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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_wet_low_land_rainforests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tropical wet low land rainforests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_wet_low_land_rainforests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tropical_montane_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_montane_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Tropical montane forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_montane_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests/Dry_monsoon_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests/Dry_monsoon_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests/Dry monsoon forests</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests/Dry_monsoon_forests-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests/Dry monsoon forests subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests/Dry_monsoon_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tropical_thorn_scrubs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_thorn_scrubs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Tropical thorn scrubs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_thorn_scrubs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Savanna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Savanna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Savanna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Savanna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Patana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wetlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wetlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Wetlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wetlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marshes_and_swamp_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshes_and_swamp_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Marshes and swamp forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshes_and_swamp_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Villus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Villus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Villus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Villus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lagoons_and_estuaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lagoons_and_estuaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Lagoons and estuaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lagoons_and_estuaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mangroves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mangroves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.4</span> <span>Mangroves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mangroves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salt_marshes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_marshes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.5</span> <span>Salt marshes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_marshes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_grass_beds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_grass_beds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.6</span> <span>Sea grass beds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_grass_beds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coral_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.7</span> <span>Coral reefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rivers_and_streams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rivers_and_streams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.8</span> <span>Rivers and streams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rivers_and_streams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reservoirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservoirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.9</span> <span>Reservoirs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservoirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_shore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_shore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.10</span> <span>Sea shore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_shore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sand_dunes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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diff-side-deleted"><div>* Terrestrial ecosystems</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Terrestrial ecosystems</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>** Forests – Lowland rain forests, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Dry</del> monsoon forests, montane forests, thorn scrubs</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>** Forests – Lowland rain forests, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dry</ins> monsoon forests, montane forests, thorn scrubs</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>** Grasslands - Savanna, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{clarify span</del>|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"</del>patana<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">"|reason=Is this a native word, or a technical term of some sort?}}</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>** Grasslands - Savanna, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[#Patana</ins>|patana<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>* Inland wetland is with ecosystem – Rivers and streams, reservoirs, marshes and swamps, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{clarify span</del>|villus<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|reason=Is this a native word, or a technical term of some sort?}}</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>* Inland wetland is with ecosystem – Rivers and streams, reservoirs, marshes and swamps, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[#Villus</ins>|villus<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>* Ecosystem is with coastal areas – Lagoons and estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seashore, sand dunes, seagrass beds, salt marshes.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>* Ecosystem is with coastal areas – Lagoons and estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seashore, sand dunes, seagrass beds, salt marshes.</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 41:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 41:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|-</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|-</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|Arid zone</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|Arid zone</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">32-36</del>&nbsp;°C</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">32–36</ins>&nbsp;°C</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|<1,000&nbsp;mm</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|<1,000&nbsp;mm</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|<300 m</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|<300 m</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 71:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 71:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>| rowspan="3" |>2,000&nbsp;mm</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>| rowspan="3" |>2,000&nbsp;mm</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|300–1,000 m</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|300–1,000 m</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|[[Sri Lanka lowland rain forests|Tropical lowland wet <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">ever-green</del>]]</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>|[[Sri Lanka lowland rain forests|Tropical lowland wet <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">evergreen</ins>]]</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|Talawa</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|Talawa</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|-</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|-</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|900–1,500 m</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|900–1,500 m</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|Tropical sub-montane</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|Tropical sub-montane</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|Dry <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Patana</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>|Dry <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">patana</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|-</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|-</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|>1,500 m</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|>1,500 m</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|Tropical upper montane</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|Tropical upper montane</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>|Wet <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Patana</del></div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>|Wet <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">patana</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>|}</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>|}</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr>  </table><hr class='diff-hr' id='mw-oldid' /> <h2 class='diff-currentversion-title'>Revision as of 10:47, 28 November 2024</h2> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25em;line-height:1.5em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Natural forests in Sri Lanka</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Ecology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Realm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">Tropical forest</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Borders</th><td class="infobox-data">Indian Ocean</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Geography</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">10,825 km<sup>2</sup> (4,180 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Climate type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">Tropical climate</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> exhibits a remarkable biological diversity<sup id="cite_ref-cbd.int_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbd.int-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is considered to be the richest country in Asia in terms of species concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-cbd.int_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbd.int-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019 a total area of 16.5%<sup id="cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> was forested. In 2010, it was 28.8%<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (and 32.2% in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>9.0%<sup id="cite_ref-rainforests.mongabay.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rainforests.mongabay.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Sri Lanka's forests are classified as <a href="/wiki/Primary_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary forest">primary forest</a> (the most biodiverse form of forest and the biggest <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon sinks">carbon sinks</a> on Earth). </p><p>Sri Lanka's forests contain 61 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass (in 2010<sup id="cite_ref-rainforests.mongabay.com_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rainforests.mongabay.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Between 1990 and 2005 alone, Sri Lanka lost 17.7% of its forest cover.<sup id="cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>Sri Lanka continental separated from the south eastern tip of peninsular India by the more than 20 m deep <a href="/wiki/Palk_Strait" title="Palk Strait">Palk Strait</a>. There had been repeated land connections with India across this strait during successive glacial periods, the last being between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago when the sea level was about 120m below the present level creating a 140 km wide land bridge. Notwithstanding these intermittent land connections with India, when exchange of species undoubtedly would have taken place between the island and mainland, Sri Lanka <a href="/wiki/Category:Fauna_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Category:Fauna of Sri Lanka">fauna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Flora_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Category:Flora of Sri Lanka">flora</a>, especially those in the south western quarter, show remarkably high diversity and extraordinary endemism. It is the only area of seasonal lowland climate between western Malaysia (<a href="/wiki/Sumatran_montane_rain_forests" title="Sumatran montane rain forests">Sumathra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysian_montane_rain_forests" title="Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests">Malay Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borneo_montane_rain_forests" title="Borneo montane rain forests">Borneo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mindanao_montane_rain_forests" title="Mindanao montane rain forests">Philippines</a>) and eastern coastal <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_subhumid_forests" title="Madagascar subhumid forests">Madagascar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div> <p>According to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Red_List&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Red List (page does not exist)">National Red List</a> said, Sri Lanka counts 253 land species, 245 species of butterflies, 240 birds, 211 reptiles, 748 evaluated vertebrates and 1,492 invertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forest coverage is about 70% tropical dry monsoon forests, 15% <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_montane_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka montane rain forests">tropical moist monsoon forests</a> and 5% <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_lowland_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka lowland rain forests">tropical lower montane forests</a>. By the dawn of the 19th century, Sri Lanka's forest cover was estimated at up to 70% of the total land area. Since then, the forest cover has decreased progressively over time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Features">Features</h3></div> <p>Based on a global yardstick of concentrations of exceptional terrestrial biodiversity under threat, Sri Lanka and Western Ghats of southwestern India have been grouped together as one of the 34 global hotspots of biodiversity, implying that biologically they are among the richest and at the same time the most endangered terrestrial biogeographic region in earth.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystems">Ecosystems</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg/300px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg/450px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg/600px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_LKA_present.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Sri Lanka map of climate classification zones</figcaption></figure> <p>Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. Therefore it experiences a climate with high rainfall and temperature which permits the county to be broadly classified into groups as follows. </p> <ul><li>Terrestrial ecosystems <ul><li>Forests – Lowland rain forests, dry monsoon forests, montane forests, thorn scrubs</li> <li>Grasslands - Savanna, <a href="#Patana">patana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Inland wetland is with ecosystem – Rivers and streams, reservoirs, marshes and swamps, <a href="#Villus">villus</a></li> <li>Ecosystem is with coastal areas – Lagoons and estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seashore, sand dunes, seagrass beds, salt marshes.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Classifications of eco systems in Sri Lanka<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Climatic zone </th> <th>Temperature </th> <th>Rainfall </th> <th>Altitude </th> <th>Forests </th> <th>Grasslands </th></tr> <tr> <td>Arid zone </td> <td>32–36 °C </td> <td><1,000 mm </td> <td><300 m </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Tropical thorn scrubs</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dryland_farming" title="Dryland farming">Arid</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Dry zone </td> <td rowspan="3">28–32 °C </td> <td rowspan="3">1,000–1,500 mm </td> <td rowspan="3"><500 m </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_dry-zone_dry_evergreen_forests" title="Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests">Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests</a> </td> <td>Damana grassland </td></tr> <tr> <td>Talawa grassland </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">Savanna</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Intermediate zone </td> <td rowspan="2">24–28 °C </td> <td rowspan="2">1,250–2,000 mm </td> <td rowspan="2">500–1,500 m </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Tropical moist evergreen forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_montane_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka montane rain forests">Tropical sub montane forest</a> </td> <td>Savanna </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dry_grassland" title="Dry grassland">Dry patana</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Wet zone </td> <td rowspan="3">16–28 °C </td> <td rowspan="3">>2,000 mm </td> <td>300–1,000 m </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_lowland_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka lowland rain forests">Tropical lowland wet evergreen</a> </td> <td>Talawa </td></tr> <tr> <td>900–1,500 m </td> <td>Tropical sub-montane </td> <td>Dry patana </td></tr> <tr> <td>>1,500 m </td> <td>Tropical upper montane </td> <td>Wet patana </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropical_wet_low_land_rainforests">Tropical wet low land rainforests</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_lowland_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka lowland rain forests">Sri Lanka lowland rain forests</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_(25468886730).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg/280px-20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg/420px-20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg/560px-20160128_Sri_Lanka_4107_Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve_sRGB_%2825468886730%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> site <a href="/wiki/Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve" title="Sinharaja Forest Reserve">Sinharaja Forest Reserve</a> is an important forest in Sri Lanka.</figcaption></figure> <p>The tropical wet lowland rainforests are found below 900 m elevation in the south western quarter of the country. The mean annual temperature is about 28 °C, and the mean annual rainfalls varies between 2,000–5,000 mm in different locations without any dry period. The humidity is very high. These forests are characterized by a tall canopy, sub canopy and a sparse shrub layer consisting mostly of the saplings of canopy trees. Sometimes an emergent layer is also seen above the canopy. The vegetation is filled with a network of woody lianas that reach to the canopy layer. A diverse population of epiphytic lichens, mosses, liverworts ferns, orchids are found while many <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> inhabit decaying woods and soil. High endemism of floral and faunal diversity can be seen in these forests. (<i><a href="/wiki/Sinharaja_Forest_Reserve" title="Sinharaja Forest Reserve">Sinharaja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanneliya%E2%80%93Dediyagala%E2%80%93Nakiyadeniya" title="Kanneliya–Dediyagala–Nakiyadeniya">Nakiyadeniya and Kanneliya</a> are some examples for wet lowlands rainforest)</i> These forests are disturbed due to expansion of tea cultivation, agriculture, industrial and residential development.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some tree species found in the wet lowland rain forests are; </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Hora</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Ennai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dipterocarpus_zeylanicus" title="Dipterocarpus zeylanicus">Dipterocarpus zeylanicus</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Naa</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Nagai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mesua_ferrea" title="Mesua ferrea">Mesua ferrea</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Hal</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Kungiliyam pinai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Vateria_copallifera" title="Vateria copallifera">Vateria copallifera</a></i>)</li></ul> <p>Some animal species found in the wet lowland rainforests are <a href="/wiki/Purple-faced_langur" title="Purple-faced langur">purple-faced langur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_slender_loris" title="Red slender loris">red slender loris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Golden_palm_civet" title="Golden palm civet">golden palm civet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropical_montane_forests">Tropical montane forests</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_montane_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka montane rain forests">Sri Lanka montane rain forests</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sri_Lanka,_Horton_Plains,_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg/280px-Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg/420px-Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg/560px-Sri_Lanka%2C_Horton_Plains%2C_Rhododendron_trees_in_fog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Tropical montane forests, <a href="/wiki/Horton_Plains_National_Park" title="Horton Plains National Park">Horton Plains National Park</a></figcaption></figure> <p>They occur at elevations above 1,500 m above mean sea level. The average temperature is about 16 °C and rainfall is about 2,000 mmm without any dry period. The humidity is high as lowland rainforests. These forests are characterized by a short canopy of about 13 m, with a dense shrub layer. There are trees with umbrella-shaped rounded crowns and twisted branches having leathery small leaves to accommodate the strong winds that prevail in the <a href="/wiki/Montane_ecosystems" title="Montane ecosystems">montane zone</a>. High density of epiphytes cover the branches and stems of trees. Some plants found in these forests are; </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Keena</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Pongu</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Calophyllum_walkeri" title="Calophyllum walkeri">Calophyllum walkeri</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Walkurudu</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Kaatu karuwa</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cinnamomum_ovalifolium" title="Cinnamomum ovalifolium">Cinnamomum ovalifolium</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Gal weralu</i>, English: <span lang="en">Wild olive</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Elaeocarpus_montanus" title="Elaeocarpus montanus">Elaeocarpus montanus</a></i>)</li></ul> <p>Some animals that inhabit montane rainforests of Sri Lanka are <a href="/wiki/Yellow-eared_bulbul" title="Yellow-eared bulbul">yellow-eared bulbul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asian_highland_shrew" title="Asian highland shrew">Sri Lanka highland shrew</a> (<i>Suncus montanus)</i>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_sambar_deer" title="Sri Lankan sambar deer">sambar</a> (<i>Rusa unicolor unicolor)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Montane forests are distributed in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Central Highlands of Sri Lanka">Central Highlands</a> including <a href="/wiki/Knuckles_Mountain_Range" title="Knuckles Mountain Range">Knuckles range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pidurutalagala" title="Pidurutalagala">Pidurutalagala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakgala" title="Hakgala">Hakgala</a>. Montane forests were greatly affected due to <a href="/wiki/Tea_production_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Tea production in Sri Lanka">tea cultivation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests/Dry_monsoon_forests"><span id="Tropical_dry_mixed_evergreen_forests.2FDry_monsoon_forests"></span>Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests/Dry monsoon forests</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_dry-zone_dry_evergreen_forests" title="Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests">Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg/280px-Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg/420px-Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg/560px-Scenery_in_Yala_National_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2672" /></a><figcaption>Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests, Yala National Park</figcaption></figure> <p>These forests have a mean annual temperature of about 29 °C and rainfall around 1,000 mm- 1,500 mm most of which falls during the northeast monsoon periods. There is a marked dry spell from May to August. Above forests are distributed in areas below 300 m altitude. These forests are characterized by having sparse canopy, a sub canopy and a well-developed shrub/herb layer. Some plant species naturally found in these forests are<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the canopy trees are deciduous during the dry spell of the year. These forests harbour the largest elephant populations in Asia. The mammal fauna includes <i><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_leopard" title="Sri Lankan leopard">Panthera pardus kotiya</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sloth_bear" title="Sloth bear">Melursus ursinus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_axis_deer" title="Sri Lankan axis deer">Axis axis ceylonensis</a></i>. Most of the forest are protected ad National parks such as <a href="/wiki/Yala_National_Park" title="Yala National Park">Yala National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilpattu_National_Park" title="Wilpattu National Park">Wilpattu National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasgamuwa_National_Park" title="Wasgamuwa National Park">Wasgamuwa National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maduru_Oya_National_Park" title="Maduru Oya National Park">Maduru-Oya national park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritigala" title="Ritigala">Ritigal Strict</a> Nature reserve and many sanctuaries and forest reserves. These forests are disturbed by 'chena' cultivation, human settlements, extraction of timber, poaching etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Weera</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Virai</i> (<i>Drypetes spiaraia</i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Palu</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Paalai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Manilkara_hexandra" title="Manilkara hexandra">Manilkara hexandra</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Kaluwara</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Karun-kaali</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Diospyros_ebenum" title="Diospyros ebenum">Diospyros ebenum</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tropical_thorn_scrubs">Tropical thorn scrubs</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg/280px-Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg/420px-Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg/560px-Wilpattu_National_Park_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption>Tropical thorn scrubs, <a href="/wiki/Mannar_District" title="Mannar District">Mannar District</a></figcaption></figure> <p>These are called "scrubs" than "forests" as large trees are sparse and the vegetation is mainly consists of thorny shrubs. They are found in arid lowlands. The mean annual temperature is around 31 °C and rainfall is below 1,000 mm with a longer dry period. Due to the dry conditions, many fauna species can't be found. However <i>Axis axis ceylonensis, Panthera pardus kotiya, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_elephant" title="Sri Lankan elephant">Elephas maximus maximus</a></i> can be seen in these areas. They are distributed near <a href="/wiki/Hambantota_District" title="Hambantota District">Hambantota</a>, Yala, <a href="/wiki/Mannar_District" title="Mannar District">Mannar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puttalam_District" title="Puttalam District">Puttalam</a> areas and disturbed due to various development pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following plant species are commonly found; </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Gini-andara</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Vindattai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dichrostachys_cinerea" title="Dichrostachys cinerea">Dichrostachys cinerea</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Ranawara</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Avaram poo</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cassia_auriculata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassia auriculata">Cassia auriculata</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Heeressa</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Pirandai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cissus_quadrangularis" title="Cissus quadrangularis">Cissus quadrangularis</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Savanna">Savanna</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg/280px-Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg/420px-Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg/560px-Belihul_Oya_River_-_Horton_Plains_National_Park_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3212" data-file-height="1459" /></a><figcaption>Savanna, Belihul Oya River (Horton Plains National Park)</figcaption></figure> <p>Savannas have a thick grass cover and few scattered trees. These are common on hill slopes of the dry or intermediate zone. The thin layer of soil on hill slopes can not support the growth of trees and the grass cover of savannas helps to bind soil particles and reduce erosion of soil. Periodic fires are common to this ecosystem as the dried grass cover easily catches fire in dry period of the year. They have trees with fire-resistant species. Savannas are seen in <a href="/wiki/Bibile" title="Bibile">Bibile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monaragala_District" title="Monaragala District">Monaragala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahiyangana,_Eastern_Province" title="Mahiyangana, Eastern Province">Mahiyanganaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wellawaya" title="Wellawaya">Wellawaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horton_Plains_National_Park" title="Horton Plains National Park">Horton Plains</a> areas. These are distributed by periodic fires set by villagers for various reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some plant species found in Savanna are trees are; </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Aralu</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Kadukkay</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Terminalia_chebula" title="Terminalia chebula">Terminalia chebula</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Nelli</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Topu-nelli</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica" title="Phyllanthus emblica">Phyllanthus emblica</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Bulu</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Adhan-koddai, tanti</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Terminalia_bellirica" title="Terminalia bellirica">Terminalia bellirica</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Mana</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Vasanai pullu</i> English: <span lang="en">Citronella grass</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Dichrostachys_cinerea" title="Dichrostachys cinerea">Dichrostachys cineria</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Iluk</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Tharpai pullu</i> English: <span lang="en">Congon grass</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Imperata_cylindrica" title="Imperata cylindrica">Imperata cylindrica</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patana">Patana</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg/280px-At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg/420px-At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg/560px-At_the_highest_peak_in_Hantana_mountain_range.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>Dry Patana, Hantana</figcaption></figure> <p>There are two type of 'Patana' found in Sri Lanka; 'Wet Patana grassland' and 'Dry Patana grassland' based on the rainfall pattern and soil of the site. 'Wet Patana' grass lands are found in areas above 1,500 m from the sea level with mean annual rainfall of over 2,000 mm. Temperature range from 5 °C to 18 °C. Mist, fog and frost and frost are common in these areas and do not experience any dry period. The grasses do not reach more than 1 m height and are called '<a href="/wiki/Tussock_grass" title="Tussock grass">tussock grasses</a>' which include the <i>Chrysopogon nodulibarbis</i> and <i>Arundinella villosa.</i> The animals include a large Sri Lankan sambar and <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a> population and few <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_leopard" title="Sri Lankan leopard">Sri Lankan leopards</a> (<i>Panthera pardus kotiya).</i> Extensive 'Wet Patana' are found only in Horton plains. 'Dry Patana' are found in altitudes between 500 m to 1,600 m. They receive a rainfall about 1,400 to 2,000 mm with a definite dry period. Temperature ranges from 18 °C to 24 °C. The vegetation is made up of grasses that grow up to 1–2 m height such as <i><a href="/wiki/Cymbopogon_nardus" title="Cymbopogon nardus">Cymbopogon nardus</a></i> and <i>Themeda tremula.</i> 'Dry Patana' is common on hill tops in <a href="/wiki/Hanthana_Mountain_Range" title="Hanthana Mountain Range">Hanthana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gampola" title="Gampola">Gampola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welimada" title="Welimada">Welimada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haputale" title="Haputale">Haputale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wetlands">Wetlands</h3></div> <p>Wetlands are simply habitats with permanent or temporary accumulation of water with associated plant and animals. According to <a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramasar Convention</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide not exceed six metres.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marshes_and_swamp_forests">Marshes and swamp forests</h4></div> <p>Inland <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">freshwater marshlands</a> are low-lying areas that receive water through <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, ground water seepage or flood water from rivers. These contain <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> (partially decomposed organic matter), and water-logged sticky clay soil. Many water birds, amphibians and fresh species inhabit these areas. Plants that have adapted to grow in shallow stagnant water such as <i><a href="/wiki/Colocasia" title="Colocasia">Colocassi</a> spp.</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aponogeton" title="Aponogeton">Aponogeton</a> spp.</i>, species are abundant in inland marshlands. Freshwater swamp forests are not common in Sri Lanka. It is a place where forest vegetation is inundated for a short period of time in the year as seen in Waturana swamp at <a href="/wiki/Bulathsinhala_Divisional_Secretariat" title="Bulathsinhala Divisional Secretariat">Bulathsinhala</a> located in the '<a href="/wiki/Kalu_Ganga" title="Kalu Ganga">Kalu Ganga</a>' river basin.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Villus">Villus</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg/280px-Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg/420px-Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg/560px-Beauty_of_Wilpattu_National_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Villu, Wilpattu National Park</figcaption></figure> <p>Generally 'villus' are the <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">flood plains</a> of the reservoirs. 'Villu' grasslands possess a special link with the wildlife in the area, especially elephants and bird population. The vegetation is dominant with grasses (members of <i><a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a></i>)and sedge (member of <i><a href="/wiki/Cyperaceae" title="Cyperaceae">Cyperaceae</a></i>). 'Villu' grasslands are located in areas such as <a href="/wiki/Mahaweli_River" title="Mahaweli River">Mahawelli</a> flood plains, Wilpattu National Park.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lagoons_and_estuaries">Lagoons and estuaries</h4></div> <p>Lagoons are coastal wetlands generally separated from the sea by a sand barries.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (eg. <a href="/wiki/Negombo" title="Negombo">Negambo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bundala_National_Park" title="Bundala National Park">Bundala</a> lagoons) <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a> are formed in places where rivers enter the sea and does not contain a sand barriers separating it from seas.(eg. <a href="/wiki/Madu_Ganga" title="Madu Ganga">Madu Ganga</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bentota" title="Bentota">Benthota</a>) The daily tidal fluctuation is a characteristic of these places.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mangroves">Mangroves</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg/280px-Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg/420px-Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg/560px-Maduganga_Mangrove1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Mangroves, Madu ganga</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a> ecosystem is an intertidal vegetation that covers fringes of the lagoons and estuaries. They share characteristics usually of saline/brackish water, loose soil and anoxic conditions. The vegetation is also exposed to intense sunlight. Mangrove plants could be categorized into groups; true mangroves that occur towards the boundary between sea and land and mangrove associated that occur more towards inland common true mangrove species are;<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Kadol</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Kandal</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Rhizophora" title="Rhizophora">Rhizophora</a> spp., <a href="/wiki/Bruguiera" title="Bruguiera">Bruguiera</a> spp.</i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Mas athu</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Kannamaram</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Avicennia_marina" title="Avicennia marina">Avicennia marina</a></i>)</li></ul> <p>Common mangrove associate are; </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Karan koku</i>, English: <span lang="en">Golden leather fern</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Acrostichum_aureum" title="Acrostichum aureum">Acrostichum aureum</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Katu-ikili</i>, English: <span lang="en">Holly mangrove</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Acanthus_ilicifolius" title="Acanthus ilicifolius">Acanthus ilicifolius</a></i>)</li></ul> <p>To protect from sunlight leaves of the mangrove have a thick cuticle to reflect sunrays and/ or cut off excess radiation. Some have salt glands to secrete excess salts that are absorbed by the plants. There are special roots to intake atmospheric oxygen. Seeds of some mangroves germinate while attached to the mother plant ("vivipary"). This helps the seed to establish successfully soon after falling from the tree. Mangroves provide a unique habitat mainly for many <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a>. Mangroves are found in <a href="/wiki/Puttalam_District" title="Puttalam District">Puttalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batticaloa_District" title="Batticaloa District">Batticaloa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trincomalee_District" title="Trincomalee District">Trincomalee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galle_District" title="Galle District">Galle</a>, Bentota and Negambo.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salt_marshes">Salt marshes</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg/280px-Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg/420px-Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg/560px-Palmyras_of_Mannar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Salt marshes, Mannar</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marshes</a> are marshlands restricted to the arid coastal regions of the country where soil dries up to form crystals of salts during the dry season. Low rainfall, high wind, high temperatures and losses sand blowing with salt are some of the major characteristics found in this ecosystem. The vegetation has only few plant and animal species. Plant are short, contain fleshy succulent plant bodies one common plant species is <i>Salicornia spp.</i> salt marshes are common in Puttalam, Mannar, Hambantota and <a href="/wiki/Vakarai_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Vakarai (Sri Lanka)">Vakarai</a> areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sea_grass_beds">Sea grass beds</h4></div> <p>In large lagoon areas with low wave action, the floor of the shallow sea is occupied by sea grasses. These are not grass species but appear like grasses due to the shape of leaves. (eg. plant species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Halodule" title="Halodule">Halodule</a> spp.</i> and <i>Halophyla spp.</i> are common sea grasses found in Sri Lanka) Especially from <a href="/wiki/Kalpitiya" title="Kalpitiya">Kalpitiya</a> to Mannar. Sea grasses grow in a compact cluster and provides the sea bed a favourable habitat for breeding of many fish species. However, these areas are often disturbed by the fisheries activities as these are the parking areas of fishing boats.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coral_reefs">Coral reefs</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> are one of the natural wonders of Sri Lanka. Coastline of about 1,585 km, has nearshore coral reefs of varying quality along 2% of the liner coast. The most extensive coral reefs occur off the north west and east coast up to and around the <a href="/wiki/Jaffna_Peninsula" title="Jaffna Peninsula">Jaffna Peninsula</a>. The greatest extent of true corals in Sri Lanka lie in patchy reefs from Vakalai to the Kalpitiya peninsula. These offer the most varied reef access from snorkelling on shallow reefs to scuba diving on deeper reefs. Patchy coral reefs are also found on the western and eastern seaboards at a distance of about 15–20 km from the shore, at an average depth of 20m. Passekudah and <a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a> have the best coral reefs on the Eastern Maritime Province seaboard. <a href="/wiki/Hikkaduwa_National_Park" title="Hikkaduwa National Park">Hikkaduwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unawatuna" title="Unawatuna">Unawatuna</a>, Rumassala and <a href="/wiki/Matara,_Sri_Lanka" title="Matara, Sri Lanka">Matara</a> have the main fringing reefs along the southern coast. Little Basses and Great Basses off the south coast have the best barrier like reefs in Sri Lanka.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rivers_and_streams">Rivers and streams</h4></div> <p>Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers, which drains a total of 103 distinct natural river basins. The river basins originating in the wet highlands are perennial, while many of those in dry zone are seasonal. There is hardly any vegetation to be found in running water.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reservoirs">Reservoirs</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg/280px-Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg/420px-Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg/560px-Parakrama_Samudra_Tank_Polonnaruwa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Largest artificial reservoir, Parakrama Samudra was built in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Polonnaruwa" title="Kingdom of Polonnaruwa">Polonnaruwa Kingdom</a> by King <a href="/wiki/Parakramabahu_I" title="Parakramabahu I">Parakramabahu I</a> (1153–1186).</figcaption></figure> <p>There are no natural lakes in Sri Lanka, but there are numerous ancient irrigation tanks mainly scattered in the low land dry zone. Typical irrigation tanks include "<a href="/wiki/Parakrama_Samudra" title="Parakrama Samudra">Parakrama Samudra</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Kala_Wewa" title="Kala Wewa">Kala Wewa</a>"", "<a href="/wiki/Minneriya_Tank" title="Minneriya Tank">Minneriya wewa</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Tissa_Wewa_(Anuradhapura)" title="Tissa Wewa (Anuradhapura)">Tissa wewa</a>". </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Manel</i>, English: <span lang="en">Water lily</span> (<i><a href="/wiki/Nymphaea" title="Nymphaea">Nymphaea</a> spp.</i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Nelum</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Tamarai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera" title="Nelumbo nucifera">Nelumbo nucifera</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Kekatiya</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Koddi</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aponogeton" title="Aponogeton">Aponogeton</a> spp.</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Often free-floating invasive alien plant species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Salvinia" title="Salvinia">Salavinia</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Eichhornia_crassipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eichhornia crassipes">Water hyacinth</a> also can be seen in these tanks.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sea_shore">Sea shore</h4></div> <p>The long sea shore of Sri Lanka varies in nature. The most common sea shore type is sandy sea shores. The sea shore areas share the characteristics of high temperature throughout, and slat spray and high winds especially during the monsoon seasons. Most of the sea shore plants have adapted to these conditions. Examples for these plants are,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Muhudu Bimthamburu</i>, English: <span lang="en">Beach Morning Glory</span>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Atampu</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ipomoea_pes-caprae" title="Ipomoea pes-caprae">Ipomoea pes-caprae</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Maha rawana revula</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Ravannan meesai</i> (<i>Spinifex littoreus</i>)</li></ul> <p>The vegetation gradually become stable a distance away from the tide mark, with the stabilization of the soil. In these areas plant species such as, </p> <ul><li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Wara</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Erukkalau</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Calotropis_gigantea" title="Calotropis gigantea">Calotropis gigantea</a></i>)</li> <li>Sinhala: <i lang="si">Wetakeiya</i>, Tamil: <i lang="ta">Talai</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Pandanus" title="Pandanus">Pandanus</a> spp.</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sand_dunes">Sand dunes</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Sand dunes</a> are characterized by stunted or creping vegetation on large masses of sand. The sand dune structure is determined by wind speed and direction. Dunes are raised beaches of sand and are characteristic of certain coastal areas in the arid zone. Example: near <a href="/wiki/Mullaitivu_District" title="Mullaitivu District">Mullativu</a>, Trincomalee, <a href="/wiki/Kalpitiya" title="Kalpitiya">Kalpitiya</a>, Yala etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deforestation">Deforestation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Deforestation in Sri Lanka">Deforestation in Sri Lanka</a></div> <p>In 1882, 82% of Sri Lanka was forested.<sup id="cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1990 and 2000, Sri Lanka lost an average of 1.14% of its forest per year.<sup id="cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In total, between 1990 and 2005 alone, Sri Lanka lost 17.7% of its forest cover.<sup id="cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_and_Impacts">Causes and Impacts</h3></div> <p>Large scale agricultural and settlement schemes without the recognition given for wild animal habitats and their migration patterns have been a major driver of deforestation and degradation, particularly in the dry zone, during the last century. Planted crops, such as <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugar cane</a>, banana, maize and <a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">paddy</a>, in an unplanned manner, have led to ever-increasing human-elephant conflicts. Sri Lanka current forest cover 16.5% in 2019 down form 29.7% in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cbd.int-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cbd.int_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cbd.int_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=lk">Convention on Biological Diversity (a part of the UN environment programme)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thediplomat.com-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thediplomat.com_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2020/10/fighting-deforestation-in-sri-lanka/">thediplomat.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the U.N. FAO : <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Sri_Lanka.htm">https://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Sri_Lanka.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/ad678e/AD678E02.htm">"FRA 2000 – Forest resources of Sri Lanka – Country report"</a>. <i>www.fao.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fao.org&rft.atitle=FRA+2000+%E2%80%93+Forest+resources+of+Sri+Lanka+%E2%80%93+Country+report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fad678e%2FAD678E02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+forests+in+Sri+Lanka" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rainforests.mongabay.com-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rainforests.mongabay.com_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rainforests.mongabay.com_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Sri_Lanka.htm">"Sri Lanka Forest Information and Data"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sri+Lanka+Forest+Information+and+Data&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frainforests.mongabay.com%2Fdeforestation%2F2000%2FSri_Lanka.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+forests+in+Sri+Lanka" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunatulleke2012" class="citation book cs1">Gunatulleke, Nimal (2012). <i>Sri Lanka Rainforest Origin Story</i>. <a href="/wiki/Colombo" title="Colombo">Colombo</a>: <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_Sri_Lanka" title="National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka">National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sri+Lanka+Rainforest+Origin+Story&rft.place=Colombo&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+Sri+Lanka&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Gunatulleke&rft.aufirst=Nimal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+forests+in+Sri+Lanka" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnit" class="citation web cs1">Unit, Biosafety. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=lk">"Main Details"</a>. <i>www.cbd.int</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cepf.net&rft.atitle=Explore+the+Biodiversity+Hotspots+%7C+CEPF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cepf.net%2Four-work%2Fbiodiversity-hotspots&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+forests+in+Sri+Lanka" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>National Atlas of Sri Lanka, 2nd Edition</i>. 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href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_dry-zone_dry_evergreen_forests" title="Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests">Dry Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wet_Zone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wet Zone (page does not exist)">Wet Zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_disasters_in_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Natural disasters in Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Sri Lanka">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gems_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Gems of Sri Lanka">Gems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Central Highlands of Sri Lanka">Central Highlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanthana_Mountain_Range" title="Hanthana Mountain Range">Hanthana Mountain Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knuckles_Mountain_Range" title="Knuckles Mountain Range">Knuckles Mountain Range</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Extreme points of Sri Lanka">Extreme points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pidurutalagala" title="Pidurutalagala">Highest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_Pedro" title="Point Pedro">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dondra" title="Dondra">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangaman_Kanda" title="Sangaman Kanda">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katchatheevu" title="Katchatheevu">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of beaches in Sri Lanka">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Sri_Lanka" title="List of islands of Sri Lanka">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_lagoons_of_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of lagoons of Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Lagoons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="List of lakes in Sri Lanka">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_Sri_Lanka" title="List of mountains of Sri Lanka">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Sri_Lanka" title="List of rivers of Sri Lanka">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_valleys_in_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of valleys in Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of Sri Lanka">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bordering entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam%27s_Bridge" title="Adam's Bridge">Adam's Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mannar" title="Gulf of Mannar">Gulf of Mannar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palk_Bay" title="Palk Bay">Palk Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palk_Strait" title="Palk Strait">Palk Strait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Provinces of Sri Lanka">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Districts of Sri Lanka">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisional_Secretariats_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka">Divisional Secretariats Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grama_Niladhari" title="Grama Niladhari">Grama Niladhari Divisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of settlements in Sri Lanka">Settlements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of cities in Sri Lanka">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of towns in Sri Lanka">Towns</a></li> <li>Settlements in <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Central_Province_(Sri_Lanka)" title="List of settlements in Central Province (Sri Lanka)">Central Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Eastern_Province_(Sri_Lanka)" title="List of settlements in Eastern Province (Sri Lanka)">Eastern Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_North_Central_Province_(Sri_Lanka)" title="List of settlements in North Central Province (Sri Lanka)">North Central Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Northern_Province_(Sri_Lanka)" title="List of settlements in Northern Province (Sri Lanka)">Northern Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_North_Western_Province,_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="List of settlements in North Western Province, Sri Lanka">North Western Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Sabaragamuwa_Province" title="List of settlements in Sabaragamuwa Province">Sabaragamuwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Southern_Province,_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="List of settlements in Southern Province, Sri Lanka">Southern Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Uva_Province" title="List of settlements in Uva Province">Uva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_settlements_in_Western_Province_(Sri_Lanka)" title="List of settlements in Western Province (Sri Lanka)">Western Province</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Environment of Sri Lanka">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Sri Lanka">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Environmental issues in Sri Lanka">environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Deforestation in Sri Lanka">deforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Sri_Lanka" title="List of ecoregions in Sri Lanka">ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_thorn_scrub_forests" title="Deccan thorn scrub forests">Deccan thorn scrub forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_dry-zone_dry_evergreen_forests" title="Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests">dry-zone dry evergreen forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_lowland_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka lowland rain forests">lowland rain forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_montane_rain_forests" title="Sri Lanka montane rain forests">montane rain forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Sri_Lanka_rivers_and_streams" title="Southwestern Sri Lanka rivers and streams">Southwestern Sri Lanka rivers and streams</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Protected areas of Sri Lanka">protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Sri_Lanka" title="List of national parks of Sri Lanka">national parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_Sri_Lanka" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of Sri Lanka">wildlife sanctuaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Wildlife of Sri Lanka">wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of Sri Lanka">fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora of Sri Lanka">flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Forestry_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forestry_by_country" title="Template:Forestry by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forestry_by_country" title="Template talk:Forestry by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Forestry_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a> by country</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area" title="List of countries by forest area">Forest areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">deforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forest_research_institutes" title="List of forest research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_universities_and_colleges" title="List of forestry universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_technical_schools" title="List of forestry technical schools">Technical schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">Timber mafia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_in_Africa" title="Category:Forestry in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Chad" title="Forestry in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Ethiopia" title="Forestry in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Ghana" title="Forestry in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Sudan" title="Forestry in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Uganda" title="Forestry in Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GrouseMountainBC.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/GrouseMountainBC.JPG/120px-GrouseMountainBC.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/GrouseMountainBC.JPG/180px-GrouseMountainBC.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/GrouseMountainBC.JPG/240px-GrouseMountainBC.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Argentina" title="Forestry in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Canada" title="Forestry in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Chile" title="Forestry in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_in_Asia" title="Category:Forestry in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Bangladesh" title="Forestry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Bhutan" title="Forestry in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture,_forestry,_and_fishing_in_Japan#Forestry" title="Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Pakistan" title="Forestry in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Syria" title="Forestry in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Taiwan" title="Forestry in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_in_Turkey" title="Forests in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_in_Europe" title="Category:Forestry in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Estonia" title="Forestry in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_industry_in_Finland" title="Forest industry in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Germany" title="Forests of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Poland" title="Forests of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Russia" title="Forestry in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Romania" title="Forestry in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Spain" title="Forestry in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_in_Turkey" title="Forests in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Forestry in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Scotland" title="Forestry in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Wales" title="Forestry in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_in_Oceania" title="Category:Forestry in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Tasmania" title="Forestry in Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_New_Zealand" title="Forestry in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Forest_Service" title="Canadian Forest Service">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Forest_Corporation_(Chile)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Forest Corporation (Chile)">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Forest_and_Nature_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Danish Forest and Nature Agency">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya_Forest_Service" title="Kenya Forest Service">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Forestry_Commission_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="National Forestry Commission of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea_Forestry_Authority" title="Papua New Guinea Forestry Authority">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romsilva" title="Romsilva">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Forest_Service" title="Korea Forest Service">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Forest_Conservation_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Department of Forest Conservation (Sri Lanka)">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_and_Nature_Conservation_Agency" title="Forestry and Nature Conservation Agency">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_by_country" title="Category:Forestry by country">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_by_continent" title="Category:Forestry by continent">by continent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry_agencies" title="Category:Forestry agencies">agencies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Forestry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forestry" title="Template:Forestry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forestry" title="Template talk:Forestry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forestry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Forestry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_forestry_articles" title="Index of forestry articles">Index</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_forest_area" title="List of countries by forest area">Forest areas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_ministries" title="List of forestry ministries">Ministries</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forest_research_institutes" title="List of forest research institutes">Research institutes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_universities_and_colleges" title="List of forestry universities and colleges">Colleges</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_forestry_journals" title="List of forestry journals">Journals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arbor_Day" title="Arbor Day">Arbor Day</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dehesa" title="Dehesa">dehesa</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog forestry">Analog forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_to_nature_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Close to nature forestry">Close to nature forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_forestry" title="Community forestry">Community forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaforestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Permaforestry">Permaforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">Plantation forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_forestry_in_India" title="Social forestry in India">Social forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forestry">Sustainable forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest" title="Urban forest">Urban forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecology</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">Arboriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">Controlled burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">coarse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driftwood" title="Driftwood">driftwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_woody_debris" title="Large woody debris">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash_(logging)" title="Slash (logging)">slash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_thinning" title="Ecological thinning">Ecological thinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_aged_timber_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Even aged timber management">Even-aged management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dynamics" title="Forest dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_informatics" title="Forest informatics">informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_integrated_pest_management" title="Forest integrated pest management">IPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest governance">governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Information_Service" title="Global Forest Information Service">Global Forest Information Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_pathology" title="Forest pathology">pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_stand" title="Forest stand">stand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_transition" title="Forest transition">transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trillion_Tree_Campaign" title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm#American_Tree_Farm_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">ATFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CarbonFix_Standard" title="CarbonFix Standard">CFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council#Standards,_certification_and_accreditation" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">PEFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">SFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance#Sustainable_forestry_certification" title="Rainforest Alliance">SmartWood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Carbon_Code" title="Woodland Carbon Code">Woodland Carbon Code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Formally designated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">Growth and yield modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">GM trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Tree" title="I-Tree">i-Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_allometry" title="Tree allometry">allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">breeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_measurement" title="Tree measurement">Tree measurement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_crown_measurement" title="Tree crown measurement">crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_girth_measurement" title="Tree girth measurement">girth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_height_measurement" title="Tree height measurement">height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_volume_measurement" title="Tree volume measurement">volume</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Forests_and_other_vegetation" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">Ghost forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_grading" title="High grading">High grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">timber mafia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species#Forestry" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilding_conifer" title="Wilding conifer">wilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">REDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chitemene" title="Chitemene">chitemene</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svedjebruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Svedjebruk">svedjebruk</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Tree hugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmilling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">tanbark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">Tree farm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce-pine-fir" title="Spruce-pine-fir">spruce-pine-fir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_woodworking" title="Green woodworking">green woodworking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">Arborist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_bucking" title="Log bucking">Bucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choker_setter" title="Choker setter">Choker setter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">Feller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_firefighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland firefighter">Firefighter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_hotshot_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Interagency hotshot crew">hotshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_driving" title="Log driving">River driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging_truck" title="Logging truck">Truck driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_scaler" title="Log scaler">Log scaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumberjack" title="Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_ranger" title="Park ranger">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_weaver" title="Shingle weaver">Shingle weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Timber cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">Wood process engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> 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