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<li id="toc-Ancient_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ancient Indian Ocean slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Muslim Indian Ocean slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zanzibar_and_expansion_of_slave_trade_in_the_Swaihili_coast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zanzibar_and_expansion_of_slave_trade_in_the_Swaihili_coast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Zanzibar and expansion of slave trade in the Swaihili coast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zanzibar_and_expansion_of_slave_trade_in_the_Swaihili_coast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>European Indian Ocean slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography_and_transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_and_transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geography and transportation</span> </div> </a> <button 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Indian Ocean slave trade</b>, sometimes known as the <b>East African slave trade,</b> involved the capture and transportation of predominately <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">black African slaves</a> along the coasts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, and through the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. The areas impacted included <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">Southern Arabia</a>, the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>, Indian ocean islands (including <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>) and southeast Asia including <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>. </p><p>The source of slaves was primarily in <a href="/wiki/Sub-saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-saharan Africa">sub-saharan Africa</a>, but also included other parts of Africa and the Middle East, Indian Ocean islands, as well as south Asia. While the slave trade in the Indian Ocean started 4,000 years ago, it expanded significantly in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> (1st century CE) with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a> trading enterprises. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic slave trade">Muslim slave trading</a> started in the <a href="/wiki/7th_century" title="7th century">7th century</a>, with the volume of trade fluctuating with the rise and fall of local powers. Beginning in the 16th century, slaves were <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">traded to the Americas</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> colonies, as <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western European</a> powers became involved in the slave trade. Trade declined with the abolition of slavery in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade">Ancient Indian Ocean slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Indian Ocean slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slave trading in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> goes back to 2500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Classical_period_(c._200_BCE_–_c._650_CE)" title="History of India">Indians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Persians</a> all traded slaves on a small scale across the Indian Ocean (and sometimes the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slave trading in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> around the time of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> is described by <a href="/wiki/Agatharchides" title="Agatharchides">Agatharchides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a></i> (completed after 23 CE) mentions Greeks from Egypt trading slaves at the port of <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> and other ports in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean42_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean42-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> (published in 77 CE) also describes Indian Ocean slave trading.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1st century CE, <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i> advised of slave trading opportunities in the region, particularly in the trading of "beautiful girls for concubinage."<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this manual, slaves were exported from Omana (likely near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea#Frankincense_kingdom" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Kanê</a> to the west coast of India.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient Indian Ocean slave trade was enabled by <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">building ships</a> capable of carrying large numbers of human beings in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> using wood imported from India. These shipbuilding activities go back to Babylonian and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> times.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean32_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean32-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_people" title="Gujarati people">Gujarati</a> merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded slaves and African goods such as ivory and tortoise shells. The Gujaratis participated in the slavery business in <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> and, to some extent, in the Southern African region.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indonesians were also participants, and brought spices to trade in Africa. They would have returned via India and Sri Lanka with ivory, iron, skins, and slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_slave_trade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/250px-African_slave_trade.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/375px-African_slave_trade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/African_slave_trade.png/500px-African_slave_trade.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The main slave routes in medieval Africa</figcaption></figure><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian empires</a> entered into slave trading in the 6th century AD, it became a major enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Topography" title="Christian Topography">Christian Topography</a></i> (550 CE) that Somali port cities were exporting slaves captured in the interior to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt#Later_Roman_Egypt_(4th–7th_centuries)" title="Roman Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> via the Red Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean42_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean42-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also mentioned the import of <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> by the Byzantines from <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and India.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean42_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean42-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1st century, the export of black Africans from Tanzania, Mozambique and other <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> groups became a "constant factor".<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean32_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean32-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Sasanians, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a> supported not only the transport of slaves, but also of scholars and merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-indianocean22_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muslim_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade">Muslim Indian Ocean slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Muslim Indian Ocean slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sansibar,_Sultanspalast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg/260px-Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg/390px-Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg/520px-Sansibar%2C_Sultanspalast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2001" data-file-height="1373" /></a><figcaption>A sketch of stone town showing the old fort and palace from the year 1871 to the year 1875. Zanzibar <a href="/wiki/Stone_Town" title="Stone Town">Stone Town</a> was a port in the Indian Ocean slave trade.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/290px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/435px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg/580px-Slaves_ruvuma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Arab-Swahili slave traders and their captives along the <a href="/wiki/Ruvuma_River" title="Ruvuma River">Ruvuma River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Muslim world expanded along trade routes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Silk_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Silk route">silk route</a> in the 8th century. As the power and size of the Muslim trading networks grew, merchants along the routes were motivated to convert to Islam, as this would grant them access to contacts, trade routes and favour regarding trading rules under Muslim governance. By the 11th century, <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Kilwa</a>, on the coast of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, had become a fully-fledged affluent center of a Muslim-governed trade in slaves and gold.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exports of slaves to the Muslim world from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> began after <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swahili_people" title="Swahili people">Swahili</a> traders won control of the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a> and sea routes during the 9th century (see <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a>). These traders captured <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu peoples</a> (Zanj) from the interior in the present-day lands of <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> and brought them to the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Och_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Och-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ogot2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ogot2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the <a href="/wiki/Unguja" title="Unguja">Unguja</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pemba_Island" title="Pemba Island">Pemba</a> islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodhi2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodhi2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4000</span> during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Gervase_Clarence-Smith" title="William Gervase Clarence-Smith">William Gervase Clarence-Smith</a> writes that estimating the number of slaves traded has been controversial in the academic world, especially when it comes to the slave trade in the areas of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EconomicsOf-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> When estimating the number of people enslaved from <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, author N'Diaye and French historian Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> estimate 8 million as the total number of people transported from the 7th century until 1920, amounting to an average of 5,700 people per year. Many of these slaves were transported by the Indian Ocean and <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> via Zanzibar.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This compares with their estimate of 9 million people enslaved and transported via the Sahara. The captives were sold throughout the Middle East and East Africa. This trade accelerated as higher capacity ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantations</a> in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodhi2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodhi2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the <i>Zanj</i>, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Ogot2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ogot2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bagley_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagley-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Muslim traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid caliphs</a> recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were revolts of Zanj slave soldiers in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 7th-century Chinese text mentions ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two <i>Seng Chi</i> (Zanj) slaves as gifts in 614. 8th and 9th century chronicles mention Seng Chi slaves reaching <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">China</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Vijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Vijaya">Sri Vijaya</a> in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 12th-century Arab geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Idrisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Idrisi">al-Idrisi</a> recorded that the ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish</a> "raids the Zanj country with his ships and takes many captives."<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis1992_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis1992-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the 14th-century Berber explorer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, the sultans of the <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Sultanate" title="Kilwa Sultanate">Kilwa Sultanate</a> would frequently raid the areas around what is today <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> for slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon1989_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon1989-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a>, a series of <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">uprisings</a> that took place between 869 and 883 AD near the city of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> (also known as Basara), situated in present-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj who had originally been captured from the <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">African Great Lakes</a> region and areas further south in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Esrrvt_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esrrvt-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebellion grew to involve more than 500,000 slaves and free men who had been imported from across the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim empire">Muslim empire</a> and claimed "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".<sup id="cite_ref-Furlonge_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furlonge-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> boomed and the Arabs became richer, they began to consider <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and other manual labor work as demeaning. The resulting labor shortage resulted in an increased slave market. </p> <blockquote><p>It is certain that large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century, though not all of the slaves involved were Zanj. There is little evidence of what part of eastern Africa the Zanj came from, for the name is here evidently used in its general sense, rather than to designate the particular stretch of the coast, from about 3°N. to 5°S., to which the name was also applied.<sup id="cite_ref-Talhami_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talhami-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The Zanj were needed to cultivate: </p><blockquote><p>the Tigris-Euphrates delta, which had become abandoned marshland as a result of peasant migration and repeated flooding, [and] [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] could be reclaimed through intensive labor. Wealthy proprietors "had received extensive grants of tidal land on the condition that they would make it arable." <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">Sugar cane</a> was prominent among the crops of their plantations, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Kh%C5%ABzest%C4%81n_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khūzestān Province">Khūzestān Province</a>. Zanj also worked the salt mines of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, especially around <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shoureshi_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shoureshi-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Their jobs were to clear away the nitrous topsoil that made the land arable. The working conditions were considered to be extremely harsh and miserable. Many other people were imported as slaves into the region, besides Zanj.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zanzslgwch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/220px-Zanzslgwch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/330px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/440px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> slave gang in <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (1889)</figcaption></figure> <p>Historian M. A. Shaban has argued that the rebellion was not a slave revolt, but a revolt of blacks (<i>zanj</i>). In his opinion, although a few runaway slaves did join the revolt, the majority of the participants were Arabs and free Zanj. He believes that if the revolt had been led by slaves, they would have lacked the necessary resources to combat the Abbasid government for as long as they did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaban1976101–02_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaban1976101–02-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Somalia, the Bantu minorities are descended from Bantu groups who had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon. To meet the demand for menial labor, <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantus</a> from <a href="/wiki/African_Great_Lakes" title="African Great Lakes">southeastern Africa</a> captured by <a href="/wiki/Somalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalis">Somali</a> slave traders were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and other areas in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gcam2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gcam2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People captured locally during wars and raids, mostly of <a href="/wiki/Oromo_people" title="Oromo people">Oromo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilotic">Nilotic</a> origin, were also sometimes enslaved by Somalis.<sup id="cite_ref-Meinhof_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meinhof-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USRCLS2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USRCLS2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the perception, capture, treatment and duties of these two groups of enslaved peoples differed markedly.<sup id="cite_ref-USRCLS2_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USRCLS2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNHCR_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCR-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000 and 50,000 Bantu slaves are thought to have been sold from the slave market of <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> to the Somali coast.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the slaves were from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Majindo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Majindo (page does not exist)">Majindo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Makua_people" title="Makua people">Makua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyasa_people" title="Nyasa people">Nyasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zalama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zalama (page does not exist)">Zalama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zaramo" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaramo">Zaramo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zigua_people" title="Zigua people">Zigua</a> ethnic groups of Tanzania, Mozambique and <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>. Collectively, these Bantu groups are known as <i>Mushunguli</i>, which is a term taken from <i>Mzigula</i>, the Zigua tribe's word for "people" (the word holds multiple implied meanings including "worker", "foreigner", and "slave").<sup id="cite_ref-Refugee_Reports_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Refugee_Reports-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>14th-century traveler <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> met a Syrian Arab girl from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> who was held as a slave of a black African governor in <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>. Ibn Battuta engaged in conversation with her in Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The black man was a scholar of Islam named Farba Sulayman. He was openly violating the rule in Islam against enslaving Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Syrian girls were trafficked from Syria to Saudi Arabia until shortly before World War II. They were married to Arab men in order to legally bring them across the border but then divorced and given to other men. Syrians Dr. Midhat and Shaikh Yusuf were accused of engaging in this traffic of Syrian girls to supply them to Saudis.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of Bengal">Gulf of Bengal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a> in India were sources of <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> for the Safavid court of Iran, according to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sir Thomas Herbert accompanied <a href="/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a> in 1627-9 to Safavid Iran. He reported seeing Indian slaves sold to Iran, "above three hundred slaves whom the Persians bought in India: Persees, Ientews (gentiles [i.e. Hindus]) Bannaras [Bhandaris?], and others." brought to <a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Bandar Abbas</a> via ship from <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> in 1628.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1760s, the Arab <a href="/wiki/Syarif_Abdurrahman_Alkadrie" title="Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie">Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie</a> enslaved other Muslims en masse while raiding coastal <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> in violation of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, before he founded the <a href="/wiki/Pontianak_Sultanate" title="Pontianak Sultanate">Pontianak Sultanate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Raoul_du_Bisson" title="Raoul du Bisson">Raoul du Bisson</a> was traveling down the Red Sea when he saw the chief black eunuch of the <a href="/wiki/Sharif_of_Mecca" title="Sharif of Mecca">Sharif of Mecca</a> being brought to Constantinople for trial for impregnating a Circassian concubine of the Sharif and having sex with his entire harem of Circassian and Georgian women. The chief black eunuch had not been castrated correctly so he was still able to impregnate. Bisson reported that the women were drowned as punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twelve Georgian women were shipped to the Sharif to replace the drowned concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Emily_Ruete" title="Emily Ruete">Emily Ruete</a> (Salama bint Said) was born to <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Sultan" title="Said bin Sultan">Said bin Sultan</a> and Jilfidan, a <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">slave concubine</a> (some accounts note her as <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) a victim of the <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a>. An Indian girl slave named Mariam (originally Fatima) ended up in Zanzibar after being sold by multiple men. She originally came from Bombay. There were also Georgian girl slaves in Zanzibar.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men in Egypt and Hejaz were customers for Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th-century British-ruled Aden no longer legally received slaves. Those slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eunuchs, female concubines, and male laborers were the chief roles of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda and other parts of Hejaz.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female and male slaves from Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethiopian slaves, both females imported as concubines and men imported as eunuchs, were imported in 19th-century Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zanzibar exported the majority of slaves traded to 19th-century Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principal sources of these slaves, all of whom passed through Matamma, <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tadjoura" title="Tadjoura">Tadjoura</a> on the Red Sea, were the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, in the Oromo and <a href="/wiki/Sidama" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidama">Sidama</a> country.<sup id="cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EconomicsOf-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the end of the 19th century bought <a href="/wiki/Karayuki-san" title="Karayuki-san">Japanese girls as slaves</a>; they were imported by sea to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Japanese women were sold as concubines to both Muslim Malay men and non-Muslim Chinese and British men of the British-ruled <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a>. They had often been trafficked from Japan to Hong Kong and <a href="/wiki/Port_Darwin" title="Port Darwin">Port Darwin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. In Hong Kong, the Japanese consul Miyagawa Kyujiro said these Japanese women were taken by Malay and Chinese men who "lead them off to wild and savage lands where they suffered unimaginable hardship." One Chinese man paid 40 <a href="/wiki/British_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="British pound">British pounds</a> for 2 Japanese women, and a Malay man paid 50 British pounds for a Japanese woman in Port Darwin, Australia after they were trafficked there in August 1888 by a Japanese pimp, Takada Tokijirō.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The buying of Chinese girls in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta)-based Arab Muslim Mufti, <a href="/wiki/Usman_bin_Yahya" title="Usman bin Yahya">Usman bin Yahya</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a>. He ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers, and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Kingdom of Hejaz</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, the Arab king <a href="/wiki/Ali_bin_Hussein,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz">Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz</a> had in his palace 20 <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese girls</a> from <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>). They were used as his concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Saudi_conquest_of_Hejaz" title="Saudi conquest of Hejaz">Saudi conquest of Hejaz</a> led to the escape of many slaves from the city; this was where most slaves in Arabia were located. Muslims often ignored Islamic prohibitions against enslaving other Muslims. Arab slave traders fooled both Javanese Muslims and Javanese Christians, tricking them into sending their children to slavery by lying and promising to escort the children to different places. A 4- and 3-year-old pair of Javanese Muslim boys were enslaved after they were purportedly to be taken to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> to learn Islam. An Arab lied, claiming he would take a 10- and 8-year-old pair of Javanese Christian girls to family in Singapore, but enslaving them instead. Muslim men sometimes sold their own wives into slavery while on pilgrimage to Mecca, after pretending to be religious to trick the women into marrying them.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The slave trade continued into the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> did not end until the 1960s and 1970s. In the 21st century, activists contend that many immigrants who travel to those countries for work are held in virtual slavery </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zanzibar_and_expansion_of_slave_trade_in_the_Swaihili_coast">Zanzibar and expansion of slave trade in the Swaihili coast</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Zanzibar and expansion of slave trade in the Swaihili coast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Slavery in the Comoros</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/220px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/330px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg/440px-089_Le_march%C3%A9_aux_esclaves_%C3%A0_Zanzibar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3229" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The slave market in Zanzibar, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1860</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The East African slave trade flourished greatly from the second half of the nineteenth century, when <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Sultan" title="Said bin Sultan">Said bin Sultan</a>, an Oman Sultan, made Zanzibar his capital and expanded international commercial activities and plantation economy in cloves and coconuts. During this period demands for slaves grew drastically. The slaves were needed for local use mainly to work in plantations in Zanzibar and for export. Sultan Seyyid (seyyid is an Arabic title for Lord) Said made deliberate efforts to "revive old Arab-caravan trade" with mainland Africa, which became the major source of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Said bin Sultan took six major initiatives which facilitated growth and expansion of his commercial empire. He firstly introduced a new currency “Maria Theresa Dollar” to supplement the exiting “Spanish Crown”, which simplified commercial activities. Secondly, he introduced a harmonized 5% import duty for any merchandise entering into his empire. He abolished export duties. Thirdly, he took advantage of Zanzibar's and Pemba's fertile soil to establish plantations of coconut and cloves. Fourthly, he revitalised and extended the "old Arab-caravan trade" with mainland East Africa to acquire slaves and ivory. He signed “commercial treaties with western capitalist countries, such as the United States of America in 1833, with Great Britain in 1839, and France in 1844. Finally, he invited Asian merchants and experts who dealt with financial matters.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was not until 1873 that Sultan Seyyid Barghash of Zanzibar, under pressure from Great Britain, signed a treaty that made the slave trade in his territories illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British played a significant role in ending slavery in East Africa. They made treaties with African rulers to stop the slave trade at its source and offered protection against slave kingdoms like Ashanti. The Royal Navy was instrumental in capturing slave ships and freeing enslaved Africans. Between 1808 and 1860, around 1,600 slave ships were captured, and more than 150,000 enslaved Africans were freed. Britain also made suppressing the Atlantic slave trade a part of its foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arab Muslim traders also trafficked Malagasy and Comorian slaves from Madagascar and the Comorian Archipelago to ports on the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Swahili Coast, Zanzibar and the Horn of Africa. From 700AD to 1600AD, an estimated two to three thousand East African and Malagasy slaves were trafficked annually from the Indian Ocean coast to slave ports along the Red Sea and Southern Arabia. By the mid-1600s, this number had increased to five to six thousands slaves trafficked each year from Madagascar alone (not including the Comoros) to the Middle-east by non-European Muslim slave traders (Swahili, Comorian, Arab, Hadrami, Omani and Ottoman).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some historians estimate that during the 1600s as many as 150,000 Malagasy slaves were exported from Boeny in Northwest Madagascar to the Muslim World including the Red Sea Coast(Jeddah), Hejaz (Mecca), Arabia (Aden), Oman (Muscat), Zanzibar, Kilwa, Lamu, Malindi, Somalia (Barawa), and possibly Sudan (Suakin), Persia (Bandar Abbas), and India (Surat).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the unique racial composition of Madagascar, which was populated by a mix of Austronesian and Bantu settlers, the Malagasy slaves included people with Southeast Asian, African and hybrid phenotypes. </p><p>European traders participated in the lucrative slave trade between Madagascar and the Red Sea as well. In 1694, a Dutch East India Company (VOC) ship trafficked over 400 Malagasy slaves to an Arabian port on the Red Sea (presumably Jeddah) where they were sold to Arab Muslim traders to be further sold and enslaved in Mecca, Medina, Mocha, Aden, al-Shihr and Kishn.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At different times and to varying degrees, Portuguese, French, Dutch, English and Ottoman merchants were known to have taken part in the Malagasy slave trade too. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Indian_Ocean_slave_trade">European Indian Ocean slave trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: European Indian Ocean slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The slave trade was taking place in the eastern Indian Ocean well before the Dutch settled there around 1600. The volume of this trade is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Estado da Índia</a> in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 slaves were exported annually from Mozambique; similar figures have been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> (1580–1640). </p><p>According to Francisco De Sousa, a <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> who wrote about it in 1698, <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade#Traded_goods" title="Nanban trade">Japanese slave girls</a> were still owned by <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">India-based Portuguese (Lusitanian)</a> families long after the 1636 edict by Tokugawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> in the early 17th century resulted in a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch colonies</a> during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the <a href="/wiki/Fort_(Colombo)" title="Fort (Colombo)">Colombo fortress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Dutch Ceylon</a>. Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100,000–150,000</span> slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> (EIC) was established during the same period; in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>. The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a>, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> captured the islands in 1810, however. Because the British had <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">prohibited the slave trade in</a> 1807, a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 until 1848.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In all, Europeans traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850, and almost that same number were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. The slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 12,000,000</span> slaves exported across the Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 200,000 slaves were sent in the 19th century to European plantations in the Western Indian Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EconomicsOf-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography_and_transportation">Geography and transportation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geography and transportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Estimates of slaves transported out of Africa, by route<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dt></dl> <div style="padding-top:10px;margin-top:1em;max-width:500px;" class="chart noresize"> <div style="position:relative;min-height:350px;min-width:500px;max-width:500px;"> <div style="float:right;position:relative;min-height:270px;min-width:400px;max-width:400px;border-left:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:0px;top:257px;height:12px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:purple;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid purple;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic]]: 338,368"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:100px;top:198px;height:71px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:purple;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid purple;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic]]: 1,876,576"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:200px;top:20px;height:249px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:purple;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid purple;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic]]: 6,493,235"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:300px;top:115px;height:154px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:purple;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid purple;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Atlantic slave trade|Atlantic]]: 4,029,294"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:28px;top:249px;height:20px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:orange;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid orange;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Trans-Saharan slave trade|Trans-Saharan]]: 550,528"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:128px;top:243px;height:26px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:orange;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid orange;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Trans-Saharan slave trade|Trans-Saharan]]: 699,552"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:228px;top:243px;height:26px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:orange;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid orange;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Trans-Saharan slave trade|Trans-Saharan]]: 701,550"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:328px;top:224px;height:45px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:orange;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid orange;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Trans-Saharan slave trade|Trans-Saharan]]: 1,201,395"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:56px;top:262px;height:7px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:aqua;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid aqua;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean]]: 200,192"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:156px;top:262px;height:7px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:aqua;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid aqua;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean]]: 199,872"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:256px;top:247px;height:22px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:aqua;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid aqua;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean]]: 600,215"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:356px;top:234px;height:35px;min-width:19px;max-width:19px;background-color:aqua;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;border:1px solid aqua;border-bottom:none;overflow:hidden;" title="[[Indian Ocean slave trade|Indian Ocean]]: 936,472"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;height:270px;min-width:100px;max-width:100px;"> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:221px;padding:0 2px">1,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:231px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:183px;padding:0 2px">2,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:193px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:144px;padding:0 2px">3,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:154px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:106px;padding:0 2px">4,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:116px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:67px;padding:0 2px">5,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:77px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:29px;padding:0 2px">6,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:39px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;height=20px;text-align:right;vertical-align:middle;width:90px;top:-10px;padding:0 2px">7,000,000</div> <div style="position:absolute;height=1px;min-width:5px;top:0px;left:96px;border:1px solid black;"></div> </div> <div style="position:absolute;top:270px;left:100px;width:400px;"> <div style="position:absolute;left:1px;top:10px;min-width:98px;max-width:98px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1500s</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:50px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:101px;top:10px;min-width:98px;max-width:98px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1600s</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:150px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:201px;top:10px;min-width:98px;max-width:98px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1700s</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:250px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;left:301px;top:10px;min-width:98px;max-width:98px;text-align:center;vertical-align:top;">1800s</div> <div style="position:absolute;left:350px;height:10px;width:1px;border-left:1px solid black;"></div> </div> </div> <div> <ul style="list-style:none;column-width:12em;"><li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:purple;border:1px solid purple;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:orange;border:1px solid orange;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan</a></li> <li><span style="padding:0 1em;background-color:aqua;border:1px solid aqua;margin-right:1em;-webkit-print-color-adjust:exact;"> </span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indian Ocean</a><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div> </div> <p>From the evidence of illustrated documents, and travelers' tales, people traveled on <a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">dhows</a> or <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jalba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jalba (page does not exist)">jalbas</a></i>, Arab ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea. </p><p>To cross the Indian Ocean required better organization and more resources than overland transport. Ships coming from Zanzibar made stops on <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a> or at <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> before heading to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> or to India. Slaves were sold as far away as India, or China: a colony of Arab merchants operated in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a>. Serge Bilé cites a 12th-century text that said that most well-to-do families in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a>, China had black slaves. Although Chinese slave traders bought slaves (<i>Seng Chi</i> i.e. the <i>Zanj</i><sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) from Arab intermediaries and "stocked up" directly in coastal areas of present-day Somalia, the local Somalis were not among the enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (These locals were referred to as <i>Baribah</i> and <i>Barbaroi</i> (Berbers) by medieval Arab and ancient <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> geographers, respectively (see <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Bagley_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagley-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diriye_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diriye-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were no strangers to capturing, owning and trading slaves themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Gates_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gates-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slaves from other parts of East Africa made up an important commodity being transported by dhows to Somalia. During the 19th century, the East African slave trade grew enormously due to demands by Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders and raiders moved throughout eastern and central Africa to meet this rising demand. The Bantus inhabiting Somalia are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon. Their peoples were later captured and sold by traders.<sup id="cite_ref-UNHCR_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHCR-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bantus are ethnically, physically, and culturally distinct from <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somalis</a>, and they have remained marginalized ever since their arrival in Somalia.<sup id="cite_ref-Calp_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Calp-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Towns_and_ports_involved">Towns and ports involved</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Towns and ports involved"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagamoyo" title="Bagamoyo">Bagamoyo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (Tanzania)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilwa_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilwa District">Kilwa</a> (Tanzania)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofala" title="Sofala">Sofala</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beira,_Mozambique" title="Beira, Mozambique">Beira, Mozambique</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyangwe" title="Nyangwe">Nyangwe (Kasongo, Democratic Republic of Congo)</a>- <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip%27s_state" title="Tippu Tip's state">Sultanate of Utetera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assab" title="Assab">Assab</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> (Eritrea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefasit" title="Nefasit">Nefasit</a> (Eritrea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadjoura" title="Tadjoura">Tadjoura</a> (<a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a> (<a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> (Somalia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a> (Somalia)</li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td valign="top"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zab%C4%ABd" class="mw-redirect" title="Zabīd">Zabīd</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat,_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscat, Oman">Muscat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> (Yemen)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debal" title="Debal">Debal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> (Sindh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murud-Janjira" title="Murud-Janjira">Murud-Janjira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandvi" title="Mandvi">Mandvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kutch">Kutch</a> (Gujarat)</li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zanzibar_Slave_Market,_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Zanzibar Slave Market, 1860 - Stocqueler"><img alt="Zanzibar Slave Market, 1860 - Stocqueler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG/120px-Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG/180px-Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG/240px-Zanzibar_Slave_Market%2C_1860_-_Stocqueler.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1907" data-file-height="1382" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Zanzibar Slave Market, 1860 - Stocqueler</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Contemporary_Engraving_of_Zanzibar_Slave_Market_-_World%27s_Last_Open_Slave_Market_-_Outside_Anglican_Cathedral_-_Stone_Town_-_Zanzibar_-_Tanzania_(8842023408).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Contemporary Engraving of Zanzibar Slave Market - World's Last Open Slave Market - Outside Anglican Cathedral - Stone Town - Zanzibar - Tanzania (8842023408)"><img alt="Contemporary Engraving of Zanzibar Slave Market - World's Last Open Slave Market - Outside Anglican Cathedral - Stone Town - Zanzibar - Tanzania (8842023408)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Contemporary_Engraving_of_Zanzibar_Slave_Market_-_World%27s_Last_Open_Slave_Market_-_Outside_Anglican_Cathedral_-_Stone_Town_-_Zanzibar_-_Tanzania_%288842023408%29.jpg/120px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Contemporary_Engraving_of_Zanzibar_Slave_Market_-_World%27s_Last_Open_Slave_Market_-_Outside_Anglican_Cathedral_-_Stone_Town_-_Zanzibar_-_Tanzania_%288842023408%29.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Contemporary_Engraving_of_Zanzibar_Slave_Market_-_World%27s_Last_Open_Slave_Market_-_Outside_Anglican_Cathedral_-_Stone_Town_-_Zanzibar_-_Tanzania_%288842023408%29.jpg/240px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Contemporary Engraving of Zanzibar Slave Market - World's Last Open Slave Market - Outside Anglican Cathedral - Stone Town - Zanzibar - Tanzania (8842023408)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Zanzibar Sklaven kewte RMG E9083"><img alt="Zanzibar Sklaven kewte RMG E9083" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff/lossy-page1-120px-Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff/lossy-page1-180px-Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff/lossy-page1-240px-Zanzibar_Sklaven_kewte_RMG_E9083.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="2317" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Zanzibar Sklaven kewte RMG E9083</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Servant or slave woman in Mogadishu"><img alt="Servant or slave woman in Mogadishu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/89px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/133px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg/177px-Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Servant or slave woman in Mogadishu</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_(1873)_(14783922793).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)."><img alt="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg/99px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg/149px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg/198px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814783922793%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2590" data-file-height="3134" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_(1873)_(14764052875).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)."><img alt="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg/120px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg/180px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg/240px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052875%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="1672" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Capture of a Arab slave dhow by H. M. S. 'Penguin' off the Gulf of Aden - ILN 1867"><img alt="Capture of a Arab slave dhow by H. M. S. 'Penguin' off the Gulf of Aden - ILN 1867" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg/120px-Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg/180px-Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg/240px-Capture_of_a_Arab_slave_dhow_by_H._M._S._%27Penguin%27_off_the_Gulf_of_Aden_-_ILN_1867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="467" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Capture of a Arab slave dhow by H. M. S. 'Penguin' off the Gulf of Aden - ILN 1867</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_(1873)_(14764052205).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)."><img alt="Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg/120px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg/180px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg/240px-Slave-catching_in_the_Indian_Ocean_%281873%29_%2814764052205%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="1738" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean (1873).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Harper%27s_weekly_(1867)_(14780409834).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Harper's weekly (1867) (14780409834)"><img alt="Harper's weekly (1867) (14780409834)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg/78px-Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg/116px-Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg/155px-Harper%27s_weekly_%281867%29_%2814780409834%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1892" data-file-height="2920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Harper's weekly (1867) (14780409834)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_missions_and_social_progress;_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_(1897)_(14593517397).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian missions and social progress; a sociological study of foreign missions (1897) (14593517397)"><img alt="Christian missions and social progress; a sociological study of foreign missions (1897) (14593517397)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg/80px-Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg/120px-Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg/160px-Christian_missions_and_social_progress%3B_a_sociological_study_of_foreign_missions_%281897%29_%2814593517397%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2776" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Christian missions and social progress; a sociological study of foreign missions (1897) (14593517397)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-0051.xml">"Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades"</a>. <i>obo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=obo&rft.atitle=Indian+Ocean+and+Middle+Eastern+Slave+Trades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199846733%2Fobo-9780199846733-0051.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarries2015" class="citation web cs1">Harries, Patrick (17 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/the-story-of-east-africas-role-in-the-transatlantic-slave-trade-43194">"The story of East Africa's role in the transatlantic slave trade"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=The+story+of+East+Africa%27s+role+in+the+transatlantic+slave+trade&rft.date=2015-06-17&rft.aulast=Harries&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fthe-story-of-east-africas-role-in-the-transatlantic-slave-trade-43194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indianocean_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. <i>Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 78. <q>The "globalized" Indian Ocean trade in fact has substantially earlier, even pre-Islamic, global roots. These roots extend back to at least 2500 BCE, suggesting that the so-called "globalization" of the Indian Ocean trading phenomena, including slave trading, was in reality a development that was built upon the activities of pre-Islamic Middle Eastern empires, which activities were in turn inherited, appropriated, and improved upon by the Muslim empires that followed them, and then, after that, they were again appropriated, exploited, and improved upon by Western European interveners.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean22-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean22_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=79-80&rft.pub=Brill&rft.aulast=Freamon&rft.aufirst=Bernard+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indianocean42-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean42_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean42_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-indianocean42_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreamon" class="citation book cs1">Freamon, Bernard K. <i>Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. 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Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9173463775" title="Special:BookSources/978-9173463775"><bdi>978-9173463775</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oriental+influences+in+Swahili%3A+a+study+in+language+and+culture+contacts&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Acta+Universitatis+Gothoburgensis&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-9173463775&rft.aulast=Lodhi&rft.aufirst=Abdulaziz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DePhxAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EconomicsOf-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EconomicsOf_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGervase_Clarence-Smith2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Gervase_Clarence-Smith" title="William Gervase Clarence-Smith">Gervase Clarence-Smith, William</a>, ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IsNcAgAAQBAJ&q=indian+ocean+slave+trade+200,000"><i>The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135182144" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135182144"><bdi>978-1135182144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+the+Indian+Ocean+Slave+Trade+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135182144&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIsNcAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dindian%2Bocean%2Bslave%2Btrade%2B200%2C000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLacoste2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Yves_Lacoste" title="Yves Lacoste">Lacoste, Yves</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-herodote-2005-2-page-193.htm">"Hérodote a lu : Les Traites négrières, essai d'histoire globale, de Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau"</a> [Book Review: African Slave Trade, an Attempted Global History, by Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau]. <i>Hérodote</i> (in French). <b>117</b> (117): 196–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fher.117.0193">10.3917/her.117.0193</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=H%C3%A9rodote&rft.atitle=H%C3%A9rodote+a+lu+%3A+Les+Traites+n%C3%A9gri%C3%A8res%2C+essai+d%27histoire+globale%2C+de+Olivier+P%C3%A9tr%C3%A9-Grenouilleau&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=117&rft.pages=196-205&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fher.117.0193&rft.aulast=Lacoste&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-herodote-2005-2-page-193.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPétré-Grenouilleau2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (2004). <i>Les Traites négrières, essai d'histoire globale</i> [<i>African Slave Trade, an Attempted Global History</i>] (in French). Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2070734993" title="Special:BookSources/978-2070734993"><bdi>978-2070734993</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Traites+n%C3%A9gri%C3%A8res%2C+essai+d%27histoire+globale&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gallimard&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-2070734993&rft.aulast=P%C3%A9tr%C3%A9-Grenouilleau&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525101036/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm">"Focus on the slave trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 3 September 2001. 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Budapest: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415252485" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415252485"><bdi>978-0415252485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Africa&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=258&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415252485&rft.aulast=Donnelly+Fage&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Tordoff%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTannenbaumDudley1973" class="citation book cs1">Tannenbaum, Edward R.; Dudley, Guilford (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxpmAAAAMAAJ"><i>A History of World Civilizations</i></a>. Wiley. p. 615. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471844808" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471844808"><bdi>978-0471844808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+World+Civilizations&rft.pages=615&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0471844808&rft.aulast=Tannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Edward+R.&rft.au=Dudley%2C+Guilford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpxpmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bagley-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bagley_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bagley_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">F.R.C. Bagley et al., <i>The Last Great Muslim Empires</i>, (Brill: 1997), p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oliver-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoland_Oliver1975" class="citation book cs1">Roland Oliver (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africainironagec00oliv"><i>Africa in the Iron Age: c. 500 BC–1400 AD</i></a></span> (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africainironagec00oliv/page/n207">192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521099004" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521099004"><bdi>978-0521099004</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+in+the+Iron+Age%3A+c.+500+BC%E2%80%931400+AD&rft.pages=192&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0521099004&rft.au=Roland+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricainironagec00oliv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis1992-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1992_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1992" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WdjvedBeMHYC"><i>Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 50–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505326-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022745387">1022745387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Slavery+in+the+Middle+East%3A+An+Historical+Enquiry&rft.pages=50-51&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1022745387&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505326-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWdjvedBeMHYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon1989-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon1989_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1989" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Murray (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5l81hwFPvzYC&pg=PA122"><i>Slavery in the Arab World</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941533-30-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941533-30-0"><bdi>978-0-941533-30-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1120917849">1120917849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1120917849&rft.isbn=978-0-941533-30-0&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5l81hwFPvzYC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Esrrvt-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Esrrvt_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 585. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313332739" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313332739"><bdi>978-0313332739</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Slave+Resistance+and+Rebellion%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=585&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0313332739&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRXsBJzA61lcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furlonge-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Furlonge_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsquith" class="citation web cs1">Asquith, Christina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306155327/https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-76402507/revisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities">"Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict – 868–883 Ad – slave revolt in Iraq"</a>. 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Reimer. p. 272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afrika+und+%C3%9Cbersee%3A+Sprachen%2C+Kulturen%2C+Volumes+62%E2%80%9363&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=D.+Reimer&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Meinhof&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdzEzAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bridget Anderson, <i>World Directory of Minorities</i>, (Minority Rights Group International: 1997), p. 456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USRCLS2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USRCLS2_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USRCLS2_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Catherine Lowe Besteman, <i>Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery</i>, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1999), p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNHCR-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNHCR_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNHCR_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" class="citation web cs1">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3d9ac1502.pdf">"Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Bantu"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Refugees+Vol.+3%2C+No.+128%2C+2002+UNHCR+Publication+Refugees+about+the+Somali+Bantu&rft.pub=Unhcr.org&rft.au=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Fpubl%2FPUBL%2F3d9ac1502.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111016024128/http://www.cal.org/co/bantu/somali_bantu.pdf">"The Somali Bantu: Their History and Culture"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cal.org/co/bantu/somali_bantu.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Somali+Bantu%3A+Their+History+and+Culture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cal.org%2Fco%2Fbantu%2Fsomali_bantu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Refugee_Reports-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Refugee_Reports_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Refugee Reports,</i> November 2002, Volume 23, Number 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherFisher2001" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Humphrey J.; Fisher, Allan G. B. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wyDYZsacNioC&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA182"><i>Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa</i></a> (illustrated, revised ed.). NYU Press. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814727166" title="Special:BookSources/0814727166"><bdi>0814727166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+History+of+Muslim+Black+Africa&rft.pages=182&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0814727166&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Humphrey+J.&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Allan+G.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwyDYZsacNioC%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamel2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hamel, Chouki El (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UwogAwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA129"><i>Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam</i></a>. Vol. 123 of African Studies. Cambridge University Press. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139620048" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139620048"><bdi>978-1139620048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Morocco%3A+A+History+of+Slavery%2C+Race%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1139620048&rft.aulast=Hamel&rft.aufirst=Chouki+El&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwogAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuthrie2013" class="citation book cs1">Guthrie, Shirley (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YD0hBQAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PR127"><i>Arab Women in the Middle Ages: Private Lives and Public Roles</i></a>. Saqi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0863567643" title="Special:BookSources/978-0863567643"><bdi>978-0863567643</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Women+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Private+Lives+and+Public+Roles&rft.pub=Saqi&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0863567643&rft.aulast=Guthrie&rft.aufirst=Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYD0hBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPR127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2018" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Stewart (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-pIDwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PT171"><i>There and Back: Twelve of the Great Routes of Human History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199093564" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199093564"><bdi>978-0199093564</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+and+Back%3A+Twelve+of+the+Great+Routes+of+Human+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0199093564&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2-pIDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPT171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1971" class="citation book cs1">King, Noel Quinton (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bMDYAAAAMAAJ&q=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl"><i>Christian and Muslim in Africa</i></a>. Harper & Row. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060647094" title="Special:BookSources/0060647094"><bdi>0060647094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+and+Muslim+in+Africa&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0060647094&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Noel+Quinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbMDYAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolmacheva2017" class="citation book cs1">Tolmacheva, Marina A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QzDwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA179">"8 Concubines on the Road: Ibn Battuta's Slave Women"</a>. In Gordon, Matthew; Hain, Kathryn A. (eds.). <i>Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History</i> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190622183" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190622183"><bdi>978-0190622183</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8+Concubines+on+the+Road%3A+Ibn+Battuta%27s+Slave+Women&rft.btitle=Concubines+and+Courtesans%3A+Women+and+Slavery+in+Islamic+History&rft.pages=170&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0190622183&rft.aulast=Tolmacheva&rft.aufirst=Marina+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF3QzDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrington1971" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Helise (1971). Adler, Bill; David, Jay; Harrington, Helise (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RldCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22A+slave+-+girl+of+his+joined+us+%3B+she+was+an+Arab+girl+%2C+of+Damascus+%2C+and+she+spoke+to+me+in+Arabic+.+While+this+was+going+on+we%22"><i>Growing Up African</i></a>. Morrow. p. 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growing+Up+African&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Morrow&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Helise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRldCAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522A%2Bslave%2B-%2Bgirl%2Bof%2Bhis%2Bjoined%2Bus%2B%253B%2Bshe%2Bwas%2Ban%2BArab%2Bgirl%2B%252C%2Bof%2BDamascus%2B%252C%2Band%2Bshe%2Bspoke%2Bto%2Bme%2Bin%2BArabic%2B.%2BWhile%2Bthis%2Bwas%2Bgoing%2Bon%2Bwe%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Mathew, Johan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuLvCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Hence+the+ease+with+which+Sheikh+Yusuf,+referred+to+above,+could+traffic+Syrian+women+into+Saudi+Arabia.%22&pg=PA72"><i>Margins of the Market: Trafficking and Capitalism across the Arabian Sea</i></a>. Vol. 24 of California World History Library. 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THE SAFAVID PERIOD"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Vol. IX. pp. 64–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=EUNUCHS+iv.+THE+SAFAVID+PERIOD&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pages=64-69&rft.date=1998-12-15&rft.aulast=Babayan&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Feunuchs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloor1988" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Floor, Willem (15 December 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-iv">"BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iv. From the Mongols to the abolition of slavery"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. 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Oxford University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=44&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26dq%3Dpontianak%2Brazzias%2Bpray%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemondino1891" class="citation book cs1">Remondino, Peter Charles (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofcircumc00remo/historyofcircumc00remo_djvu.txt"><i>History of circumcision, from the earliest times to the present Moral and physical reasons for its performance</i></a>. Philadelphia; London: F. A. Davis. p. 101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+circumcision%2C+from+the+earliest+times+to+the+present+Moral+and+physical+reasons+for+its+performance&rft.place=Philadelphia%3B+London&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=F.+A.+Davis&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Remondino&rft.aufirst=Peter+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryofcircumc00remo%2Fhistoryofcircumc00remo_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunne2016" class="citation book cs1">Junne, George H. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857728081" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857728081"><bdi>978-0857728081</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Eunuchs+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Networks+of+Power+in+the+Court+of+the+Sultan&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0857728081&rft.aulast=Junne&rft.aufirst=George+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYBKMDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522toilet%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bharem%2Bbath%2Band%2Bthe%2Bseductive%2Binfluence%2Bof%2Bthis%2Bterrestrial%2BKoranic%2Bseventh%2Bheaven%2B%2522%26pg%3DPA253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisson1868" class="citation book cs1">Bisson, Raoul Du (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lesfemmesleseun00bissgoog/page/n297/mode/2up"><i>Les femmes, les eunuques et les guerriers du Soudan</i></a>. E. Dentu. pp. 282–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+femmes%2C+les+eunuques+et+les+guerriers+du+Soudan&rft.pages=282-3&rft.pub=E.+Dentu&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Bisson&rft.aufirst=Raoul+Du&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flesfemmesleseun00bissgoog%2Fpage%2Fn297%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Global Muslims in the Age of Steam and Print; From Zanzibar to Beirut</i> by Jeremy Prestholdt, University of California Press, 2014, p.204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World</i> by Burkhard Schnepel, Edward A. Alpers, 2017, p.148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Balcony, Door, Shutter - Baroque heritage as materiality and biography in Stone Town, Zanzibar</i> by Pamila Gupta, Vienna, 2019, p.14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrestholdt2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Prestholdt, Jeremy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kkecLQx3LqAC&dq=She+told+Kirk+that+her+name+was+Fatima,+though+she+was+renamed+Mariam+in+Zanzibar.&pg=PA130"><i>Domesticating the World: African Consumerism and the Genealogies of Globalization</i></a>. Vol. 6 of California World History Library. University of California Press. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520941472" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520941472"><bdi>978-0520941472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domesticating+the+World%3A+African+Consumerism+and+the+Genealogies+of+Globalization&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0520941472&rft.aulast=Prestholdt&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkkecLQx3LqAC%26dq%3DShe%2Btold%2BKirk%2Bthat%2Bher%2Bname%2Bwas%2BFatima%2C%2Bthough%2Bshe%2Bwas%2Brenamed%2BMariam%2Bin%2BZanzibar.%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2020" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Jonathan A.C. 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Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1786076366" title="Special:BookSources/978-1786076366"><bdi>978-1786076366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Islam&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1786076366&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+A.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz6jRDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522selling%2BIndian%2Bslaves%2Bthrough%2Bthe%2BRed%2BSea.%2BWomen%2Bin%2Bparticular%2Bwere%2Bbrought%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BIndian%2Bport%2Bof%2BGoa%2Bto%2BAden%2C%2Band%2Bfrom%2Bthere%2Bsold%2Bon%2Bto%2Bthe%2BHejaz%2Band%2BEgypt.98%2BIndia%2Bwas%2Balso%2Bthe%2Bsource%2Bfor%2Ba%2Blesser%2Bknown%2Bbut%2Bstill%2Bsubstantial%2B%2522%26pg%3DPT172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/slavery-and-islam-4543201504-9781786076359-9781786076366-a-1647425.html">"Slavery and Islam 4543201504, 9781786076359, 9781786076366"</a>. <i>dokumen.pub</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dokumen.pub&rft.atitle=Slavery+and+Islam+4543201504%2C+9781786076359%2C+9781786076366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.pub%2Fslavery-and-islam-4543201504-9781786076359-9781786076366-a-1647425.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ahmed, Hussein (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zM1GEAAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA152"><i>Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction</i></a>. Vol. 74 of Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. BRILL. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004492288" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004492288"><bdi>978-9004492288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+Nineteenth-Century+Wallo%2C+Ethiopia%3A+Revival%2C+Reform+and+Reaction&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-9004492288&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Hussein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzM1GEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2013" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TLtdAgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA99"><i>The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Routledge. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135182212" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135182212"><bdi>978-1135182212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+the+Indian+Ocean+Slave+Trade+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135182212&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTLtdAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYimene2004" class="citation book cs1">Yimene, Ababu Minda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DigPvwHTqJ4C&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA73"><i>An African Indian Community in Hyderabad: Siddi Identity, Its Maintenance and Change</i></a>. Cuvillier Verlag. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3865372066" title="Special:BookSources/3865372066"><bdi>3865372066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+African+Indian+Community+in+Hyderabad%3A+Siddi+Identity%2C+Its+Maintenance+and+Change&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Cuvillier+Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3865372066&rft.aulast=Yimene&rft.aufirst=Ababu+Minda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDigPvwHTqJ4C%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarendse2016" class="citation book cs1">Barendse, Rene J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=inClDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Of+these+%2C+400+were+normally+bought+by+representatives+of+the+imam+%3B+100+were+sold+by+representatives+of+merchants+from+Pate+at+Muscat.283+However+%22&pg=PA259"><i>The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317458364" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317458364"><bdi>978-1317458364</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabian+Seas%3A+The+Indian+Ocean+World+of+the+Seventeenth+Century%3A+The+Indian+Ocean+World+of+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pages=259&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317458364&rft.aulast=Barendse&rft.aufirst=Rene+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DinClDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Of%2Bthese%2B%252C%2B400%2Bwere%2Bnormally%2Bbought%2Bby%2Brepresentatives%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bimam%2B%253B%2B100%2Bwere%2Bsold%2Bby%2Brepresentatives%2Bof%2Bmerchants%2Bfrom%2BPate%2Bat%2BMuscat.283%2BHowever%2B%2522%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirzai2017" class="citation book cs1">Mirzai, Behnaz A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcJiDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22female+Ethiopians+being+sold+in+Iran%22&pg=PA67"><i>A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1929</i></a> (illustrated ed.). University of Texas Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1477311868" title="Special:BookSources/978-1477311868"><bdi>978-1477311868</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Slavery+and+Emancipation+in+Iran%2C+1800-1929&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1477311868&rft.aulast=Mirzai&rft.aufirst=Behnaz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmcJiDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522female%2BEthiopians%2Bbeing%2Bsold%2Bin%2BIran%2522%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirzai" class="citation web cs1">Mirzai, Behnaz A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.mehrnews.com/d/2021/03/24/0/3726568.pdf">"A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1829"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>media.mehrnews.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=media.mehrnews.com&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Slavery+and+Emancipation+in+Iran%2C+1800-1829&rft.aulast=Mirzai&rft.aufirst=Behnaz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.mehrnews.com%2Fd%2F2021%2F03%2F24%2F0%2F3726568.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheiwiller2016" class="citation book cs1">Scheiwiller, Staci Gem (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYuiDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22arriving+from+the+Zanzibar+islands+in+the+Indian%22&pg=PT344"><i>Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography: Desirous Bodies</i></a>. Routledge History of Photography (illustrated ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1315512112" title="Special:BookSources/978-1315512112"><bdi>978-1315512112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liminalities+of+Gender+and+Sexuality+in+Nineteenth-Century+Iranian+Photography%3A+Desirous+Bodies&rft.series=Routledge+History+of+Photography&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1315512112&rft.aulast=Scheiwiller&rft.aufirst=Staci+Gem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWYuiDQAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522arriving%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BZanzibar%2Bislands%2Bin%2Bthe%2BIndian%2522%26pg%3DPT344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&dq=japanese+girls+sold+slaves+muslims&pg=PA15"><i>Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=15&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgirls%2Bsold%2Bslaves%2Bmuslims%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (26 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2012/10/35/Bill-Mihalopoulos/3814/article.html">"Women, Overseas Sex Work and Globalization in Meiji Japan 明治日本における女性，国外性労働、海外進出"</a>. <i>The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus</i>. <b>10</b> (35).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=Women%2C+Overseas+Sex+Work+and+Globalization+in+Meiji+Japan+%E6%98%8E%E6%B2%BB%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E3%81%AB%E3%81%8A%E3%81%91%E3%82%8B%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%EF%BC%8C%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%96%E6%80%A7%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D%E3%80%81%E6%B5%B7%E5%A4%96%E9%80%B2%E5%87%BA&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=35&rft.date=2012-08-26&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F2012%2F10%2F35%2FBill-Mihalopoulos%2F3814%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">"The making of prostitutes: The Karayuki-san"</a>. <i>Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 41–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">10.1080/14672715.1993.10408345</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Concerned+Asian+Scholars&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes%3A+The+Karayuki-san&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-56&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14672715.1993.10408345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bin (19 March 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">"The making of prostitutes: The Karayuki-san"</a>. <i>Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 41–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">10.1080/14672715.1993.10408345</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Concerned+Asian+Scholars&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes%3A+The+Karayuki-san&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-56&rft.date=1993-03-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14672715.1993.10408345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos2015" class="citation book cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReM5CgAAQBAJ&dq=%22whereupon+he+promptly+sold+one+woman+to+a+Malay%22&pg=PA29"><i>Sex in Japan's Globalization, 1870–1930: Prostitutes, Emigration and Nation-Building</i></a>. Perspectives in Economic and Social History (reprint ed.). Routledge. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317322214" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317322214"><bdi>978-1317322214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+in+Japan%27s+Globalization%2C+1870%E2%80%931930%3A+Prostitutes%2C+Emigration+and+Nation-Building&rft.series=Perspectives+in+Economic+and+Social+History&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317322214&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReM5CgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522whereupon%2Bhe%2Bpromptly%2Bsold%2Bone%2Bwoman%2Bto%2Ba%2BMalay%2522%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1998" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/794471">"Modernization as creative problem making: Political action personal conduct and Japanese overseas prostitutes (La modernisation en tant que source de problème)"</a>. <i>Economy and Society</i>. <b>27</b> (1). Routledge: 50–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085149800000003">10.1080/03085149800000003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-5147">0308-5147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economy+and+Society&rft.atitle=Modernization+as+creative+problem+making%3A+Political+action+personal+conduct+and+Japanese+overseas+prostitutes+%28La+modernisation+en+tant+que+source+de+probl%C3%A8me%29&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-73&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085149800000003&rft.issn=0308-5147&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F794471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihapoulos1994" class="citation journal cs1">Mihapoulos, Bill (22 June 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+making+of+prostitutes+in+Japan:+the+'karayuki-san.'+(Japan+Enters...-a016654718">"The making of prostitutes in Japan: the 'karayuki-san.' (Japan Enters the 21st Century)"</a>. <i>Crime and Social Justice Associates</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crime+and+Social+Justice+Associates&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes+in+Japan%3A+the+%27karayuki-san.%27+%28Japan+Enters+the+21st+Century%29&rft.date=1994-06-22&rft.aulast=Mihapoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FThe%2Bmaking%2Bof%2Bprostitutes%2Bin%2BJapan%3A%2Bthe%2B%27karayuki-san.%27%2B%28Japan%2BEnters...-a016654718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&pg=PA142"><i>Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVtAAAAMAAJ&q=javanese+girls+ali+palace+jeddah"><i>Proceedings of the 17th IAHA Conference</i></a>. International Association of Historians of Asia. 2004. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/984321823X" title="Special:BookSources/984321823X"><bdi>984321823X</bdi></a>. <q>The anti - Husayn position was also taken by Idaran Zaman who reported that twenty beautiful young Javanese girls were found in the palace of his son, Sharif ' Ali in Jeddah. These girls were used as his concubines and were only ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+17th+IAHA+Conference&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=International+Association+of+Historians+of+Asia&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=984321823X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4kVtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Djavanese%2Bgirls%2Bali%2Bpalace%2Bjeddah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2004" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gwyn (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kgeMpPUyt80C"><i>Abolition and Its Aftermath in the Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203493021" title="Special:BookSources/978-0203493021"><bdi>978-0203493021</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abolition+and+Its+Aftermath+in+the+Indian+Ocean+Africa+and+Asia&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0203493021&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkgeMpPUyt80C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoupland1967" class="citation book cs1">Coupland, Reginald (1967). <i>The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble</i>. United States of America: Northwestern University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Exploitation+of+East+Africa%2C+1856-1890%3A+The+Slave+Trade+and+the+Scramble&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Coupland&rft.aufirst=Reginald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopland1967" class="citation book cs1">Copland, Reginald (1967). <i>The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890</i>. Northwestern University Press. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Exploitation+of+East+Africa%2C+1856-1890&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Copland&rft.aufirst=Reginald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngrams2007" class="citation book cs1">Ingrams, W (2007). <i>Zanzibar: Its History and Its People</i>. London: Stacey International. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905299-44-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905299-44-7"><bdi>978-1-905299-44-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zanzibar%3A+Its+History+and+Its+People&rft.place=London&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Stacey+International&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-905299-44-7&rft.aulast=Ingrams&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/east-africas-forgotten-slave-trade/a-50126759">"East Africa's forgotten slave trade – DW – 08/22/2019"</a>. <i>dw.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dw.com&rft.atitle=East+Africa%27s+forgotten+slave+trade+%E2%80%93+DW+%E2%80%93+08%2F22%2F2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Feast-africas-forgotten-slave-trade%2Fa-50126759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScanlan2021" class="citation cs2">Scanlan, Padraic (31 August 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-742">"British Antislavery and West Africa"</a>, <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History</i>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.742">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.742</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4"><bdi>978-0-19-027773-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=British+Antislavery+and+West+Africa&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+African+History&rft.date=2021-08-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.742&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027773-4&rft.aulast=Scanlan&rft.aufirst=Padraic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fafricanhistory%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190277734-e-742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirzaiMontanaLovejoy2009" class="citation book cs1">Mirzai, B.A.; Montana, I.M.; Lovejoy, Paul (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00671040"><i>Slavery, Islam and Diaspora</i></a>. Africa World Press. pp. 37–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery%2C+Islam+and+Diaspora&rft.pages=37-76&rft.pub=Africa+World+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mirzai&rft.aufirst=B.A.&rft.au=Montana%2C+I.M.&rft.au=Lovejoy%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.hal.science%2Fhalshs-00671040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernet2012" class="citation web cs1">Vernet, Thomas (17 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240625052748/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00671040/file/Slave_trade_and_slavery_on_the_Swahili_coast-T._Vernet_.pdf">"Slave Trade and Slavery on the Swahili Coast, 1500–1750"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>shs.hal.science/</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00671040/file/Slave_trade_and_slavery_on_the_Swahili_coast-T._Vernet_.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=shs.hal.science%2F&rft.atitle=Slave+Trade+and+Slavery+on+the+Swahili+Coast%2C+1500%E2%80%931750&rft.date=2012-02-17&rft.aulast=Vernet&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.hal.science%2Fhalshs-00671040%2Ffile%2FSlave_trade_and_slavery_on_the_Swahili_coast-T._Vernet_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240625053956/https://exploringslavetradeinasia.com/subvoyage_details.php?subvoyage_id=5371">"Subvoyage 5371"</a>. <i>www.exploringslavetradeinasia.com</i>. Exploring Slave Trade in Asia (ESTA). 2024. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exploringslavetradeinasia.com/subvoyage_details.php?subvoyage_id=5371">the original</a> on 25 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.exploringslavetradeinasia.com&rft.atitle=Subvoyage+5371&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexploringslavetradeinasia.com%2Fsubvoyage_details.php%3Fsubvoyage_id%3D5371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Rossumde_Windt2018" class="citation book cs1">van Rossum, Matthias; de Windt, Mike (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10622/YXEN6R"><i>References to Slave Trade in VOC Digital Sources, 1600-1800</i></a>. Amsterdam: International Institute of Social History. p. 731. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10622%2FYXEN6R">10622/YXEN6R</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=References+to+Slave+Trade+in+VOC+Digital+Sources%2C+1600-1800&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=731&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Social+History&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10622%2FYXEN6R&rft.aulast=van+Rossum&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft.au=de+Windt%2C+Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F10622%2FYXEN6R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen-2017-overview2-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allen-2017-overview2_85-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2017">Allen 2017</a>, Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean: An Overview, pp. 295–99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKowner2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kowner, Rotem (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DgudBQAAQBAJ&dq=japanese+girls+sold+slaves+muslims&pg=PA432"><i>From White to Yellow: The Japanese in European Racial Thought, 1300-1735</i></a>. Vol. 63 of McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Ideas (reprint ed.). McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 431, 432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0773596849" title="Special:BookSources/978-0773596849"><bdi>978-0773596849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+White+to+Yellow%3A+The+Japanese+in+European+Racial+Thought%2C+1300-1735&rft.pages=431%2C+432&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press+-+MQUP&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0773596849&rft.aulast=Kowner&rft.aufirst=Rotem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDgudBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgirls%2Bsold%2Bslaves%2Bmuslims%26pg%3DPA432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Copied content from <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>; see that page's history for attribution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalehWahby2022" class="citation journal cs1">Saleh, Mohamed; Wahby, Sarah (30 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003225027-5">"Boom and Bust"</a>. <i>Migration in Africa</i>: 56–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003225027-5">10.4324/9781003225027-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-22502-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-22502-7"><bdi>978-1-003-22502-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Migration+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Boom+and+Bust&rft.pages=56-74&rft.date=2022-03-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003225027-5&rft.isbn=978-1-003-22502-7&rft.aulast=Saleh&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rft.au=Wahby%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4324%252F9781003225027-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indian Ocean includes slaves transported through East Africa and the Red Sea</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David D. Laitin, <i>Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience</i>, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diriye-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Diriye_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, <i>Culture and Customs of Somalia</i>, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Hastings, <i>Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 12: V. 12</i>, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2003), p. 490</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gates-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gates_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Louis Gates, <i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i>, (Oxford University Press: 1999), p. 1746</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Calp-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Calp_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdev.cal.org/development/co/bantu/sbpeop.html">"The Somali Bantu: Their History and Culture – People"</a>. Cal.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Somali+Bantu%3A+Their+History+and+Culture+%E2%80%93+People&rft.pub=Cal.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdev.cal.org%2Fdevelopment%2Fco%2Fbantu%2Fsbpeop.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Randol Barker et al., <i>Principles of Ambulatory Medicine</i>, 7 edition, (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 2006), p. 633</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_Pasha_ibn_Muhammad" title="Abd Allah Pasha ibn Muhammad">Abd Allah Pasha ibn Muhammad</a> was the Sharif of Mecca during Raoul du Bisson's time in the Red Sea in 1863-5</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, R. B. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scielo.br/pdf/tem/v23n2/1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf">"Ending the history of silence: reconstructing European slave trading in the Indian Ocean"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Tempo</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 294–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206">10.1590/tem-1980-542x2017v230206</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tempo&rft.atitle=Ending+the+history+of+silence%3A+reconstructing+European+slave+trading+in+the+Indian+Ocean&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=294-313&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2Ftem-1980-542x2017v230206&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=R.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scielo.br%2Fpdf%2Ftem%2Fv23n2%2F1980-542X-tem-23-02-00294.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaban1976" class="citation book cs1">Shaban, M. A. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wkqlp-lHllcC&pg=PA101"><i>Islamic History: A New Interpretation, Vol 2: A.D. 750-1055 (A.H. 132-448)</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 100 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21198-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21198-7"><bdi>978-0-521-21198-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+History%3A+A+New+Interpretation%2C+Vol+2%3A+A.D.+750-1055+%28A.H.+132-448%29&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=100+ff&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21198-7&rft.aulast=Shaban&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWkqlp-lHllcC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndian+Ocean+slave+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/30bfdb7d11cf7cad/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=7056">THE SLAVE-TRADE ON THE EAST COAST OF AFRICA. Shaw, Robert. The Anti-slavery reporter; London Vol. 19, Iss. 7, (Jun 1875): 173-175.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Burkina_Faso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Burkina Faso (page does not exist)">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Burundi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Burundi (page does not exist)">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Cape_Verde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Cape Verde (page does not exist)">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Central African Republic (page does not exist)">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Djibouti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Djibouti (page does not exist)">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Equatorial_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Equatorial Guinea (page does not exist)">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Eritrea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Eritrea (page does not exist)">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Gambia (page does not exist)">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ghana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ghana (page does not exist)">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Guinea (page does not exist)">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Guinea-Bissau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Guinea-Bissau (page does not exist)">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Kenya (page does not exist)">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Lesotho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Lesotho (page does not exist)">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Liberia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Liberia (page does not exist)">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mauritius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mauritius (page does not exist)">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Namibia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Namibia (page does not exist)">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Rwanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Rwanda (page does not exist)">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in São Tomé and Príncipe (page does not exist)">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Senegal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Senegal (page does not exist)">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Sierra_Leone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Sierra Leone (page does not exist)">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Tanzania (page does not exist)">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Togo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Togo (page does not exist)">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Uganda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Uganda (page does not exist)">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Zambia (page does not exist)">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Zimbabwe (page does not exist)">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_R%C3%A9union" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Réunion">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Saint_Helena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Saint Helena (page does not exist)">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_in_Tristan_da_Cunha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slavery in Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&oldid=1259386600">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_Ocean_slave_trade&oldid=1259386600</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:25th-century_BC_establishments" title="Category:25th-century BC establishments">25th-century BC establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Category:History of the Indian Ocean">History of the Indian Ocean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Category:Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_India" title="Category:Slavery in India">Slavery in India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Iran" title="Category:Slavery in Iran">Slavery in Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African_slave_trade" title="Category:African slave trade">African slave trade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Asia" title="Category:Slavery in Asia">Slavery in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Oman" title="Category:Slavery in Oman">Slavery in Oman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1970s_disestablishments" title="Category:1970s disestablishments">1970s disestablishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forced_migration" title="Category:Forced migration">Forced migration</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Trade_routes" title="Category:Trade routes">Trade routes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-black_racism_in_Asia" title="Category:Anti-black racism in Asia">Anti-black racism in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Asian_slave_trade" title="Category:Asian slave trade">Asian slave trade</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Category:Slavery in Yemen">Slavery in Yemen</a></li><li><a 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