln</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">Trp</a>-<a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">Leu</a>-<a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine">Met</a>-<a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">Asn</a>-<a href="/wiki/Threonine" title="Threonine">Thr</a>-<a href="/wiki/Carboxyl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxyl group">COOH</a> (HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT). </p><p>The polypeptide has a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_mass" title="Molecular mass">molecular mass</a> of 3485 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">daltons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glucagon is a <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> (non<a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroid</a>) hormone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production">Production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucagon_rednblue.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Glucagon_rednblue.png/220px-Glucagon_rednblue.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Glucagon_rednblue.png/330px-Glucagon_rednblue.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Glucagon_rednblue.png/440px-Glucagon_rednblue.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>A microscopic image stained for glucagon</figcaption></figure> <p>The hormone is synthesized and secreted from <a href="/wiki/Alpha_cell" title="Alpha cell">alpha cells</a> (α-cells) of the <a href="/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">islets of Langerhans</a>, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. Glucagon is produced from the <a href="/wiki/Preproglucagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Preproglucagon">preproglucagon</a> gene <i>Gcg</i>. Preproglucagon first has its <a href="/wiki/Signal_peptide" title="Signal peptide">signal peptide</a> removed by <a href="/wiki/Signal_peptidase" title="Signal peptidase">signal peptidase</a>, forming the 160-<a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> protein proglucagon.<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proglucagon is then cleaved by <a href="/wiki/Proprotein_convertase_2" title="Proprotein convertase 2">proprotein convertase 2</a> to glucagon (amino acids 33-61) in pancreatic islet α cells. In intestinal <a href="/wiki/L_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="L cell">L cells</a>, proglucagon is cleaved to the alternate products <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glicentin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glicentin (page does not exist)">glicentin</a> (1–69), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glicentin-related_pancreatic_polypeptide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glicentin-related pancreatic polypeptide (page does not exist)">glicentin-related pancreatic polypeptide</a> (1–30), oxyntomodulin (33–69), <a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon-like peptide 1">glucagon-like peptide 1</a> (72–107 or 108), and <a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon-like peptide 2">glucagon-like peptide 2</a> (126–158).<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet in close proximity to beta cells. Glucagon is also produced by alpha cells in the stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-Unger_2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unger_2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent research has demonstrated that glucagon production may also take place outside the pancreas, with the gut being the most likely site of extrapancreatic glucagon synthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation">Regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Production, which is otherwise freerunning, is suppressed/regulated by <a href="/wiki/Amylin" title="Amylin">amylin</a>, a peptide hormone co-secreted with insulin from the pancreatic β cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_2018_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2018-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As plasma glucose levels recede, the subsequent reduction in amylin secretion alleviates its suppression of the α cells, allowing for glucagon secretion. </p><p>Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglycemia" title="Hypoglycemia">Hypoglycemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">Epinephrine</a> (via β2, α2,<sup id="cite_ref-Layden_2010_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Layden_2010-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and α1<sup id="cite_ref-alpha1and2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alpha1and2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adrenergic receptors)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arginine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">Alanine</a> (often from muscle-derived pyruvate/glutamate transamination (see <a href="/wiki/Alanine_transaminase" title="Alanine transaminase">alanine transaminase</a> reaction).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a><sup id="cite_ref-HoneyWEIRf1980_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoneyWEIRf1980-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">Cholecystokinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_inhibitory_polypeptide" title="Gastric inhibitory polypeptide">Gastric inhibitory polypeptide</a></li> <li>Gastrin<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Secretion of glucagon is inhibited by: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amylin" title="Amylin">Amylin</a><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_2018_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang_2018-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a> (via <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16399504_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16399504-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor_gamma" title="Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma">PPARγ</a>/<a href="/wiki/Retinoid_X_receptor" title="Retinoid X receptor">retinoid X receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Protein_dimer" title="Protein dimer">heterodimer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17962386_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17962386-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Increased free <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keto_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Keto acids">keto acids</a> into the blood.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2003_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2003-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Increased <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> production</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1">Glucagon-like peptide-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glucagon generally elevates the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> by promoting <a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">gluconeogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis">glycogenolysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">adipose tissue</a> and the liver, as well as promoting <a href="/wiki/Lipolysis" title="Lipolysis">lipolysis</a> in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation where they can be <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolised</a> to generate energy in tissues such as <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscle</a> when required.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> glycogen, which is a <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucan</a> (a polymer made up of glucose molecules). Liver cells (<a href="/wiki/Hepatocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatocytes">hepatocytes</a>) have <a href="/wiki/Glucagon_receptor" title="Glucagon receptor">glucagon receptors</a>. When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis">glycogenolysis</a>. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver and kidney to synthesize additional glucose by <a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">gluconeogenesis</a>. Glucagon turns off <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to gluconeogenesis. </p><p>Glucagon also regulates the rate of glucose production through lipolysis. Glucagon induces lipolysis in humans under conditions of insulin suppression (such as <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glucagon production appears to be dependent on the central nervous system through pathways yet to be defined. In <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eyestalk" title="Eyestalk">eyestalk</a> removal has been reported to affect glucagon production. Excising the eyestalk in young <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a> produces glucagon-induced <a href="/wiki/Hyperglycemia" title="Hyperglycemia">hyperglycemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leinen_1983_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leinen_1983-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism_of_action">Mechanism of action</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mechanism of action"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucagon_Activation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Glucagon_Activation.png/350px-Glucagon_Activation.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Glucagon_Activation.png/525px-Glucagon_Activation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Glucagon_Activation.png/700px-Glucagon_Activation.png 2x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption>Metabolic regulation of glycogen by glucagon.</figcaption></figure> <p>Glucagon binds to the <a href="/wiki/Glucagon_receptor" title="Glucagon receptor">glucagon receptor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptor</a>, located in the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a> of the cell. The conformation change in the receptor activates a <a href="/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G protein</a>, a heterotrimeric protein with α<sub>s</sub>, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Guanosine_diphosphate" title="Guanosine diphosphate">GDP</a> molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a <a href="/wiki/Guanosine_triphosphate" title="Guanosine triphosphate">GTP</a> molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, <a href="/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adenylate cyclase">adenylate cyclase</a>. </p><p>Adenylate cyclase manufactures <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cyclic adenosine monophosphate</a> (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates <a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase_A" title="Protein kinase A">protein kinase A</a> (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylase_kinase" title="Phosphorylase kinase">phosphorylase kinase</a>, which then phosphorylates <a href="/wiki/Glycogen_phosphorylase" title="Glycogen phosphorylase">glycogen phosphorylase</a> b (PYG b), converting it into the active form called phosphorylase a (PYG a). Phosphorylase a is the enzyme responsible for the release of <a href="/wiki/Glucose-1-phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucose-1-phosphate">glucose 1-phosphate</a> from glycogen polymers. An example of the pathway would be when glucagon binds to a transmembrane protein. The transmembrane proteins interacts with Gɑβ𝛾. <a href="/wiki/G%CE%B1s" class="mw-redirect" title="Gαs">Gαs</a> separates from Gβ𝛾 and interacts with the transmembrane protein adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP binds to protein kinase A, and the complex phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase kinase.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phosphorylated glycogen phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates <a href="/wiki/Glycogen_phosphorylase" title="Glycogen phosphorylase">glycogen phosphorylase</a>. Phosphorylated glycogen phosphorylase clips glucose units from glycogen as glucose 1-phosphate. </p><p>Additionally, the coordinated control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver is adjusted by the phosphorylation state of the enzymes that catalyze the formation of a potent activator of glycolysis called fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.<sup id="cite_ref-Hue_L_&_Rider_MH_1987_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hue_L_&_Rider_MH_1987-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The enzyme protein kinase A (PKA) that was stimulated by the cascade initiated by glucagon will also phosphorylate a single serine residue of the bifunctional polypeptide chain containing both the enzymes fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase-2. This covalent phosphorylation initiated by glucagon activates the former and inhibits the latter. This regulates the reaction catalyzing fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (a potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1, the enzyme that is the primary regulatory step of glycolysis)<sup id="cite_ref-Claus,_TH_et_al_1984_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claus,_TH_et_al_1984-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by slowing the rate of its formation, thereby inhibiting the flux of the glycolysis pathway and allowing gluconeogenesis to predominate. This process is reversible in the absence of glucagon (and thus, the presence of insulin). </p><p>Glucagon stimulation of PKA inactivates the glycolytic enzyme <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_kinase" title="Pyruvate kinase">pyruvate kinase</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Feliu_JE,_Hue_L_&_Hers_HG_1976_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feliu_JE,_Hue_L_&_Hers_HG_1976-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inactivates <a href="/wiki/Glycogen_synthase" title="Glycogen synthase">glycogen synthase</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Jiang_G,_Zhang_BB_2003_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jiang_G,_Zhang_BB_2003-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and activates <a href="/wiki/Hormone-sensitive_lipase" title="Hormone-sensitive lipase">hormone-sensitive lipase</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hayashi_Y_2021_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayashi_Y_2021-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which catabolizes glycerides into glycerol and free fatty acid(s), in hepatocytes. </p><p>Glucagon also inactivates <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA_carboxylase" title="Acetyl-CoA carboxylase">acetyl-CoA carboxylase</a>, which creates malonyl-CoA from acetyl-CoA, through cAMP-dependent and/or cAMP-independent kinases.<sup id="cite_ref-Swenson_TL_&_Porter_JW_1985_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swenson_TL_&_Porter_JW_1985-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Malonyl-CoA" title="Malonyl-CoA">Malonyl-CoA</a> is a product formed by <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA_carboxylase" title="Acetyl-CoA carboxylase">ACC</a> during <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis" title="Fatty acid synthesis">denovo synthesis</a> and an allosteric inhibitor of <a href="/wiki/Carnitine_palmitoyltransferase_I" title="Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I"> Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT1)</a>, a mitochondrial enzyme important for bringing fatty acids into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria for β-oxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang_Y,_Yu_W,_Li_S,_Guo_D,_He_J,_Wang_Y_2022_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang_Y,_Yu_W,_Li_S,_Guo_D,_He_J,_Wang_Y_2022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glucagon decreases malonyl-CoA through inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and through reduced glycolysis through its aforementioned reduction in Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. Thus, reduction in malonyl-CoA is a common regulator for the increased fatty acid metabolism effects of glucagon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathology">Pathology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abnormally elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Glucagonoma" title="Glucagonoma">glucagonoma</a>, symptoms of which include <a href="/wiki/Necrolytic_migratory_erythema" title="Necrolytic migratory erythema">necrolytic migratory erythema</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27422767_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27422767-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduced amino acids, and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of <a href="/wiki/Multiple_endocrine_neoplasia_type_1" title="Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1">multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21167379_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21167379-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elevated glucagon is the main contributor to <a href="/wiki/Diabetic_ketoacidosis" title="Diabetic ketoacidosis">hyperglycemic ketoacidosis</a> in undiagnosed or poorly treated type 1 diabetes. As the beta cells cease to function, insulin and pancreatic GABA are no longer present to suppress the freerunning output of glucagon. As a result, glucagon is released from the alpha cells at a maximum, causing a rapid breakdown of glycogen to glucose and fast <a href="/wiki/Ketogenesis" title="Ketogenesis">ketogenesis</a> .<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18939392_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18939392-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was found that a subset of adults with type 1 diabetes took 4 times longer on average to approach ketoacidosis when given somatostatin (inhibits glucagon production) with no insulin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Inhibiting glucagon has been a popular idea of diabetes treatment, however, some have warned that doing so will give rise to <a href="/wiki/Brittle_diabetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle diabetes">brittle diabetes</a> in patients with adequately stable blood glucose.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The absence of alpha cells (and hence glucagon) is thought to be one of the main influences in the extreme volatility of blood glucose in the setting of a total <a href="/wiki/Pancreatectomy" title="Pancreatectomy">pancreatectomy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1920s, several groups noted that pancreatic extracts injected into diabetic animals would result in a brief increase in blood sugar prior to the insulin-driven decrease in blood sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1922, C. Kimball and John R. Murlin identified a component of pancreatic extracts responsible for this blood sugar increase, terming it "glucagon", a portmanteau of "<u>gluc</u>ose <u>agon</u>ist".<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kimball_1923_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimball_1923-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1950s, scientists at <a href="/wiki/Eli_Lilly" title="Eli Lilly">Eli Lilly</a> isolated pure glucagon, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">crystallized</a> it, and determined its amino acid sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bromer_1957_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bromer_1957-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the development of the first <a href="/wiki/Radioimmunoassay" title="Radioimmunoassay">radioimmunoassay</a> for detecting glucagon, described by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Unger" title="Roger Unger">Roger Unger</a>'s group in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2017_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific <a href="/wiki/Radioimmunoassay" title="Radioimmunoassay">radioimmunoassay</a> was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1979, while working in <a href="/wiki/Joel_Habener" title="Joel Habener">Joel Habener</a>'s laboratory at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital" title="Massachusetts General Hospital">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>, Richard Goodman collected <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">islet cells</a> from <a href="/wiki/Brockmann_body" title="Brockmann body">Brockman bodies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lophius_americanus" title="Lophius americanus">American anglerfish</a> in order to investigate <a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By splicing DNA from anglerfish islet cells into bacteria, Goodman was able to identify the gene which codes for somatostatin.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> P. Kay Lund joined the Habener lab and used Goodman's bacteria to search for the gene for glucagon.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1982, Lund and Goodman published their discovery that the proglucagon gene codes for three distinct peptides: glucagon and two novel peptides.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graeme Bell at <a href="/wiki/Chiron_Corporation" title="Chiron Corporation">Chiron Corporation</a> led a team which isolated the two latter peptides, which are now known as glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This opened the door to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1_receptor" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor">glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor</a> and then drugs which target that receptor, known as <a href="/wiki/GLP-1_receptor_agonist" title="GLP-1 receptor agonist">GLP-1 receptor agonists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Molteni_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molteni-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Cortisol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">Diabetes mellitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1">Glucagon-like peptide-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-2" title="Glucagon-like peptide-2">Glucagon-like peptide-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">Islets of Langerhans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proglucagon" title="Proglucagon">Proglucagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrosine_kinase" title="Tyrosine kinase">Tyrosine kinase</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=STAT+News&rft.atitle=GLP-1+drugs+are+transforming+diabetes%2C+obesity+and+more.+Could+a+Nobel+be+next%3F&rft.date=2023-09-30&rft.aulast=Molteni&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Chen%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statnews.com%2F2023%2F09%2F30%2Fweight-loss-ozempic-nobel-prize-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlucagon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glucagon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid 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