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Aerospace | An Open Access Journal from MDPI
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/> <div class="orbit-caption"> Preliminary Sizing of High-Altitude Airships Featuring Atmospheric Ionic Thrusters: An Initial Feasibility Assessment </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/2226-4310/11/8/669"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_17285492505841.jpg?1732286508" alt="Advanced UAV Design Optimization Through Deep Learning-Based Surrogate Models" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> Advanced UAV Design Optimization Through Deep Learning-Based Surrogate Models </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/2226-4310/11/7/592"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_17285491638379.jpg?1732286508" alt="On the Generalization Capability of a Data-Driven Turbulence Model by Field Inversion and Machine Learning" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> On the Generalization Capability of a Data-Driven Turbulence Model by Field Inversion and Machine Learning </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/2226-4310/11/9/714"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_17285491017789.jpg?1732286508" alt="The Development of a Next-Generation Latticed Resistojet Thruster for CubeSats" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> The Development of a Next-Generation Latticed Resistojet Thruster for CubeSats </div> </a> </li> <li class="hidden"> <a href="/2226-4310/11/8/637"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/title_story/title_story_17285490282812.jpg?1732286508" alt="Dispersion Analysis of Plane Wave Propagation in Lattice-Based Mechanical Metamaterial for Vibration Suppression" /> <div class="orbit-caption"> Dispersion Analysis of Plane Wave Propagation in Lattice-Based Mechanical Metamaterial for Vibration Suppression </div> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="content__container"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link show-for-small-only"> <h2 class="no-padding-left no-margin">Journal Description</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="journal__description"> <h1> <em>Aerospace</em> </h1> <div class="journal__description__content"> <em>Aerospace</em> is a <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/editorial_process">peer-reviewed</a>, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The <a href="https://www.easn.net/">European Aeronautics Science Network (EASN)</a>, and the <a href="http://www.ecats-network.eu/">ECATS International Association</a> are affiliated with <em>Aerospace</em> and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.<br /> <ul> <li><strong><span class="label openaccess"><a title="Open Access" href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">Open Access</a></span></strong>— free for readers, with <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace/apc">article processing charges (APC)</a> paid by authors or their institutions.</li> <li><strong>High Visibility:</strong> indexed within <a href="https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21100853739#tabs=0">Scopus</a>, <a href="https://mjl.clarivate.com/search-results?issn=2226-4310&hide_exact_match_fl=true&utm_source=mjl&utm_medium=share-by-link&utm_campaign=search-results-share-this-journal">SCIE (Web of Science)</a>, <a href="https://www.theiet.org/publishing/inspec/inspec-content-coverage/">Inspec</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace/indexing">other databases</a>.</li> <li><strong><strong>Journal Rank: </strong></strong>JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (<em>Aerospace Engineering</em>)</li> <li><strong>Rapid Publication:</strong> manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 24 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).</li> <li><strong>Recognition of Reviewers:</strong> reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.</li> <li><strong>Companion journal: <em><a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/astronomy">Astronomy</a>.</em></strong></li> </ul> </div> <div style="margin-bottom: 15px;"> <strong>Impact Factor:</strong> 2.1 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2023) </div> <div> <a href="/journal/aerospace/imprint" class="UI_JournalImprintsInfoButton"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">subject</i> Imprint Information </a> <a href="/journal/aerospace/aerospace_flyer.pdf" class="UD_JournalFlyer"> <i class="material-icons spaced-link">get_app</i> Journal Flyer </a> <a class="oa-link" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/openaccess"> <i class="material icons spaced-link"></i> Open Access </a> <strong> ISSN: 2226-4310 </strong> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container content__container--overflow-initial"> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link active"> <h2 class="no-padding-left">Latest Articles</h2> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item no-border"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 20 pages, 847 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/964/pdf?version=1732355588" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Temperature Prediction for Aerospace Thermal Tests Based on Physical and LSTM Hybrid Model" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/964">Temperature Prediction for Aerospace Thermal Tests Based on Physical and LSTM Hybrid Model</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Xinze Li</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Chunjun Chen</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120964 (registering DOI) - 23 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> During spacecraft operations, structures experience extreme aerodynamic heating, necessitating thermal testing to gather data on the thermal response of surface materials. Given the nonrepeatable nature of these test articles, accurately predicting the temperature rise profile under thermal load inputs is essential before formal <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/964/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> During spacecraft operations, structures experience extreme aerodynamic heating, necessitating thermal testing to gather data on the thermal response of surface materials. Given the nonrepeatable nature of these test articles, accurately predicting the temperature rise profile under thermal load inputs is essential before formal testing. Although theoretical analyses can develop precise internal heat transfer models for modules, limited test data hampers the modeling of inter-module heat transfer processes. Furthermore, variations in test article parameters across different tests restrict the generalizability of existing models. We present a hybrid modeling approach that integrates a physical model with a long short-term memory (LSTM) network to address these challenges. The LSTM model is trained on historical data to capture complex inter-module heat transfer dynamics. Additionally, varying parameters of the test articles are included as model inputs to enhance versatility and adaptability. Experiments demonstrate that the model achieves high prediction accuracy (MAE = 17.41 (K) R<sup>2</sup> = 0.9988) even when test article parameters differ from historical data. Moreover, it shows strong adaptability to changes in the input power signal (MAE = 34.91 (K) R<sup>2</sup> = 0.9990). This study successfully predicts temperature profiles during thermal testing using minimal test data, thereby improving computational efficiency and reducing testing costs, which facilitates the effective implementation of formal thermal testing. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/964">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="extending-content content-ready"> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 15 pages, 1427 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/963/pdf?version=1732354831" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Development and Evaluation of Regolith Mass Estimation Sensor Based on Photoresist Effect" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/963">Development and Evaluation of Regolith Mass Estimation Sensor Based on Photoresist Effect</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Arkadiusz Tkacz</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Karol Seweryn</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 963; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120963 (registering DOI) - 23 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper presents the design, implementation, and laboratory validation of an optoelectronic-based mass estimation sensor for regolith sampling devices. The sensor integrates multiple photoresistors into the walls of a shovel of a sampling device, where the sensors detect varying levels of light occlusion <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/963/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper presents the design, implementation, and laboratory validation of an optoelectronic-based mass estimation sensor for regolith sampling devices. The sensor integrates multiple photoresistors into the walls of a shovel of a sampling device, where the sensors detect varying levels of light occlusion caused by the deposited regolith. By analyzing the output signals from these photoresistors, the sensor estimates the mass of the sampled regolith. The device is designed to handle a typical sample mass range of 100–300 g. Laboratory tests demonstrated that the sensor can estimate the regolith mass with a relative error of approximately 23%, which is suitable for early-stage applications where rapid, non-invasive mass estimation is essential. The shown level of accuracy underscores the potential for further refining the calibration process, enhancing sensor sensitivity, and integrating multi-sensor approaches to improve performance. This conceptual study highlights the feasibility of using optoelectronic sensors for regolith mass estimation, paving the way for future innovations in ISRU missions and other granular material sampling applications. Future work will focus on the optimization of photoresistor placements, refining the calibration process, and enhancing sensor sensitivity to improve the accuracy of mass estimation. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/963">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/W02AF44X46 ">Planetary Exploration</a>)<br/> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 29 pages, 3406 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/962/pdf?version=1732266089" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Comparison of Prediction Models for Sonic Boom Ground Signatures Under Realistic Flight Conditions" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/962">Comparison of Prediction Models for Sonic Boom Ground Signatures Under Realistic Flight Conditions</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jacob Jäschke</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Samuele Graziani</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Francesco Petrosino</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Antimo Glorioso</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Volker Gollnick</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 962; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120962">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120962</a> - 22 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This paper presents a comparative analysis of simplified and high-fidelity sonic boom prediction methods to assess their applicability in the conceptual design of supersonic aircraft. The high-fidelity approach combines Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for near-field shock analysis with ray-tracing and the Augmented Burgers <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/962/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This paper presents a comparative analysis of simplified and high-fidelity sonic boom prediction methods to assess their applicability in the conceptual design of supersonic aircraft. The high-fidelity approach combines Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for near-field shock analysis with ray-tracing and the Augmented Burgers Equation for far-field propagation through a non-uniform atmosphere, whereas the simplified Carlson method uses analytical approximations for rapid predictions. The comparison across selected climb, cruise, and descent conditions for a supersonic reference aircraft shows that the Carlson method captures general trends in sonic boom behavior, such as changes in peak overpressure and signal duration with varying Mach number and altitude. However, significant deviations are noted under realistic atmospheric conditions, highlighting limitations in the simplified model’s accuracy. Common psycho-acoustic metrics were evaluated to assess the potential annoyance on the ground. The results demonstrate that while the simplified method is effective for early-stage design assessments, the high-fidelity model is essential for precise sonic boom characterization under realistic conditions, particularly for regulatory and community impact evaluations. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/962">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/07706I40NU ">Sustainable Civil Supersonic and Hypersonic Aircraft: Main Challenges and Latest Developments</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/962/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526829"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526829"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526829" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526829" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526829" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g001-550.jpg?1732266213" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526829" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g002-550.jpg?1732266215'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g003-550.jpg?1732266215'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g004-550.jpg?1732266216'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g005-550.jpg?1732266217'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g006-550.jpg?1732266219'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g007-550.jpg?1732266219'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g008-550.jpg?1732266221'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g009-550.jpg?1732266222'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g010-550.jpg?1732266223'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g011-550.jpg?1732266224'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g012-550.jpg?1732266226'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1526829-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g013-550.jpg?1732266227'><p>Figure 13</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526829-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g001-550.jpg?1732266213" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Simulation domains for state-of-the-art sonic boom prediction. The near-field domain is computed via CFD methods while the far-field domain accounts for the atmospheric variations and is modeled with a combination of ray-tracing and a non-linear wave equation. Adapted from [<a href="#B16-aerospace-11-00962" class="html-bibr">16</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g002-550.jpg?1732266215" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Details of the CFD computational domain. (<b>a</b>) Unstructured and structured region of the CFD near-field mesh. (<b>b</b>) Computational domain of the CFD near-field simulation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g003-550.jpg?1732266215" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Definition of the ray-tracing azimuth angles <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math> around an aircraft flying towards the reader. Positive azimuth angles are defined towards port side, negative azimuth angles towards starboard side.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g004-550.jpg?1732266216" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Geometry model of CS1.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g005-550.jpg?1732266217" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>CS1 mission profile and associated Angle of Attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g006-550.jpg?1732266219" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Properties of the three reference atmospheres for the current study. The pressure profiles of both cases of SBPW3 are almost identical, such that the orange line is hidden by the green one in the pressure plot. The wind velocities in both directions are zero for the windless ISA case.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g007-550.jpg?1732266219" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Extracted near-field pressure signatures from the CFD solution at a radial distance of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>R</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mi>L</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>62</mn> <mspace width="0.166667em"/> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> for the three operating conditions of CS1. The azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> shows the extracted pressure signal below the aircraft (on-track). The right plot shows an exemplary pressure signature extracted at off-track conditions for an azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g008-550.jpg?1732266221" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Computed primary sonic boom footprint for CS1 flying towards east. The marks depict the ground intersection points of the computed rays. The labels show the values of the limiting azimuth angles <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>ϕ</mi> </semantics></math>. <b>ISA</b> shows the footprint in the windless International Standard Atmosphere, <b>SBPW3 Case 1</b> for the realistic atmosphere from the Third Sonic Boom Prediction Workshop (SBPW3) with a wide range of azimuth angles, and <b>SBPW3 Case 2</b> the SBPW3 case for a realistic atmosphere that is intended to result in a particular wide carpet.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g009-550.jpg?1732266222" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Computed shock wave pressure signatures at ground level for the three operating conditions of CS1 in the International Standard Atmosphere. The azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> shows the on-track sonic boom and the right plot shows an exemplary off-track sonic boom, computed for an azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g010-550.jpg?1732266223" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Computed shock wave pressure signatures at ground level for the three operating conditions of CS1 in the realistic atmospheres of the Third Sonic Boom Prediction Workshop (SBPW3). The left plot depicts case 1 and the right plot depicts case 2. The azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> is plotted with solid lines. Dash-dotted lines show an exemplary off-track sonic boom at an azimuth angle of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>40</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g011-550.jpg?1732266224" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Computed acoustic sonic boom carpet as observed at ground level for the three operating conditions of CS1 flying towards east (i.e., towards the reader) in the International Standard Atmosphere. The left plot shows the distribution of peak amplitudes over the sonic boom carpet, and the right plot shows the distribution of Stevens’ Perceived Level of Noise Mk VII.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g012-550.jpg?1732266226" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Computed sonic boom carpet at ground level for the three operating conditions of CS1 flying towards east in the first realistic atmosphere of SBPW3. The left plot shows the distribution of peak amplitudes over the sonic boom carpet, and the right plot shows the distribution of Stevens’ Perceived Level of Noise Mk VII.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00962/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00962-g013-550.jpg?1732266227" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Computed sonic boom carpet at ground level for the three operating conditions of CS1 flying towards the east in the second realistic atmosphere of SBPW3. The left plot shows the distribution of peak amplitudes over the sonic boom carpet, and the right plot shows the distribution of Stevens’ Perceived Level of Noise Mk VII.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/962'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 17 pages, 1492 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/961/pdf?version=1732264056" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Deep Learning-Based Infrared Image Segmentation for Aircraft Honeycomb Water Ingress Detection" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/961">Deep Learning-Based Infrared Image Segmentation for Aircraft Honeycomb Water Ingress Detection</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hang Fei</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hongfu Zuo</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Han Wang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yan Liu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zhenzhen Liu</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Xin Li</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 961; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120961">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120961</a> - 22 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The presence of water accumulation on aircraft surfaces constitutes a considerable hazard to both performance and safety, necessitating vigilant inspection and maintenance protocols. In this study, we introduce an innovative semantic segmentation model, grounded in deep learning principles, for the precise identification and <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/961/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The presence of water accumulation on aircraft surfaces constitutes a considerable hazard to both performance and safety, necessitating vigilant inspection and maintenance protocols. In this study, we introduce an innovative semantic segmentation model, grounded in deep learning principles, for the precise identification and delineation of water accumulation areas within infrared images of aircraft exteriors. Our proposed model harnesses the robust features of ResNet, serving as the foundational architecture for U-Net, thereby augmenting the model’s capacity for comprehensive feature characterization. The incorporation of channel attention mechanisms, spatial attention mechanisms, and depthwise separable convolution further refines the network structure, contributing to enhanced segmentation performance. Through rigorous experimentation, our model surpasses existing benchmarks, yielding a commendable 22.44% reduction in computational effort and a substantial 38.89% reduction in parameter count. The model’s outstanding performance is particularly noteworthy, registering a 92.67% mean intersection over union and a 97.97% mean pixel accuracy. The hallmark of our innovation lies in the model’s efficacy in the precise detection and segmentation of water accumulation areas on aircraft skin. Beyond this, our approach holds promise for addressing analogous challenges in aviation and related domains. The enumeration of specific quantitative outcomes underscores the superior efficacy of our model, rendering it a compelling solution for precise detection and segmentation tasks. The demonstrated reductions in computational effort and parameter count underscore the model’s efficiency, fortifying its relevance in broader contexts. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/961">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/961/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526773"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526773"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526773" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526773" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526773" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g001-550.jpg?1732264191" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526773" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g002-550.jpg?1732264192'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g003-550.jpg?1732264194'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g004-550.jpg?1732264194'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g005-550.jpg?1732264195'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g006-550.jpg?1732264195'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g007-550.jpg?1732264196'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g008-550.jpg?1732264198'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g009-550.jpg?1732264198'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g010-550.jpg?1732264199'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g011-550.jpg?1732264200'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526773-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g012-550.jpg?1732264206'><p>Figure 12</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526773-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g001-550.jpg?1732264191" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Structure of aircraft skin.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g002-550.jpg?1732264192" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of aircraft skin water accumulation detection via deep learning.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g003-550.jpg?1732264194" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Structure of the proposed network.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g004-550.jpg?1732264194" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Structure of CBAM.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g005-550.jpg?1732264195" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Processes in the channel attention module.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g006-550.jpg?1732264195" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Processes in the spatial attention module.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g007-550.jpg?1732264196" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Processes in depthwise separable convolution.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g008-550.jpg?1732264198" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Diagram of research method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g009-550.jpg?1732264198" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>The FLIR E8 infrared thermal camera.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g010-550.jpg?1732264199" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Example of the dataset. (<b>a</b>) Original image. (<b>b</b>) Processed image. (<b>c</b>) Ground truth.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g011-550.jpg?1732264200" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Diagram of the evaluation index.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00961/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00961-g012-550.jpg?1732264206" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Examples of segmentation results.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/961'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 28 pages, 4625 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/960/pdf?version=1732208879" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Bayesian Identification of High-Performance Aircraft Aerodynamic Behaviour" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/960">Bayesian Identification of High-Performance Aircraft Aerodynamic Behaviour</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Muhammad Fawad Mazhar</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Syed Manzar Abbas</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Muhammad Wasim</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zeashan Hameed Khan</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 960; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120960">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120960</a> - 21 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> In this paper, nonlinear system identification using Bayesian network has been implemented to discover open-loop lateral-directional aerodynamic model parameters of an agile aircraft using a grey box modelling structure. Our novel technique has been demonstrated on simulated flight data from an F-16 nonlinear <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/960/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> In this paper, nonlinear system identification using Bayesian network has been implemented to discover open-loop lateral-directional aerodynamic model parameters of an agile aircraft using a grey box modelling structure. Our novel technique has been demonstrated on simulated flight data from an F-16 nonlinear simulation of its Flight Dynamic Model (FDM). A mathematical model has been obtained using time series analysis of a Box–Jenkins (BJ) model structure, and parameter refinement has been performed using Bayesian mechanics. The aircraft nonlinear Flight Dynamic Model is adequately excited with doublet inputs, as per the dictates of its natural frequency, in accordance with non-parametric modelling (Finite Impulse Response) estimates. Time histories of optimized doublet inputs in the form of aileron and rudder deflections, and outputs in the form of roll and yaw rates are recorded. Dataset is pre-processed by implementing de-trending, smoothing, and filtering techniques. Blend of System Identification time-domain grey box modelling structures to include Output Error (OE) and Box–Jenkins (BJ) Models are stage-wise implemented in multiple flight conditions under varied stochastic models. Furthermore, a reduced order parsimonious model is obtained using Akaike information Criteria (AIC). Parameter error minimization activity is conducted using the Levenberg–Marquardt (L-M) Algorithm, and parameter refinement is performed using the Bayesian Algorithm due to its natural connection with grey box modelling. Comparative analysis of different nonlinear estimators is performed to obtain best estimates for the lateral–directional aerodynamic model of supersonic aircraft. Model Quality Assessment is conducted through statistical techniques namely: Residual Analysis, Best Fit Percentage, Fit Percentage Error, Mean Squared Error, and Model order. Results have shown promising one-step model predictions with an accuracy of 96.25%. Being a sequel to our previous research work for postulating longitudinal aerodynamic model of supersonic aircraft, this work completes the overall aerodynamic model, further leading towards insight to its flight control laws and subsequent simulator design. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/960">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/960/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526590"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526590"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526590" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526590" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526590" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g001-550.jpg?1732209130" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526590" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g002-550.jpg?1732209131'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g003-550.jpg?1732209132'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g004-550.jpg?1732209134'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g005-550.jpg?1732209135'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g006-550.jpg?1732209135'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g007-550.jpg?1732209136'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g008-550.jpg?1732209137'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g009-550.jpg?1732209138'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g010-550.jpg?1732209140'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g011-550.jpg?1732209140'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g012-550.jpg?1732209141'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g013a-550.jpg?1732209144'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g013b-550.jpg?1732209147'><p>Figure 13 Cont.</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1526590-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g014-550.jpg?1732209151'><p>Figure 14</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526590-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g001-550.jpg?1732209130" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Research Framework.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g002-550.jpg?1732209131" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Top Level Simulink Model of Aircraft Flight Dynamic Model (MATLAB-2021b).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g003-550.jpg?1732209132" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>F-16 6-DOF Dynamics [<a href="#B39-aerospace-11-00960" class="html-bibr">39</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g004-550.jpg?1732209134" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Optimal Input Design Flowchart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g005-550.jpg?1732209135" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Bayesian Implementation Flowchart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g006-550.jpg?1732209135" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>F-16 Kinematics Variables [<a href="#B39-aerospace-11-00960" class="html-bibr">39</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g007-550.jpg?1732209136" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Non-Parametric (FIR) Model of Aircraft.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g008-550.jpg?1732209137" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Bode Plot Aircraft Lateral Dynamics.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g009-550.jpg?1732209138" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Simulated Time-Skewed 2-1-1 Doublet Inputs—Aileron (δa) and Rudder (δr).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g010-550.jpg?1732209140" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Roll and Yaw Rate Time histories in repose to 2-1-1 Doublet Inputs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g011-550.jpg?1732209140" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Roll and Pitch Angle time histories to 2-1-1 Doublet Inputs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g012-550.jpg?1732209141" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Aircraft Parameter Refinement Flow chart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g013a-550.jpg?1732209144" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Initial OE Model; (<b>b</b>) Reduced Order OE Model; (<b>c</b>) Initial BJ Model; (<b>d</b>) Optimized BJ Model; (<b>e</b>) Residual Correlation; (<b>f</b>) pdf of Model Parameters; (<b>g</b>) Posterior Sensitivity Analysis (K-L Divergence)—Straight and Level Flight.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g013b-550.jpg?1732209147" title=" <strong>Figure 13 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Initial OE Model; (<b>b</b>) Reduced Order OE Model; (<b>c</b>) Initial BJ Model; (<b>d</b>) Optimized BJ Model; (<b>e</b>) Residual Correlation; (<b>f</b>) pdf of Model Parameters; (<b>g</b>) Posterior Sensitivity Analysis (K-L Divergence)—Straight and Level Flight.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00960/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00960-g014-550.jpg?1732209151" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Initial OE Model; (<b>b</b>) Reduced Order OE Model; (<b>c</b>) Initial BJ Model; (<b>d</b>) Optimized BJ Model; (<b>e</b>) Residual Correlation; (<b>f</b>) pdf of Model Parameters; (<b>g</b>) Posterior Sensitivity Analysis (K-L Divergence)—Coordinated Turn Flight.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/960'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 4028 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/959/pdf?version=1732204394" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Longitudinal Motion System Identification of a Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Using Limited Unplanned Flight Data" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/959">Longitudinal Motion System Identification of a Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Using Limited Unplanned Flight Data</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nuno M. B. Matos</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>André C. Marta</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 959; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120959">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120959</a> - 21 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Acquiring knowledge of aircraft flight dynamics is crucial for simulation, control, mission performance and safety assurance analysis. In the fast-paced UAV market, long flight testing campaigns are hard to achieve, leaving limited controlled flight data and a significant amount of unplanned flight data. <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/959/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Acquiring knowledge of aircraft flight dynamics is crucial for simulation, control, mission performance and safety assurance analysis. In the fast-paced UAV market, long flight testing campaigns are hard to achieve, leaving limited controlled flight data and a significant amount of unplanned flight data. This work delves into the application of system identification techniques on unplanned flight data when faced with a shortage of dedicated flight test data. Based on a medium-sized, fixed-wing UAV, it focuses on the system identification of longitudinal dynamics using structural routine flight test data of pitch down and pitch up manoeuvres with no specific guidelines for the control inputs given. The proposed solution uses first- and second-order parameter-based models to build a non-linear dynamic model which, using a least square error optimisation algorithm in a time domain formulation, has its parameters tuned to converge the model behaviour with the real aircraft dynamics. The optimisation uses a combination of pitch, altitude, airspeed and pitch rate responses as a measure of model accuracy. Very significant improvements regarding the UAV model response are found when trimmed flight manoeuvres are used, resulting in proper estimation of important aerodynamic and control derivatives. Pitching moment and control derivatives are shown to be the crucial parameters. However, difficulties in estimation are shown for untrimmed flight manoeuvres. Better results were obtained when using multiple manoeuvres simultaneously in the optimisation error metric, as opposed to single manoeuvres that led to system bias. The proposed system identification procedure can be applied to any fixed-wing UAV without the need for specific flight testing campaigns. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/959">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/959/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526546"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526546"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526546" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526546" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526546" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g001-550.jpg?1732204577" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526546" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g002-550.jpg?1732204578'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g003-550.jpg?1732204578'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g004-550.jpg?1732204579'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g005-550.jpg?1732204581'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g006-550.jpg?1732204582'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g007-550.jpg?1732204583'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g008-550.jpg?1732204584'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g009-550.jpg?1732204585'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g010-550.jpg?1732204586'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g011-550.jpg?1732204587'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g012-550.jpg?1732204588'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g013-550.jpg?1732204589'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g014-550.jpg?1732204590'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g015-550.jpg?1732204591'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g016-550.jpg?1732204592'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1526546-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g017-550.jpg?1732204593'><p>Figure 17</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526546-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g001-550.jpg?1732204577" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>System identification methodology.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g002-550.jpg?1732204578" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Tekever AR5 model in <span class="html-italic">AVL</span>. Pink lines represent lifting surfaces and black circular lines represent the fuselage.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g003-550.jpg?1732204578" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Tekever AR5 point mass model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g004-550.jpg?1732204579" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Force and moment calculations overview in <span class="html-italic">JSBSim</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g005-550.jpg?1732204581" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Structural test manoeuvre example for a generic Tekever AR5 aircraft.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g006-550.jpg?1732204582" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Simulation environment algorithm overview.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g007-550.jpg?1732204583" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>System identification optimisation algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g008-550.jpg?1732204584" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Results for the different error formulations and combinations of variables using the <span class="html-italic">JSBSim</span> validation scheme. (<b>a</b>) Improvement in each single error score. (<b>b</b>) Similarity between validation model variables and optimised model design variables.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g009-550.jpg?1732204585" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Methodology validation using two <span class="html-italic">JSBSim</span> models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g010-550.jpg?1732204586" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Improvement in each error variable for all single variable optimisation cases. (<b>a</b>) Using the absolute error formulation. (<b>b</b>) Using the step error formulation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g011-550.jpg?1732204587" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Optimisation of two distinct Tekever AR5 aircraft. (<b>a</b>) Aircraft #1. (<b>b</b>) Aircraft #2.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g012-550.jpg?1732204588" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>System identification using a single manoeuvre for the Tekever AR5. (<b>a</b>) Aircraft response. (<b>b</b>) Optimisation error improvement score.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g013-550.jpg?1732204589" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Single-manoeuvre optimisation validation with two separate independent manoeuvres of the same Tekever AR5 aircraft. (<b>a</b>) First manoeuvre. (<b>b</b>) Second manoeuvre.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g014-550.jpg?1732204590" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Average error and standard deviation of the error results for nine manoeuvres for the initial and final solution of the single-manoeuvre optimisation. Manoeuvre #1 was the used manoeuvre for the optimisation. (<b>a</b>) Pitch <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math> error. (<b>b</b>) Pitch rate <span class="html-italic">q</span> error. (<b>c</b>) Altitude <span class="html-italic">h</span> error. (<b>d</b>) Calibrated airspeed <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi>A</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> error.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g015-550.jpg?1732204591" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Multi-manoeuvre optimisation results for two example manoeuvres used in the optimisation of the same Tekever AR5 aircraft. (<b>a</b>) Manoeuvre #4. (<b>b</b>) Manoeuvre #7.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g016-550.jpg?1732204592" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Mean and standard deviation of the error of the multi-manoeuvre optimisation. (<b>a</b>) Pitch <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>θ</mi> </semantics></math>. (<b>b</b>) Pitch rate <span class="html-italic">q</span>. (<b>c</b>) Altitude <span class="html-italic">h</span>. (<b>d</b>) Calibrated airspeed <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi>A</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00959/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00959-g017-550.jpg?1732204593" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Multi-manoeuvre optimisation results for the three validation manoeuvres of the same Tekever AR5 aircraft. (<b>a</b>) Manoeuvre #2. (<b>b</b>) Manoeuvre #5. (<b>c</b>) Manoeuvre #6.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/959'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 44 pages, 1408 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/958/pdf?version=1732186949" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Estimating Aircraft Power Requirements: A Study of Electrical Power Demand Across Various Aircraft Models and Flight Phases" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/958">Estimating Aircraft Power Requirements: A Study of Electrical Power Demand Across Various Aircraft Models and Flight Phases</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Viola Voth</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Sascha M. Lübbe</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Oliver Bertram</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 958; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120958">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120958</a> - 21 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> This research addresses the increasing electrification of aircraft systems, driven by the need to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in global aviation. The transition to more-electric aircraft (MEA) is advocated as a promising strategy, as it is expected to improve <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/958/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> This research addresses the increasing electrification of aircraft systems, driven by the need to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in global aviation. The transition to more-electric aircraft (MEA) is advocated as a promising strategy, as it is expected to improve environmental performance and economic viability. However, this shift significantly increases the demand for on-board electrical power. One alternative to traditional engine generators is novel power supply systems such as fuel cell systems. In order to design these systems effectively, it is essential to determine the electrical power requirements that the fuel cells must supply. Estimating the electrical power consumption of individual aircraft systems is critical given the proprietary nature of manufacturer data. Using existing literature methods, this study aims to identify the essential variables for estimating the magnitude of power consumption. The research focuses on different aircraft models, taking into account their system architectures and electrification trends, in particular for Airbus and Boeing models. The study includes a detailed description of the aircraft systems, calculation methods, and presentation and analysis of the estimated electrical power requirements. Despite a lack of available data for comparison, the calculated results appear to be reasonably consistent with existing literature and provide valuable insights into the electrical power requirements of aircraft systems. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/958">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/958/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526133"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526133"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526133" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526133" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526133" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g001-550.jpg?1732187028" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526133" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g002-550.jpg?1732187029'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g003-550.jpg?1732187030'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g004-550.jpg?1732187032'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g005-550.jpg?1732187033'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g006-550.jpg?1732187035'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g007-550.jpg?1732187035'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g008-550.jpg?1732187037'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g009-550.jpg?1732187039'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g010-550.jpg?1732187041'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g011-550.jpg?1732187043'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g012-550.jpg?1732187045'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g013-550.jpg?1732187047'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g014-550.jpg?1732187049'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g015-550.jpg?1732187051'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g016-550.jpg?1732187053'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g017-550.jpg?1732187055'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g018-550.jpg?1732187056'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g019-550.jpg?1732187058'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g020-550.jpg?1732187060'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g021-550.jpg?1732187062'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g022-550.jpg?1732187063'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g023-550.jpg?1732187065'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g024-550.jpg?1732187068'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g025-550.jpg?1732187070'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g026-550.jpg?1732187072'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g027-550.jpg?1732187074'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1526133-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g028-550.jpg?1732187076'><p>Figure 28</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526133-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g001-550.jpg?1732187028" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Example of typical power flow in a conventional aircraft.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g002-550.jpg?1732187029" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Assumed and analyzed aircraft architecture.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g003-550.jpg?1732187030" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of a typical flight mission.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g004-550.jpg?1732187032" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of the bleed air-based (top) and electrified (bottom) ACS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g005-550.jpg?1732187033" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Schematic structure of the anti-icing system of the leading edge, adapted from [<a href="#B36-aerospace-11-00958" class="html-bibr">36</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g006-550.jpg?1732187035" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Assumed simplified fault tree for the failure of the FCS of an A380-800.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g007-550.jpg?1732187035" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of all effective heat flux densities, adapted from [<a href="#B24-aerospace-11-00958" class="html-bibr">24</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g008-550.jpg?1732187037" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand of the ACS.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g009-550.jpg?1732187039" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Calculated pressure ratio and mass flow.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g010-550.jpg?1732187041" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand of the recirculation fan for different aircraft types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g011-550.jpg?1732187043" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>The power requirements of the ECS for different aircraft types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g012-550.jpg?1732187045" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>The power demand of the ECS per passenger.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g013-550.jpg?1732187047" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand of the galley.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g014-550.jpg?1732187049" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand of the fuel system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g015-550.jpg?1732187051" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Calculated electrical power demand for the hydraulic system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g016-550.jpg?1732187053" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand for de-icing of the leading edges of the wings.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g017-550.jpg?1732187055" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Necessary power for de-icing depending on the aircraft type and number of passengers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g018-550.jpg?1732187056" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Electrical power requirement for ice and fogging protection of the cockpit windows.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g019-550.jpg?1732187058" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>The electrical power demand for the lighting system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g020-550.jpg?1732187060" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Normalized power demand per passenger.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g021-550.jpg?1732187062" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>The power demand for the water and waste system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g022-550.jpg?1732187063" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Electrical power demand for the IFE depending on the aircraft type and number of passengers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g023-550.jpg?1732187065" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Total electrical power demand of all-electrical aircraft systems for the <span class="html-italic">A320-200</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g024-550.jpg?1732187068" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Total demand for the <span class="html-italic">A330-200</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g025-550.jpg?1732187070" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Total demand for the <span class="html-italic">A380-800</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g026-550.jpg?1732187072" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Total demand for the <span class="html-italic">B737-800</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g027-550.jpg?1732187074" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Total demand for the <span class="html-italic">B757-300</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00958/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00958-g028-550.jpg?1732187076" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Total demand for the <span class="html-italic">B777-300</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/958'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 17 pages, 5930 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/957/pdf?version=1732183135" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Recycling Space Beverage Packaging into LDPE-Based Composite Materials" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/12/957">Recycling Space Beverage Packaging into LDPE-Based Composite Materials</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Federica De Rosa</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Flavia Palmeri</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Susanna Laurenzi</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(12), 957; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120957">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11120957</a> - 21 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Long-term space missions require c6areful resource management and recycling strategies to overcome the limitations of resupply missions. In this study, we investigated the potential to recycle space beverage packaging, which is typically made of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and PET-aluminum-LDPE (PAL) trilaminate, by developing <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/957/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Long-term space missions require c6areful resource management and recycling strategies to overcome the limitations of resupply missions. In this study, we investigated the potential to recycle space beverage packaging, which is typically made of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and PET-aluminum-LDPE (PAL) trilaminate, by developing a LDPE-based composite material with PAL inclusions. Due to the limited availability of space beverage packaging, we replaced it with LDPE powder and commercial coffee packaging for the experiments. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was employed to thoroughly analyze the composition of the commercial coffee packaging. The simulant packaging was reduced to a filler, and its thermal properties were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), while the particle size was analyzed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the bootstrap resampling technique. Composite specimens were then fabricated by incorporating the filler into the LDPE matrix at loadings of 5 wt% and 10 wt%, and their mechanical and thermal properties were assessed through dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and thermal conductivity measurements. The 10 wt% corresponds approximately to the radio between PAL and PE in space beverage packaging and is, therefore, the maximum usable percentage when considering a single package. The results indicate that, as the filler loading increased, the mechanical performance of the composite material decreased, while the thermal conductivity was significantly improved. Finally, 10 wt% LDPE/PAL filaments, with a diameter of 1.7 mm and suitable for the fused filament technique, were produced. <a href="/2226-4310/11/12/957">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/lightweight_space_materials_structural_systems ">Advanced Design for Lightweight Space Materials and Structural Systems</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/12/957/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1526004"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1526004"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1526004" data-cycle-prev="#prev1526004" data-cycle-progressive="#images1526004" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g001-550.jpg?1732183268" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1526004" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g002-550.jpg?1732183268'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g003-550.jpg?1732183269'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g004-550.jpg?1732183270'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g005-550.jpg?1732183271'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g006-550.jpg?1732183271'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g007-550.jpg?1732183273'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g008-550.jpg?1732183274'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g009-550.jpg?1732183275'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g010-550.jpg?1732183277'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g011-550.jpg?1732183277'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g012-550.jpg?1732183279'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g013-550.jpg?1732183280'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g014-550.jpg?1732183281'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1526004-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g015-550.jpg?1732183282'><p>Figure 15</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1526004-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g001-550.jpg?1732183268" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Grinding mechanism of cross-section drafting; (<b>b</b>) grinding mechanism of slicing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g002-550.jpg?1732183268" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Components of the space beverage packaging: the packaging consists of a multilayer trilaminate structure, while the septum adapter, the straw, and the clamp are made of LDPE.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g003-550.jpg?1732183269" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Scheme for the fabrication of LDPE/PAL composite specimens from surrogate packaging: shredding the trilaminate packaging material to reduce it to smaller, manageable pieces; sieving by a 60-mesh sieve to obtain uniformly sized particles of PAL; mixing the PAL particles with the LDPE matrix material to ensure uniform distribution of filler within the LDPE base; shaping the LDPE/PAL composite into test specimens using a casting technique; cooling and solidification, forming the final LDPE/PAL composite specimens.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g004-550.jpg?1732183270" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Particle Feret diameter [<a href="#B40-aerospace-11-00957" class="html-bibr">40</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g005-550.jpg?1732183271" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Dynamical scanning curves of the trilaminate filler powder (the first heating cycle is in red; the cooling cycle, second heating cycle, and isothermal holdings are in black).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g006-550.jpg?1732183271" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Top view of the opened chamber of the DMA-1, showing the single-cantilever operational mode configuration with the LDPE-PAL 5 wt% sample clamped.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g007-550.jpg?1732183273" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Pristine LDPE displacement sweep.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g008-550.jpg?1732183274" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Transmittance spectrum of LDPE side.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g009-550.jpg?1732183275" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Transmittance spectrum of PET side.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g010-550.jpg?1732183277" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) SEM image of trilaminate powder (scan speed of 6, magnification of 150×). (<b>b</b>) Image-J particle boundaries detected after image processing.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g011-550.jpg?1732183277" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Histogram of original sample set frequency of particle size based on 56 measurements. (<b>b</b>) Histogram of bootstrapped sample set frequency of average particle size based on 250 resamplings.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g012-550.jpg?1732183279" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Extrapolation of melting parameters from DSC curves. (<b>b</b>) Extrapolation of crystallization parameters from DSC curves.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g013-550.jpg?1732183280" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Storage modulus as a function of temperature for pristine LDPE, LDPE-PAL 5wt%, and LDPE-PAL 10wt%.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g014-550.jpg?1732183281" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Loss modulus as a function of temperature for pristine LDPE, LDPE-PAL 5 wt%, and LDPE-PAL 10 wt%.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00957/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00957-g015-550.jpg?1732183282" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Extruded filament of LDPE-PAL 10 wt%.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/12/957'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 16 pages, 646 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/956/pdf?version=1732173650" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Electrodynamic Attitude Stabilization of a Spacecraft in an Elliptical Orbit" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/956">Electrodynamic Attitude Stabilization of a Spacecraft in an Elliptical Orbit</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Maksim A. Klyushin</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Margarita V. Maksimenko</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alexey A. Tikhonov</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 956; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110956">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110956</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> One of the fundamental problems of spacecraft dynamics related to ensuring its angular orientation in the basic coordinate system is considered. The problem of electrodynamic attitude control for a spacecraft in an elliptical near-Earth Keplerian orbit is studied. A mathematical model describing the <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/956/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> One of the fundamental problems of spacecraft dynamics related to ensuring its angular orientation in the basic coordinate system is considered. The problem of electrodynamic attitude control for a spacecraft in an elliptical near-Earth Keplerian orbit is studied. A mathematical model describing the attitude dynamics of the spacecraft under the action of the Lorentz torque, the magnetic interaction torque, and the gravitational torque is constructed. The multipole model of the Earth’s magnetic field is used. The possibility of electrodynamic attitude control for the spacecraft’s angular stabilization in the orbital frame is analyzed based on the Euler–Poisson differential equations. The problem of electrodynamic compensation of disturbing torque due to the orbit eccentricity is solved. The control strategy for spacecraft electrodynamic attitude stabilization is presented. Electromagnetic parameters that allow stabilizing the spacecraft’s attitude position in the orbital frame are proposed. The disturbing gravity gradient torque is taken into account. The convergence of the control process is verified by computer modeling. Thus, the possibility and advisability of using the electrodynamic method for the spacecraft attitude control and its angular stabilization in the orbital coordinate system in an elliptical orbit is shown. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/956">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/astronautics_space_science">Astronautics & Space Science</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/956/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1525594"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1525594"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1525594" data-cycle-prev="#prev1525594" data-cycle-progressive="#images1525594" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g001-550.jpg?1732173804" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1525594" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g002-550.jpg?1732173806'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g003-550.jpg?1732173807'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g004-550.jpg?1732173807'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g005-550.jpg?1732173809'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g006-550.jpg?1732173810'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g007-550.jpg?1732173811'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g008-550.jpg?1732173813'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g009-550.jpg?1732173814'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g010-550.jpg?1732173816'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1525594-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g011-550.jpg?1732173817'><p>Figure 11</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1525594-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g001-550.jpg?1732173804" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Inertial and orbital coordinate systems.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g002-550.jpg?1732173806" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Orbital and principal central axes of inertia coordinate systems.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g003-550.jpg?1732173807" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Restoring effect of the Lorentz torque. Case 1.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g004-550.jpg?1732173807" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Restoring effect of the Lorentz torque. Case 2.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g005-550.jpg?1732173809" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Auxiliary coordinate systems.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g006-550.jpg?1732173810" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>The block diagram of the control strategy for spacecraft’s electrodynamic attitude stabilization.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g007-550.jpg?1732173811" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Values of Rodrigues–Hamilton parameters.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g008-550.jpg?1732173813" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Aircraft angles.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g009-550.jpg?1732173814" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Relative angular velocity components.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g010-550.jpg?1732173816" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Absolute values of the gravitational torque <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>G</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and the restoring components of control torques <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>M</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>L</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00956/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00956-g011-550.jpg?1732173817" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Absolute values of the gravitational torque <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>G</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and the dissipative components of control torques <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>M</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mover accent="true"> <mi>M</mi> <mo>→</mo> </mover> <mi>L</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/956'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 24 pages, 4561 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/955/pdf?version=1732108101" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Dual-Frequency Multi-Constellation Global Navigation Satellite System/Inertial Measurements Unit Tight Hybridization for Urban Air Mobility Applications" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/955">Dual-Frequency Multi-Constellation Global Navigation Satellite System/Inertial Measurements Unit Tight Hybridization for Urban Air Mobility Applications</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Gianluca Corraro</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Federico Corraro</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Andrea Flora</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Giovanni Cuciniello</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Luca Garbarino</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Roberto Senatore</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 955; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110955">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110955</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) for remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) positioning is essential, thanks to the worldwide availability and continuity of this technology in the provision of positioning services. This makes the GNSS technology a critical element as malfunctions impacting on <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/955/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) for remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) positioning is essential, thanks to the worldwide availability and continuity of this technology in the provision of positioning services. This makes the GNSS technology a critical element as malfunctions impacting on the determination of the position, velocity and timing (PVT) solution could determine safety issues. Such an aspect is particularly challenging in urban air mobility (UAM) scenarios, where low satellite visibility, multipath, radio frequency interference and cyber threats can dangerously affect the PVT solution. So, to meet integrity requirements, GNSS receiver measurements are augmented/fused with other aircraft sensors that can supply position and/or velocity information on the aircraft without relying on any other satellite and/or ground infrastructures. In this framework, in this paper, the algorithms of a hybrid navigation unit (HNU) for UAM applications are detailed, implementing a tightly coupled sensor fusion between a dual-frequency multi-constellation GNSS receiver, an inertial measurements unit and the barometric altitude from an air data computer. The implemented navigation algorithm is integrated with autonomous fault detection and exclusion of GPS/Galileo/BeiDou satellites and the estimation of navigation solution integrity/accuracy (i.e., protection level and figures of merit). In-flight tests were performed to validate the HNU functionalities demonstrating its effectiveness in UAM scenarios even in the presence of cyber threats. In detail, the navigation solution, compared with a real-time kinematic GPS receiver used as the reference centimetre-level position sensor, demonstrated good accuracy, with position errors below 15 m horizontally and 10 m vertically under nominal conditions (i.e., urban scenarios characterized by satellite low visibility and multipath). It continued to provide a valid navigation solution even in the presence of off-nominal events, such as spoofing attacks. The cyber threats were correctly detected and excluded by the system through the indication of the valid/not valid satellite measurements. However, the results indicate a need for fine-tuning the EKF to improve the estimation of figures of merit and protection levels associated to the navigation solution during the cyber-attacks. In contrast, solution accuracy and integrity indicators are well estimated in nominal conditions. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/955">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/0F960V7LRX ">Recent Research on UAM/AAM Aircraft and Systems: Modeling, Advanced Control, and Emerging Technologies</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/955/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1525259"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1525259"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1525259" data-cycle-prev="#prev1525259" data-cycle-progressive="#images1525259" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g001-550.jpg?1732108218" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1525259" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g002-550.jpg?1732108219'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g003-550.jpg?1732108219'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g004-550.jpg?1732108221'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g005-550.jpg?1732108222'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g006-550.jpg?1732108224'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g007-550.jpg?1732108226'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g008-550.jpg?1732108228'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g009-550.jpg?1732108229'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g010-550.jpg?1732108231'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g011-550.jpg?1732108233'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1525259-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g012-550.jpg?1732108235'><p>Figure 12</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1525259-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g001-550.jpg?1732108218" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Functional architecture of HNU system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g002-550.jpg?1732108219" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Inertial integration algorithm in ENU frame, where <span class="html-italic">L</span>, <b><span class="html-italic">λ</span></b> and <span class="html-italic">h</span> represent latitude, longitude and altitude values at time step <span class="html-italic">k</span> and <span class="html-italic">k</span> − 1, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g003-550.jpg?1732108219" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>KF update algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g004-550.jpg?1732108221" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Detailed architecture of the in-flight test rig.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g005-550.jpg?1732108222" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Internal and external view of the experimental flight vehicle (modified TECNAM P92-Echo S) highlighting the locations of the equipment installed on board.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g006-550.jpg?1732108224" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Actual (flight) vs. virtual operational area.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g007-550.jpg?1732108226" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Comparison among the GNSS-received satellites, the satellites provided by the GTS and the validated ones from the FDE algorithm.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g008-550.jpg?1732108228" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Terrain elevation along the RPAS flight plan in Rome operational area (virtual area). The spoofer/jammer position is highlighted in green.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g009-550.jpg?1732108229" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Horizontal (<b>a</b>) and vertical (<b>b</b>) trajectory performed by the vehicle from the take-off to landing (i.e., HNU recorded data) demonstrating the proper HNU behaviour compared to the RTK horizontal centimetric position recorded (i.e., GCS recorded data).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g010-550.jpg?1732108231" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>FDE status indication (0, no failure; 1, failure detected and excluded; 2, failure detected and not excluded; 3, test not possible due to wrong GNSS or KF data; 4, sanity check failed, i.e., all satellites seem to be invalid).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g011-550.jpg?1732108233" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>HNU position performance on the horizontal (<b>a</b>) and on the vertical (<b>b</b>) plane.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00955/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00955-g012-550.jpg?1732108235" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>HNU velocity performance on the horizontal (<b>a</b>) and on the vertical (<b>b</b>) plane.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/955'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 26 pages, 20854 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/954/pdf?version=1732097327" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Design and Verification of Continuous Tube Forming Process Parameters for PEEK-Based Rod Aimed at Space Manufacturing Applications" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/954">Design and Verification of Continuous Tube Forming Process Parameters for PEEK-Based Rod Aimed at Space Manufacturing Applications</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Peng Li</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Shuai Tian</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yingjia Duan</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jiayong Yan</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lixin Zhang</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 954; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110954">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110954</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> To meet the in-orbit construction needs of super-large spacecraft for ultra-long rod structures, this paper proposes an innovative on-orbit roll forming method for polyetheretherketone (PEEK)-based rod stock. This method ingeniously integrates temperature gradient control into a continuous deformation surface cavity design to achieve <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/954/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> To meet the in-orbit construction needs of super-large spacecraft for ultra-long rod structures, this paper proposes an innovative on-orbit roll forming method for polyetheretherketone (PEEK)-based rod stock. This method ingeniously integrates temperature gradient control into a continuous deformation surface cavity design to achieve an efficient forming of resin rod components. A parametric model of the forming die cavity was established based on the comprehensive bending and downhill methods, and the boundary conditions for the temperature distribution gradient within the cavity were determined. Through the simulation and analysis of the PEEK rod curling and stitching forming process, the influence of the cavity configuration parameters on the forming load was determined. By constructing a test platform for the roll forming characteristics of resin rod components, the effects of different forming methods, stitching temperatures, and feed rates on forming quality and load were verified, and the main factors affecting the width of the welding zone, the roundness of the rod, and the straightness of the weld were analyzed. Experimental results show that the proposed continuous roll forming scheme can achieve an efficient and continuous forming of resin rod structures. When the length of the member is processed to 300 mm, at a formed rod diameter of 20 mm, by employing a cavity deformation zone length of 210 mm, a cavity clearance of 0.1 mm, a sheet width of 61 mm, a feed rate of 1 mm/s, and a sealing zone temperature setting of 335 °C, optimal rod forming quality can be achieved, characterized by a straightness error of 0.0133 ± 0.005 mm and a roundness error of 0.19 ± 0.07 mm. The proposal of this scheme provides a reliable basis for the continuous manufacturing of rod structures in the on-orbit construction of large space structures in terms of both the scheme and the parameter selection. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/954">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/HDJI15H9BQ ">Space Sampling and Exploration Robotics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/954/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1525058"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1525058"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1525058" data-cycle-prev="#prev1525058" data-cycle-progressive="#images1525058" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g001-550.jpg?1732097437" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1525058" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g002-550.jpg?1732097438'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img 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src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g010-550.jpg?1732097446'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g011-550.jpg?1732097447'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g012-550.jpg?1732097447'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g013-550.jpg?1732097449'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div 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src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g017-550.jpg?1732097453'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g018-550.jpg?1732097454'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g019-550.jpg?1732097457'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g020-550.jpg?1732097458'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div 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src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g024-550.jpg?1732097461'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g025-550.jpg?1732097462'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g026-550.jpg?1732097464'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g027-550.jpg?1732097465'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g028-550.jpg?1732097467'><p>Figure 28</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g029-550.jpg?1732097468'><p>Figure 29</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='29' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g030-550.jpg?1732097469'><p>Figure 30</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='30' data-target='article-1525058-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g031-550.jpg?1732097470'><p>Figure 31</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1525058-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g001-550.jpg?1732097437" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of forming plans.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g002-550.jpg?1732097438" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>In-orbit forming scheme for PEEK-based rod stock materials.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g003-550.jpg?1732097440" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Continuous gradient bending cavity for PEEK strip materials.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g004-550.jpg?1732097441" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of formed cross-sectional curves.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g005-550.jpg?1732097441" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of forming baseline schemes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g006-550.jpg?1732097442" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Variation trends of forming die cavity cross-sectional curve and profile curve. (<b>A</b>) Own hill method baseline. (<b>B</b>) Formed cross-sectional curves.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g007-550.jpg?1732097443" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Analytical model of arbitrary cross-sectional curve and profile curve for cavity mold. In the figure, point A is the intersection of the section with the baseline. Point B is the tangency point between arc AB and arc BC. Point C is the outer edge point of the strip material. Point D is a point on the line BD, which is parallel to the x-axis. Point E is a point on the tangent line BE.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g008-550.jpg?1732097444" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Boundary conditions for the temperature. Distribution gradient within the cavity.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g009-550.jpg?1732097445" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Schematic of forming cavity for PEEK-based strip materials.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g010-550.jpg?1732097446" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Overall model of the welded portion.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g011-550.jpg?1732097447" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Parameter settings for the stitching process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g012-550.jpg?1732097447" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Basis for determining parameters in the stitching process. (<b>A</b>) Sheet butt joint pressure during the coiling forming process. (<b>B</b>) Die temperature distribution during the sewing process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g013-550.jpg?1732097449" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of PEEK sheet strain in tubing forming under different cavity cross-sections. (<b>A</b>) Circumferential bending method; (<b>B</b>) combined bending method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g014-550.jpg?1732097450" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Variation trend of node displacement with sheet material. (<b>A</b>) Diagram of node coordinates varying with feeding distance. (<b>B</b>) Node position.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g015-550.jpg?1732097451" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Variation of node strain during the forming process. (<b>A</b>) Graph of node coordinates varying with feeding distance. (<b>B</b>) Node position.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g016-550.jpg?1732097452" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Deformation patterns of sheet materials during the stitching process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g017-550.jpg?1732097453" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Analysis of the influence of sheet thickness on the forming process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g018-550.jpg?1732097454" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Analysis of the influence of different lengths of cavity deformation zones on the forming process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g019-550.jpg?1732097457" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>The influence patterns of different cavity clearances on the forming process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g020-550.jpg?1732097458" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Variation patterns of the forming process under different sheet widths.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g021-550.jpg?1732097458" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Influence relationship between welding temperature and fusion depth.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g022-550.jpg?1732097459" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Influence relationship between welding time and fusion depth.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g023-550.jpg?1732097460" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Testing platform for tubing forming characteristics of resin rods.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g024-550.jpg?1732097461" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Temperature. Distribution of strip material. (<b>A</b>) Roll forming temperature distribution cloud map. (<b>B</b>) Welding temperature distribution cloud map.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g025-550.jpg?1732097462" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Sheet deformation under different cavity conditions. (<b>A</b>) Combined bending method; (<b>B</b>) circumferential bending method.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g026-550.jpg?1732097464" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of sheet forming results. (<b>A</b>) Comprehensive bending method tape deformation diagram for various sections. (<b>B</b>) Circumferential bending method tape deformation diagram for various sections. (<b>C</b>) Comparison of central projection distance.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g027-550.jpg?1732097465" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of forming load.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g028-550.jpg?1732097467" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Effect of suture temperature on pipe suture quality.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g029-550.jpg?1732097468" title=" <strong>Figure 29</strong><br/> <p>Influence of feed rate on quilting width, straightness, and roundness chart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g030-550.jpg?1732097469" title=" <strong>Figure 30</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of suture effects.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00954/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00954-g031-550.jpg?1732097470" title=" <strong>Figure 31</strong><br/> <p>Influence of welding temperature on quilting width, straightness, and roundness chart.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/954'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 2163 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/953/pdf?version=1732090553" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Research on Check-In Baggage Flow Prediction for Airport Departure Passengers Based on Improved PSO-BP Neural Network Combination Model" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/953">Research on Check-In Baggage Flow Prediction for Airport Departure Passengers Based on Improved PSO-BP Neural Network Combination Model</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Bo Jiang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jian Zhang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jianlin Fu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Guofu Ding</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yong Zhang</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 953; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110953">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110953</a> - 20 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Accurate forecasting of passenger checked baggage traffic is crucial for efficient and intelligent allocation and optimization of airport service resources. A systematic analysis of the influencing factors and prediction algorithms for the baggage flow is rarely included in existing studies. To accurately capture <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/953/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Accurate forecasting of passenger checked baggage traffic is crucial for efficient and intelligent allocation and optimization of airport service resources. A systematic analysis of the influencing factors and prediction algorithms for the baggage flow is rarely included in existing studies. To accurately capture the trend of baggage flow, a combined PCC-PCA-PSO-BP baggage flow prediction model is proposed. This study applies the model to predict the departing passengers’ checked baggage flow at Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport in China. First, in the preprocessing of the data, multiple interpolation demonstrates a better numerical interpolation effect compared to mean interpolation, regression interpolation, and expectation maximization (EM) interpolation in cases of missing data. Second, in terms of the influencing factors, unlike factors that affect the airport passenger flow, the total retail sales of consumer goods have a weak relationship with the baggage flow. The departure passenger flow and flight takeoff and landing sorties play a dominant role in the baggage flow. The railway passenger flow, highway passenger flow, and months have statistically significant effects on the changes in the baggage flow. Factors such as holidays and weekends also contribute to the baggage flow alternation. Finally, the PCC-PCA-PSO-BP model is proposed for predicting the baggage flow. This model exhibits superior performance in terms of the network convergence speed and prediction accuracy compared to four other models: BP, PCA-BP, PSO-BP, and PCA-PSO-BP. This study provides a novel approach for predicting the flow of checked baggage for airport departure passengers. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/953">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/air_traffic_transportation">Air Traffic and Transportation</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/953/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1524831"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1524831"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1524831" data-cycle-prev="#prev1524831" data-cycle-progressive="#images1524831" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g001-550.jpg?1732090715" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1524831" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g002-550.jpg?1732090716'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g003-550.jpg?1732090720'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g004-550.jpg?1732090721'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g005-550.jpg?1732090723'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g006-550.jpg?1732090724'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1524831-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g007-550.jpg?1732090726'><p>Figure 7</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1524831-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g001-550.jpg?1732090715" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The baggage handling process at the airport.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g002-550.jpg?1732090716" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Compares the departure passenger flow and baggage flow of Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport during different months of 2018.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g003-550.jpg?1732090720" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Flow chart of the PCC-PCA-PSO-BP prediction model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g004-550.jpg?1732090721" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Structure of the BP neural network (a 7-3-1 structured BP neural network serves as an illustrative example).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g005-550.jpg?1732090723" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>After numerical interpolation of the original dataset, the departure passenger flow (<b>a</b>), flight takeoff and landing frequency (<b>b</b>), baggage flow (<b>c</b>), TRSCG (<b>d</b>), non-working days (<b>e</b>), railway passenger flow (<b>f</b>) and highway passenger flow (<b>g</b>) were organized over time.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g006-550.jpg?1732090724" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>A PCA scree plot.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00953/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00953-g007-550.jpg?1732090726" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Convergence characteristics of the different models: (<b>a</b>) PCC-PCA-PSO-BP model, (<b>b</b>) PCA-PSO-BP model, (<b>c</b>) PCA-BP model, (<b>d</b>) PSO-BP model, and (<b>e</b>) BP model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/953'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 22 pages, 1952 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/952/pdf?version=1732088928" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Fully Autonomous On-Board GNC Methodology for Small-Body Environments Based on CNN Image Processing and MPCs" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/952">A Fully Autonomous On-Board GNC Methodology for Small-Body Environments Based on CNN Image Processing and MPCs</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pelayo Peñarroya</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Alfredo Escalante</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Thomas Frekhaug</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Manuel Sanjurjo</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 952; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110952">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110952</a> - 19 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The increasing need for autonomy in space exploration missions is becoming more and more relevant in the design of missions to small bodies. The long communication latencies and sensitivity of the system to unplanned environmental perturbations mean autonomous methods could be a key <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/952/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The increasing need for autonomy in space exploration missions is becoming more and more relevant in the design of missions to small bodies. The long communication latencies and sensitivity of the system to unplanned environmental perturbations mean autonomous methods could be a key design block for this type of mission. In this work, a fully autonomous Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC) methodology is introduced. This methodology relies on published CNN-based techniques for surface recognition and pose estimation and also on existing MPC-based techniques for the design of a trajectory to perform a soft landing on an asteroid. Combining Hazard Detection and Avoidance (HDA) with relative navigation systems, a Global Safety Map (GSM) is built on the fly as images are acquired. These GSMs provide the GNC system with information about feasible landing spots and populate a longitude–latitude map with safe/hazardous labels that are later processed to find an optimal landing spot based on mission requirements and a distance-fromhazard metric. The methodology is exemplified using Bennu as the body of interest, and a GSM is built for an arbitrary reconnaissance orbit. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/952">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/astronautics_space_science">Astronautics & Space Science</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/952/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1524210"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1524210"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1524210" data-cycle-prev="#prev1524210" data-cycle-progressive="#images1524210" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g001-550.jpg?1732089106" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1524210" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g002-550.jpg?1732089107'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g003-550.jpg?1732089108'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g004-550.jpg?1732089109'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g005-550.jpg?1732089111'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g006-550.jpg?1732089112'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g007-550.jpg?1732089113'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g008-550.jpg?1732089117'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g009-550.jpg?1732089119'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g010-550.jpg?1732089121'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g011-550.jpg?1732089123'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g012-550.jpg?1732089123'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g013-550.jpg?1732089124'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g014-550.jpg?1732089125'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g015-550.jpg?1732089127'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1524210-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g016-550.jpg?1732089128'><p>Figure 16</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1524210-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g001-550.jpg?1732089106" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Trajectory followed by the spacecraft during the reconnaissance orbit chosen. The square represents the beginning of the trajectory and the circle its end. Coordinates represent body-fixed position, and the shape model used for Bennu is plotted in the centre.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g002-550.jpg?1732089107" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Depiction of camera pose estimation with respect to target body-fixed frame.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g003-550.jpg?1732089108" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>On the left-hand side, the original image. In the centre, the three layers analysed: top-left represents feature detection, top-right represents slope estimation, and bottom represents shadow detection. On the right-hand side, the safety map obtained from composing the three layers.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g004-550.jpg?1732089109" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Ray-tracing basic elements.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g005-550.jpg?1732089111" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Example of nine separate runs starting on a 3 × 3 grid around Bennu all targeting the same position [<a href="#B21-aerospace-11-00952" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g006-550.jpg?1732089112" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Images generated from the same body-fixed coordinates around asteroid Bennu with different illumination conditions, i.e., sunlight coming from different positions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g007-550.jpg?1732089113" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Shape model of asteroid Bennu used for the simulations. The reference radius is 283.065 m.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g008-550.jpg?1732089117" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Series of images acquired from the spacecraft when flying along the reconnaissance orbit described in <a href="#aerospace-11-00952-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>. Epoch IDs are numerically ordered and separated by a 2000 s timestep between consecutive epochs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g009-550.jpg?1732089119" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Series of safety maps generated from the images acquired and shown in <a href="#aerospace-11-00952-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>. Epoch IDs are numerically ordered and separated by a 2000 s timestep between consecutive epochs.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g010-550.jpg?1732089121" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>GSM evolution as images acquired are processed and projected onto the surface of Bennu. Epoch IDs are numerically ordered and separated by a 2000 s timestep between consecutive epochs (initial three epochs shown).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g011-550.jpg?1732089123" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>GSM evolution as images acquired are processed and projected onto the surface of Bennu. Epoch IDs are numerically ordered and separated by a 2000 s timestep between consecutive epochs (three intermediate epochs shown).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g012-550.jpg?1732089123" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>GSM at the end of the last epoch of the simulation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g013-550.jpg?1732089124" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Heatmap for the final GSM representing the minimum distance to a hazard from each pixel.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g014-550.jpg?1732089125" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Landing trajectory towards the selected landing spot, with time represented by the gradient from dark blue (initial state) to red (landing spot). The sphere around Bennu shows the region protected by Bennu’s reference radius. The pyramid used to define the different optimisation phases is also shown in dark blue [<a href="#B21-aerospace-11-00952" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g015-550.jpg?1732089127" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Lateral view of the trajectory shown in <a href="#aerospace-11-00952-f014" class="html-fig">Figure 14</a>. Emphasis is put on the sharp turn the trajectory takes once it switches the target destination from the hovering point to the landing spot. The pyramid has been removed to provide a clearer view of the geometry [<a href="#B21-aerospace-11-00952" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00952/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00952-g016-550.jpg?1732089128" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Position and velocity evolution plots for the computed landing trajectory. On the left-hand side, the full evolution is shown. On the right-hand side, a detailed view of the last phase is shown.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/952'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 26 pages, 16654 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/951/pdf?version=1732081149" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Adaptive Fast Smooth Second-Order Sliding Mode Fault-Tolerant Control for Hypersonic Vehicles" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/951">Adaptive Fast Smooth Second-Order Sliding Mode Fault-Tolerant Control for Hypersonic Vehicles</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lijia Cao</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Lei Liu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Pengfei Ji</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Chuandong Guo</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 951; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110951">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110951</a> - 18 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> In response to control issues in hypersonic vehicles under external disturbances, model uncertainties, and actuator failures, this paper proposes an adaptive fast smooth second-order sliding mode fault-tolerant control scheme. First, a system separation approach is adopted, dividing the hypersonic vehicle model into fast <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/951/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> In response to control issues in hypersonic vehicles under external disturbances, model uncertainties, and actuator failures, this paper proposes an adaptive fast smooth second-order sliding mode fault-tolerant control scheme. First, a system separation approach is adopted, dividing the hypersonic vehicle model into fast and slow loops for independent design. This ensures that the airflow angle tracking error and sliding mode variables converge to the vicinity of the origin within a finite time. A fixed-time disturbance observer is then designed to estimate and compensate for the effects of model uncertainties, external disturbances, and actuator failures. The controller parameters are dynamically adjusted through an adaptive term to enhance robustness. Furthermore, first-order differentiation is used to estimate differential terms, effectively avoiding the issue of complexity explosion. Finally, the convergence of the controller within a finite time is rigorously proven using the Lyapunov method, and the perturbation of aerodynamic parameters is tested using the Monte Carlo method. Simulation results under various scenarios show that compared with the terminal sliding mode method, the proposed method outperforms control accuracy and convergence speed. The root mean square errors for the angle of attack, sideslip angle, and roll angle are reduced by 65.11%, 86.71%, and 45.51%, respectively, while the standard deviation is reduced by 81.78%, 86.80%, and 45.51%, demonstrating that the proposed controller has faster convergence, higher control accuracy, and smoother output than the terminal sliding mode controller. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/951">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/951/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1523779"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1523779"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1523779" data-cycle-prev="#prev1523779" data-cycle-progressive="#images1523779" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g001-550.jpg?1732081244" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1523779" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g002-550.jpg?1732081244'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g003-550.jpg?1732081245'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g004-550.jpg?1732081245'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g005-550.jpg?1732081246'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g006-550.jpg?1732081246'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g007-550.jpg?1732081247'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g008-550.jpg?1732081247'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g009-550.jpg?1732081248'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g010-550.jpg?1732081248'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g011-550.jpg?1732081249'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g012-550.jpg?1732081249'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g013-550.jpg?1732081250'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g014-550.jpg?1732081250'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g015-550.jpg?1732081250'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g016-550.jpg?1732081251'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g017-550.jpg?1732081251'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g018-550.jpg?1732081252'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g019-550.jpg?1732081253'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g020-550.jpg?1732081253'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g021-550.jpg?1732081254'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g022-550.jpg?1732081254'><p>Figure 22</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='22' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g023-550.jpg?1732081254'><p>Figure 23</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='23' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g024-550.jpg?1732081255'><p>Figure 24</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='24' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g025-550.jpg?1732081255'><p>Figure 25</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='25' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g026-550.jpg?1732081256'><p>Figure 26</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='26' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g027-550.jpg?1732081256'><p>Figure 27</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='27' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g028-550.jpg?1732081257'><p>Figure 28</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='28' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g029-550.jpg?1732081257'><p>Figure 29</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='29' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g030-550.jpg?1732081258'><p>Figure 30</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='30' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g031-550.jpg?1732081258'><p>Figure 31</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='31' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g032-550.jpg?1732081258'><p>Figure 32</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='32' data-target='article-1523779-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g033-550.jpg?1732081259'><p>Figure 33</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1523779-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g001-550.jpg?1732081244" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Geometric parameters of the HSV model.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g002-550.jpg?1732081244" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>The structure diagram of the control system.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g003-550.jpg?1732081245" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Angle of bank.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g004-550.jpg?1732081245" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Angle of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g005-550.jpg?1732081246" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Sideslip angle and error.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g006-550.jpg?1732081246" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Error of bank angle.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g007-550.jpg?1732081247" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Error of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g008-550.jpg?1732081247" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g009-550.jpg?1732081248" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>e</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g010-550.jpg?1732081248" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g011-550.jpg?1732081249" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Angle of bank.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g012-550.jpg?1732081249" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Angle of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g013-550.jpg?1732081250" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Sideslip angle and error.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g014-550.jpg?1732081250" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Error of bank angle.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g015-550.jpg?1732081250" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Error of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g016-550.jpg?1732081251" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g017-550.jpg?1732081251" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>e</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g018-550.jpg?1732081252" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g019-550.jpg?1732081253" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Aerodynamic uncertainty scatter plot.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g020-550.jpg?1732081253" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Bank angle of TSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g021-550.jpg?1732081254" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Attack angle of TSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g022-550.jpg?1732081254" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Sideslip angle of TSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g023-550.jpg?1732081254" title=" <strong>Figure 23</strong><br/> <p>Bank angle of AFSSOSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g024-550.jpg?1732081255" title=" <strong>Figure 24</strong><br/> <p>Attack angle of AFSSOSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g025-550.jpg?1732081255" title=" <strong>Figure 25</strong><br/> <p>Sideslip angle of AFSSOSMFTC.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g026-550.jpg?1732081256" title=" <strong>Figure 26</strong><br/> <p>Angle of bank.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g027-550.jpg?1732081256" title=" <strong>Figure 27</strong><br/> <p>Angle of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g028-550.jpg?1732081257" title=" <strong>Figure 28</strong><br/> <p>Sideslip angle and error.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g029-550.jpg?1732081257" title=" <strong>Figure 29</strong><br/> <p>Error of bank angle.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g030-550.jpg?1732081258" title=" <strong>Figure 30</strong><br/> <p>Error of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g031-550.jpg?1732081258" title=" <strong>Figure 31</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g032-550.jpg?1732081258" title=" <strong>Figure 32</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>e</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00951/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00951-g033-550.jpg?1732081259" title=" <strong>Figure 33</strong><br/> <p>Variation of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>u</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/951'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 5658 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/950/pdf?version=1732007282" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Pilot Fatigue Coefficient Based on Biomathematical Fatigue Model" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/950">Pilot Fatigue Coefficient Based on Biomathematical Fatigue Model</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jingqiang Li</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Hongyu Zhu</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Annan Liu</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 950; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110950">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110950</a> - 18 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> The routine assessment of pilot fatigue is paramount to ensuring aviation safety. However, current designs of pilot fatigue factors often lack the comprehensiveness needed to fully account for the dynamic and cumulative nature of fatigue. To bridge this gap, this study introduces a <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/950/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> The routine assessment of pilot fatigue is paramount to ensuring aviation safety. However, current designs of pilot fatigue factors often lack the comprehensiveness needed to fully account for the dynamic and cumulative nature of fatigue. To bridge this gap, this study introduces a biomathematical fatigue model (BFM) that leverages system dynamics theory, integrating a dynamic feedback mechanism for fatigue information. The novelty of this approach lies in its capability to continuously capture and model fatigue fluctuations driven by varying operational demands. A comparative analysis with international methodologies for evaluating cumulative fatigue on weekly and monthly scales demonstrates that the proposed BFM effectively reproduces variations in pilot fatigue characteristics. Moreover, the pilot fatigue coefficient derived from the model provides a robust differentiation of fatigue profiles across diverse work types, making it particularly suitable for estimating cumulative fatigue over monthly intervals. This BFM-based approach offers valuable insights for the strategic planning of flight schedules and establishes an innovative framework for utilizing BFMs in fatigue management. By employing a scientifically grounded evaluation method rooted in system dynamics and the BFM, this study rigorously assesses cumulative pilot fatigue, confirming the model’s accuracy in replicating fatigue patterns and validating the efficiency and reliability of the derived fatigue coefficient. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/950">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Collection <a href=" /journal/aerospace/topical_collections/air_transportation ">Air Transportation—Operations and Management</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/950/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1523661"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1523661"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1523661" data-cycle-prev="#prev1523661" data-cycle-progressive="#images1523661" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g001-550.jpg?1732007371" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1523661" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g002-550.jpg?1732007372'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g003-550.jpg?1732007374'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g004-550.jpg?1732007377'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g005-550.jpg?1732007380'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g006-550.jpg?1732007381'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g007-550.jpg?1732007382'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1523661-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g008-550.jpg?1732007384'><p>Figure 8</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1523661-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g001-550.jpg?1732007371" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Cause-and-effect diagram of fatigue information feedback.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g002-550.jpg?1732007372" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Fatigue value curves of pilots during the duty period.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g003-550.jpg?1732007374" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Data infographics for different operation types. (<b>A</b>) The distribution of Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) results for outbound and return trips among pilots of overnight and non-overnight flight types. (<b>B</b>) The distribution of Subjective Performance (SP) results for outbound and return trips among pilots of overnight and non-overnight flight types. (<b>C</b>) The distribution of Overall Mean Reaction Time (MRT) for outbound and return trips among pilots of overnight and non-overnight flight types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g004-550.jpg?1732007377" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Model simulation vs. actual fatigue graph. (<b>A</b>) The comparison between observed objective fatigue values and model simulation results. (<b>B</b>) The comparison between observed subjective fatigue values and model simulation results.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g005-550.jpg?1732007380" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Monthly duty schedules of the nine pilots. (<b>A</b>) The daily schedule of off-duty, duty, and flight times for Class A. (<b>B</b>) The daily schedule of off-duty, duty, and flight times for Class B. (<b>C</b>) The daily schedule of off-duty, duty, and flight times for Class C.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g006-550.jpg?1732007381" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Comparative results.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g007-550.jpg?1732007382" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Monthly cumulative fatigue and comparison results. (<b>A</b>) The monthly cumulative fatigue scores for different flight task types. (<b>B</b>) The monthly fatigue coefficients calculated using different models for various flight task types.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00950/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00950-g008-550.jpg?1732007384" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Duty arrangement for the set monthly cumulative fatigue reaching the critical state.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/950'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 21 pages, 6865 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/949/pdf?version=1731921981" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Lessons Learned for Developing an Effective High-Speed Research Compressor Facility" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/949">Lessons Learned for Developing an Effective High-Speed Research Compressor Facility</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nicholas J. Kormanik III</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Douglas R. Matthews</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Nicole L. Key</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Aaron J. King</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 949; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110949">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110949</a> - 18 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Few universities in the world conduct experimental research on high-speed, high-power turbomachinery. The Purdue High-Speed Compressor Research Laboratory has a longstanding tradition of partnering with industry sponsors to perform high-TRL (technology readiness level) experiments on axial and radial compressors for aerospace applications. Early <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/949/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Few universities in the world conduct experimental research on high-speed, high-power turbomachinery. The Purdue High-Speed Compressor Research Laboratory has a longstanding tradition of partnering with industry sponsors to perform high-TRL (technology readiness level) experiments on axial and radial compressors for aerospace applications. Early work in the laboratory with Professor Sanford Fleeter and Professor Patrick Lawless involved aeromechanics and the addition of a multistage axial compressor facility to support compressor performance studies. This work continues today under the guidance of Professor Nicole Key. While other universities may operate a single-stage transonic compressor or a low-speed multistage compressor, the Purdue 3-Stage (P3S) Axial Compressor Research Facility provides a unique environment to understand multistage effects at speeds where compressibility is important. Over the last two decades, several areas of important research within the gas-turbine engine industry have been explored: vane clocking, stall/surge inception, tip-leakage/stator-leakage (cavity leakage) flow characterization, and forced response, to name a few. This paper addresses the different configurations of the facility chronologically so that existing datasets can be matched with correct boundary conditions and provides an overview of the different upgrades in the facility as it has developed in preparation for the next generation of small-core compressor research. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/949">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/WU593R3H7C ">Progress in Turbomachinery Technology for Propulsion</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/949/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1523281"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1523281"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1523281" data-cycle-prev="#prev1523281" data-cycle-progressive="#images1523281" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g001-550.jpg?1731922068" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1523281" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g002-550.jpg?1731922069'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g003-550.jpg?1731922070'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g004-550.jpg?1731922070'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g005-550.jpg?1731922071'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g006-550.jpg?1731922074'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g007-550.jpg?1731922075'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g008-550.jpg?1731922076'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g009-550.jpg?1731922078'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g010-550.jpg?1731922080'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g011-550.jpg?1731922081'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g012-550.jpg?1731922082'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g013-550.jpg?1731922084'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g014-550.jpg?1731922086'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g015-550.jpg?1731922087'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g016-550.jpg?1731922088'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g017-550.jpg?1731922089'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g018-550.jpg?1731922090'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g019-550.jpg?1731922091'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1523281-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g020-550.jpg?1731922093'><p>Figure 20</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1523281-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g001-550.jpg?1731922068" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Iowa State University’s Multistage Compressor Facility [<a href="#B2-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">2</a>,<a href="#B3-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">3</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g002-550.jpg?1731922069" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Original P3S Facility Configuration, circa 2001 [<a href="#B6-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g003-550.jpg?1731922070" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>PAX100 blade row configuration shown with numbered measurement stations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g004-550.jpg?1731922070" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Split-Case Casing Concept for PAX100 Compressor.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g005-550.jpg?1731922071" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>180° Inlet Traverse, Seven-Element Rakes, and Slip Ring Modifications to Rear Shaft (left to right).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g006-550.jpg?1731922074" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Components associated with PAX100 Compressor Installation [<a href="#B6-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g007-550.jpg?1731922075" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Purdue 3-Stage Facility, circa 2010 [<a href="#B17-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g008-550.jpg?1731922076" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Bearing Support Structure [<a href="#B17-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g009-550.jpg?1731922078" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Inlet (<b>a</b>) and Exhaust/Throttle (<b>b</b>) Renovations [<a href="#B17-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g010-550.jpg?1731922080" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Features and instrumentation capability of new casing design [<a href="#B18-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g011-550.jpg?1731922081" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>P3S Facility with inlet extension, circa 2013; red arrows indicate inflow and outflow.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g012-550.jpg?1731922082" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>High-frequency transducer blocks for obtaining over-rotor pressure measurements.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g013-550.jpg?1731922084" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Additively manufactured stator vane passage (<b>a</b>) and shrouded stator hub instrumentation (<b>b</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g014-550.jpg?1731922086" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>PIV Setup on the P3S Facility [<a href="#B37-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g015-550.jpg?1731922087" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Segmented S2 used for unsteady surface pressure measurements.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g016-550.jpg?1731922088" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>360° Circumferentially traversable distortion carrier (distortion screens not installed).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g017-550.jpg?1731922089" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>PAX200 shrouded stator and cantilevered stator configurations with numbered measurement stations.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g018-550.jpg?1731922090" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Adaptations to throttle design to protect from extreme exhaust conditions and power failure [<a href="#B46-aerospace-11-00949" class="html-bibr">46</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g019-550.jpg?1731922091" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Structural component replacements by Florida Turbine Technologies.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00949/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00949-g020-550.jpg?1731922093" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Purdue 3-Stage Research Facility (present-day).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/949'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 18 pages, 8715 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/948/pdf?version=1731918671" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Pose Estimation for Cross-Domain Non-Cooperative Spacecraft Based on Spatial-Aware Keypoints Regression" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/948">Pose Estimation for Cross-Domain Non-Cooperative Spacecraft Based on Spatial-Aware Keypoints Regression</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Zihao Wang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Yunmeng Liu</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>E Zhang</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 948; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110948">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110948</a> - 17 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Reliable pose estimation for non-cooperative spacecraft is a key technology for in-orbit service and active debris removal missions. Utilizing deep learning techniques for processing monocular camera images is effective and is a hotspot of current research. To reduce errors and improve model generalization, <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/948/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Reliable pose estimation for non-cooperative spacecraft is a key technology for in-orbit service and active debris removal missions. Utilizing deep learning techniques for processing monocular camera images is effective and is a hotspot of current research. To reduce errors and improve model generalization, researchers often design multi-head loss functions or use generative models to achieve complex data augmentation, which makes the task complex and time-consuming. We propose a pyramid vision transformer spatial-aware keypoints regression network and a stereo-aware augmentation strategy to achieve robust prediction. Specifically, we primarily use the eight vertices of a cuboid satellite body as landmarks and the observable surfaces can be transformed by, respectively, using the pose labels. The experimental results on the SPEED+ dataset show that by using the existing EPNP algorithm and pseudo-label self-training method, we can achieve high-precision pose estimation for target cross-domains. Compared to other existing methods, our model and strategy are more straightforward. The entire process does not require the generation of new images, which significantly reduces the storage requirements and time costs. Combined with a Kalman filter, the robust and continuous output of the target position and attitude is verified by the SHIRT dataset. This work realizes deployment on mobile devices and provides strong technical support for the application of an automatic visual navigation system in orbit. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/948">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/astronautics_space_science">Astronautics & Space Science</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/948/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1522807"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1522807"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1522807" data-cycle-prev="#prev1522807" data-cycle-progressive="#images1522807" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g001-550.jpg?1731918764" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1522807" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g002-550.jpg?1731918765'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g003-550.jpg?1731918766'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g004-550.jpg?1731918768'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g005-550.jpg?1731918769'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g006-550.jpg?1731918770'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g007-550.jpg?1731918772'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g008-550.jpg?1731918774'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g009-550.jpg?1731918775'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g010-550.jpg?1731918776'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g011-550.jpg?1731918778'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g012-550.jpg?1731918779'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g013-550.jpg?1731918781'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1522807-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g014-550.jpg?1731918782'><p>Figure 14</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1522807-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g001-550.jpg?1731918764" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>The flowchart of the proposed method. The solid line represents the main pipeline direction, and the dashed line represents the training pipeline direction.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g002-550.jpg?1731918765" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Euclidean transformation between coordinate systems during pinhole imaging.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g003-550.jpg?1731918766" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Spatial stereo-aware augmentation process.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g004-550.jpg?1731918768" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Data augmentation visualization.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g005-550.jpg?1731918769" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>PVSAR framework.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g006-550.jpg?1731918770" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Pseudo-label generation process in self-training.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g007-550.jpg?1731918772" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Examples of images from different domains in SPEED+ and SHIRT.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g008-550.jpg?1731918774" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The relationship between the pose error and the number of inliers in the offline model. (<b>a</b>) Inference results on lightbox. (<b>b</b>) Inference results on sunlamp.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g009-550.jpg?1731918775" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Visualization of results on lightbox before (<b>left</b>) and after (<b>right</b>) pseudo-label self-training.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g010-550.jpg?1731918776" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Visualization of results on sunlamp before (<b>left</b>) and after (<b>right</b>) pseudo-label self-training.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g011-550.jpg?1731918778" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>The relationship between the pose error and the number of inliers in the final model. The PnP reprojection error is set to 20.0. (<b>a</b>) Inference results on lightbox. (<b>b</b>) Inference results on sunlamp.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g012-550.jpg?1731918779" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Worst-performing samples in lightbox (<b>top</b>) and sunlamp (<b>below</b>).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g013-550.jpg?1731918781" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Orientation errors of PVSAR and filter configuration on the SHIRT lightbox trajectories. The upper and lower parts correspond to roe1 and roe2, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00948/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00948-g014-550.jpg?1731918782" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Position errors of PVSAR and filter configuration on the SHIRT lightbox trajectories. The upper and lower parts correspond to roe1 and roe2, respectively.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/948'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 16 pages, 7121 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/947/pdf?version=1731829846" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Experimental Aerodynamics of a Small Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Coated with Bio-Inspired Microfibers Under Static and Dynamic Stall" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/947">Experimental Aerodynamics of a Small Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Coated with Bio-Inspired Microfibers Under Static and Dynamic Stall</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Dioser Santos</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Guilherme D. Fernandes</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ali Doosttalab</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Victor Maldonado</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 947; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110947">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110947</a> - 17 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> A passive flow control technique in the form of microfiber coatings with a diverging pillar cross-section area was applied to the wing suction surface of a small tailless unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The coatings are inspired from ‘gecko feet’ surfaces, and their impact <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/947/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> A passive flow control technique in the form of microfiber coatings with a diverging pillar cross-section area was applied to the wing suction surface of a small tailless unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The coatings are inspired from ‘gecko feet’ surfaces, and their impact on steady and unsteady aerodynamics is assessed through wind tunnel testing. Angles of attack from −2° to 17° were used for static experiments, and for some cases, the elevon control surface was deflected to study its effectiveness. In forced oscillation, various combinations of mean angle of attack, frequency and amplitude were explored. The aerodynamic coefficients were calculated from load cell measurements for experimental variables such as microfiber size, the region of the wing coated with microfibers, Reynolds number and angle of attack. Microfibers with a 140 µm pillar height reduce drag by a maximum of 24.7% in a high-lift condition and cruise regime, while 70 µm microfibers work best in the stall flow regime, reducing the drag by 24.2% for the same high-lift condition. Elevon deflection experiments showed that pitch moment authority is significantly improved near stall when microfibers cover the control surface and upstream, with an increase in CM magnitude of up to 22.4%. Dynamic experiments showed that microfibers marginally increase dynamic damping in pitch, improving load factor production in response to control surface actuation at low angles of attack, but reducing it at higher angles. In general, the microfiber pillars are within the laminar boundary layer, and they create a periodic slip condition on the top surface of the pillars, which increases the near-wall momentum over the wing surface. This mechanism is particularly effective in mitigating flow separation at high angles of attack, reducing pressure drag and restoring pitching moment authority provided by control surfaces. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/947">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/aerospace/special_issues/48LB7Z48V4 ">Aerodynamics, Flight Dynamics and Control of Advanced Air Mobility Vehicles</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/947/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1522684"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1522684"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1522684" data-cycle-prev="#prev1522684" data-cycle-progressive="#images1522684" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g001-550.jpg?1731830000" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1522684" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g002-550.jpg?1731830001'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g003-550.jpg?1731830002'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g004-550.jpg?1731830005'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g005-550.jpg?1731830006'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g006-550.jpg?1731830007'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g007-550.jpg?1731830007'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g008-550.jpg?1731830009'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g009-550.jpg?1731830010'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g010-550.jpg?1731830011'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g011-550.jpg?1731830012'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1522684-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g012-550.jpg?1731830014'><p>Figure 12</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1522684-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g001-550.jpg?1731830000" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>(<b>A</b>) Concept of a shark skin denticle, (<b>B</b>) close perspective of bio-inspired microfibers, scale bar ≈ 100 µm, (<b>C</b>) surface coating from top, and (<b>D</b>) flow mechanism within the fibers and outside. Adapted from [<a href="#B26-aerospace-11-00947" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g002-550.jpg?1731830001" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Planform drawing of UAV model with microfiber coverage (dimensions in mm).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g003-550.jpg?1731830002" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>(<b>a</b>) Microfiber schematic (dimensions in µm); (<b>b</b>) wing covered with microfiber coating (zoomed-in picture adapted from Doosttalab et al. [<a href="#B26-aerospace-11-00947" class="html-bibr">26</a>]).</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g004-550.jpg?1731830005" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Wind tunnel model setup of the ‘high-speed, long-range’ (HSLR) variant of the Switchblade UAV.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g005-550.jpg?1731830006" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Lift coefficients, <span class="html-italic">C<sub>L</sub></span> as a function of angle of attack, <span class="html-italic">α</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g006-550.jpg?1731830007" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Drag polars; lift coefficients, <span class="html-italic">C<sub>L</sub></span> as a function of drag coefficients, <span class="html-italic">C<sub>D</sub></span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g007-550.jpg?1731830007" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Lift-to-drag ratio, <span class="html-italic">L</span>/<span class="html-italic">D</span> as a function of angle of attack, <span class="html-italic">α</span>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g008-550.jpg?1731830009" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>High angle of attack, <span class="html-italic">α</span> lift-to-drag ratio, <span class="html-italic">L</span>/<span class="html-italic">D</span> enhancement.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g009-550.jpg?1731830010" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Time-averaged velocity over a curved APG section representative of an airfoil in turbulent flow with a freestream velocity of 30 m/s.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g010-550.jpg?1731830011" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Elevon deflection performance: pitching moment coefficient, <span class="html-italic">C<sub>M</sub></span> as a function of elevon deflection angle, <span class="html-italic">δ<sub>e</sub></span> for the baseline and micropillar cases.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g011-550.jpg?1731830012" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Dynamic pitch coefficients for different surface cases and wing coverage: (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">C<sub>A</sub></span>; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">C<sub>N</sub></span>; (<b>c</b>) <span class="html-italic">C<sub>M</sub></span>. The black arrow indicates the direction of the pitch up maneuver.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00947/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00947-g012-550.jpg?1731830014" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Dynamic derivatives in pitch: <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mi>q</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>; <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>q</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>; <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>C</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mi>q</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> as a function of mean angle of attack.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/947'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 20 pages, 17929 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/946/pdf?version=1731748207" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="Experimental Identification of a New Secondary Wave Pattern in Transonic Cascades with Porous Walls" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/946">Experimental Identification of a New Secondary Wave Pattern in Transonic Cascades with Porous Walls</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Valeriu Drăgan</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Oana Dumitrescu</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Mihnea Gall</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Emilia Georgiana Prisăcariu</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Bogdan Gherman</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 946; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110946">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110946</a> - 16 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Turbomachinery shock wave patterns occur as a natural result of operating at off-design points and are accountable for some of the loss in performance. In some cases, shock wave–boundary layer (SW-BLIs) interactions may even lead to map restrictions. The current paper refers to <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/946/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Turbomachinery shock wave patterns occur as a natural result of operating at off-design points and are accountable for some of the loss in performance. In some cases, shock wave–boundary layer (SW-BLIs) interactions may even lead to map restrictions. The current paper refers to experimental findings on a transonic linear cascade specifically designed to mitigate shock waves using porous walls on the blades. Schlieren visualization reveals two phenomena: Firstly, the shock waves were dissipated in all bladed passages, as predicted by the CFD studies. Secondly, a lower-pressure wave pattern was observed upstream of the blades. It is this phenomenon that the paper reports and attempts to describe. Attempts to replicate this pattern using Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) calculations indicate that the numerical method may be too dissipative to accurately capture it. The experimental campaign demonstrated a 4% increase in flow rate, accompanied by minimal variations in pressure and temperature, highlighting the potential of this approach for enhancing turbomachinery performance. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/946">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/946/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1522421"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1522421"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1522421" data-cycle-prev="#prev1522421" data-cycle-progressive="#images1522421" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g001-550.jpg?1731748324" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1522421" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g002-550.jpg?1731748325'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g003-550.jpg?1731748327'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g004-550.jpg?1731748329'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g005-550.jpg?1731748331'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g006-550.jpg?1731748332'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g007-550.jpg?1731748333'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g008-550.jpg?1731748334'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g009-550.jpg?1731748335'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g010-550.jpg?1731748337'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g011-550.jpg?1731748339'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g012-550.jpg?1731748340'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g013-550.jpg?1731748341'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g014-550.jpg?1731748344'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g015-550.jpg?1731748346'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g016-550.jpg?1731748348'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g017-550.jpg?1731748349'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g018-550.jpg?1731748351'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g019-550.jpg?1731748355'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g020-550.jpg?1731748356'><p>Figure 20</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='20' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g021-550.jpg?1731748358'><p>Figure 21</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='21' data-target='article-1522421-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g022-550.jpg?1731748360'><p>Figure 22</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1522421-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g001-550.jpg?1731748324" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Vanes after surface finishing: (<b>a</b>) porous walls; (<b>b</b>) reference case, with no flow control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g002-550.jpg?1731748325" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Linear cascade facility overview.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g003-550.jpg?1731748327" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>P&amp;ID diagram for linear cascade facility.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g004-550.jpg?1731748329" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Schlieren system for flow visualization with knife edge.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g005-550.jpg?1731748331" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Mesh convergence study.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g006-550.jpg?1731748332" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Linear cascade computational grid with channel details. (<b>a</b>) test area; (<b>b</b>) zoomed-in view of the second channel.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g007-550.jpg?1731748333" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Computational grid, with blade details: (<b>a</b>) leading edge; (<b>b</b>) trailing edge.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g008-550.jpg?1731748334" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Distribution of the dimensionless distance to the wall (y+): (<b>a</b>) vanes surface; (<b>b</b>) perforated plate.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g009-550.jpg?1731748335" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Computational domain and boundary conditions.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g010-550.jpg?1731748337" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Schlieren images: (<b>a</b>) no control and no filter, with knife edge [<a href="#B28-aerospace-11-00946" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; (<b>b</b>) passive control and gradual color filter (upper corner, right). Inlet static pressure of 70,000 Pa gauge.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g011-550.jpg?1731748339" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Schlieren images: (<b>a</b>) no control and no filter, with knife edge [<a href="#B28-aerospace-11-00946" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; (<b>b</b>) passive control and color filter. Inlet static pressure of 80,000 Pa gauge.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g012-550.jpg?1731748340" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Schlieren images: (<b>a</b>) no control and no filter [<a href="#B28-aerospace-11-00946" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; (<b>b</b>) passive control. Inlet static pressure of 90,000 Pa gauge.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g013-550.jpg?1731748341" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Pressure distribution in the linear cascade, median plane: (<b>a</b>) no control [<a href="#B28-aerospace-11-00946" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; (<b>b</b>) passive control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g014-550.jpg?1731748344" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Density gradient distribution, median plane: (<b>a</b>) no control [<a href="#B28-aerospace-11-00946" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; (<b>b</b>) passive control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g015-550.jpg?1731748346" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Velocity vectors in Channel 3 of the linear cascade: (<b>a</b>) Channel 3 top view; (<b>b</b>) perforated plate and cavity detail.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g016-550.jpg?1731748348" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>Reference lines, upstream and downstream of the test area.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g017-550.jpg?1731748349" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Pressure profile along the mid-height measurement line upstream and downstream of the blades, with a 0.013 m distance.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g018-550.jpg?1731748351" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Velocity profile along the mid-height measurement line upstream and downstream of the blades, with a 0.013 m distance.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g019-550.jpg?1731748355" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Effect of passive control on key operating parameters: (<b>a</b>) mass flow rate, (<b>b</b>) total inlet temperature variation, and (<b>c</b>) inlet static pressure variation.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g020-550.jpg?1731748356" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Influence of porous wall on overall flow rate and flow structure: (<b>a</b>) no control; (<b>b</b>) passive control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g021-550.jpg?1731748358" title=" <strong>Figure 21</strong><br/> <p>Impact of passive control on the splitter: (<b>a</b>) first splitter with passive control; (<b>b</b>) second splitter no control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00946/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00946-g022-550.jpg?1731748360" title=" <strong>Figure 22</strong><br/> <p>Influence of passive control on the main blade: (<b>a</b>) second main blade with passive control; (<b>b</b>) first main blade with no control.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/946'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="expanding-div collapsed"> <div class="generic-item article-item"> <div class="article-content"> <div class="label right label__btn"> <span style="font-size: 12px; color: #1a1a1a;"> 19 pages, 12089 KiB </span> <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/945/pdf?version=1731914634" class="UD_Listings_ArticlePDF" title="Article PDF" data-name="A Study on the Aerodynamic Impact of Rotors on Fixed Wings During the Transition Phase in Compound-Wing UAVs" data-journal="aerospace"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> </a> </div> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <a class="title-link" href="/2226-4310/11/11/945">A Study on the Aerodynamic Impact of Rotors on Fixed Wings During the Transition Phase in Compound-Wing UAVs</a> <div class="authors"> by <span class="inlineblock "><strong>Longjin Ai</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Haiting Xia</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jianting Yang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Ying He</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Weibo Tang</strong>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Minglong Fan</strong> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><strong>Jinwu Xiang</strong></span> </div> <div class="color-grey-dark"> <em>Aerospace</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>11</em>(11), 945; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110945">https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11110945</a> - 15 Nov 2024 </div> <div class="abstract-div"> <a href="#" onclick="$(this).next('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> <strong>Abstract </strong> </a> <div class="abstract-cropped inline"> Compound-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are highly valued for their performance. However, during the transition from vertical take-off to the cruise phase, the rotor wake can be coupled with the fixed wing. In this study, the aerodynamic effects of a DJI 9450 rotor <a href="#" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/945/more" onclick="$(this).parents('.abstract-cropped').toggleClass('inline').next('.abstract-full').toggleClass('inline'); return false;"> [...] Read more.</a> </div> <div class="abstract-full "> Compound-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are highly valued for their performance. However, during the transition from vertical take-off to the cruise phase, the rotor wake can be coupled with the fixed wing. In this study, the aerodynamic effects of a DJI 9450 rotor on a NACA2415 fixed wing during transition were investigated using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. The rotor-to-wing distances (R/L = 0.25, 0.5, and 0.9) were varied to analyze their impact on aerodynamic performance. The results show that increasing the distance between the front rotor and the fixed wing enhances the lift and drag of the fixed wing, while increasing the distance between the rear rotor and the fixed wing decreases the lift and drag of the fixed wing. During the rotor’s rotation, the fluctuation in the lift and drag of the fixed wing changes periodically due to the rotor wake, and the smaller the distance between the rotor and the fixed wing, the larger the fluctuation. When R/L = 0.25, the fluctuation of the fixed wing is minimized. Compound-wing UAVs with rotors mounted at R/L = 0.25 during the design stage can improve the flight stability during the transition phase in UAVs. <a href="/2226-4310/11/11/945">Full article</a> </div> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/aerospace/sections/aeronautics">Aeronautics</a>)<br/> </div> <a href="#" class="abstract-figures-show" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/11/11/945/show" ><span >►</span><span style=" display: none;">▼</span> Show Figures </a><div class="abstract-image-preview "><div class="arrow left-arrow" id="prev1522089"><i class="fa fa-caret-left"></i></div><div class="arrow right-arrow" id="next1522089"><i class="fa fa-caret-right"></i></div><div class="absgraph cycle-slideshow manual" data-cycle-fx="scrollHorz" data-cycle-timeout="0" data-cycle-next="#next1522089" data-cycle-prev="#prev1522089" data-cycle-progressive="#images1522089" data-cycle-slides=">div" data-cycle-log="false"><div class='openpopupgallery cycle-slide' data-imgindex='0' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs=" data-src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g001-550.jpg?1731914704" alt="" style="border: 0;"><p>Figure 1</p></div><script id="images1522089" type="text/cycle" data-cycle-split="---"><div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='1' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g002-550.jpg?1731914704'><p>Figure 2</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='2' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g003-550.jpg?1731914707'><p>Figure 3</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='3' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g004-550.jpg?1731914708'><p>Figure 4</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='4' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g005-550.jpg?1731914709'><p>Figure 5</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='5' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g006-550.jpg?1731914710'><p>Figure 6</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='6' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g007-550.jpg?1731914711'><p>Figure 7</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='7' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g008-550.jpg?1731914711'><p>Figure 8</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='8' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g009-550.jpg?1731914713'><p>Figure 9</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='9' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g010-550.jpg?1731914715'><p>Figure 10</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='10' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g011-550.jpg?1731914716'><p>Figure 11</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='11' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g012-550.jpg?1731914718'><p>Figure 12</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='12' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g013-550.jpg?1731914719'><p>Figure 13</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='13' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g014-550.jpg?1731914721'><p>Figure 14</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='14' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g015-550.jpg?1731914722'><p>Figure 15</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='15' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g016-550.jpg?1731914723'><p>Figure 16</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='16' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g017-550.jpg?1731914724'><p>Figure 17</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='17' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g018-550.jpg?1731914725'><p>Figure 18</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='18' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g019-550.jpg?1731914726'><p>Figure 19</p></div> --- <div class='openpopupgallery' data-imgindex='19' data-target='article-1522089-popup'><span class="helper"></span><img src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g020-550.jpg?1731914727'><p>Figure 20</p></div></script></div></div><div id="article-1522089-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g001-550.jpg?1731914704" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Compound-wing vertical take-off and landing fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g002-550.jpg?1731914704" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Illustration of rotary and fixed-wing computational models.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g003-550.jpg?1731914707" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Computational domain for R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9: (<b>a</b>) top view; (<b>b</b>) left view.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g004-550.jpg?1731914708" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Mesh of the entire domain.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g005-550.jpg?1731914709" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Geometric Models and Meshes.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g006-550.jpg?1731914710" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Comparison of calculation results with references: (<b>a</b>) variation in fixed-wing lift coefficient with angle of attack; (<b>b</b>) variation in rotor lift with RPM.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g007-550.jpg?1731914711" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>The lift change of wing and rotor with mesh.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g008-550.jpg?1731914711" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Rotor and wing position parameter.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g009-550.jpg?1731914713" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Rotor and wing positional relationships and physical meanings.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g010-550.jpg?1731914715" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>The variation in the wing lift with the rotor position.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g011-550.jpg?1731914716" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>The variation in the wing drag with the rotor position.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g012-550.jpg?1731914718" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Pressure contours on the upper surfaces of the wing with different rotor positions: (<b>a</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>b</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>c</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>d</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>e</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>f</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>g</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>h</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>i</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.25.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g013-550.jpg?1731914719" title=" <strong>Figure 13</strong><br/> <p>Pressure contours on the lower surfaces of the wing with different rotor positions: (<b>a</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>b</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>c</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>d</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>e</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>f</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>g</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>h</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>i</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.25.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g014-550.jpg?1731914721" title=" <strong>Figure 14</strong><br/> <p>Streamline of airflow through rotor and wing surfaces at different rotor positions: (<b>a</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>b</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>c</b>) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>d</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>e</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>f</b>) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.25; (<b>g</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9; (<b>h</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.5; (<b>i</b>) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.25.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g015-550.jpg?1731914722" title=" <strong>Figure 15</strong><br/> <p>Schematic diagram of the change in the angle of attack with a change in the front rotor position: (a) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (d) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (g) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g016-550.jpg?1731914723" title=" <strong>Figure 16</strong><br/> <p>(<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) Detailed diagrams of (a,b) in <a href="#aerospace-11-00945-f014" class="html-fig">Figure 14</a>.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g017-550.jpg?1731914724" title=" <strong>Figure 17</strong><br/> <p>Variation in wing lift with rotor phase angle: (a) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (b) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.5; (c) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.25; (d) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (e) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.5; (f) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.25; (g) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9; (h) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.5; (i) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.25.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g018-550.jpg?1731914725" title=" <strong>Figure 18</strong><br/> <p>Variation in wing drag with rotor phase angle: (a) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.9; (b) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.5; (c) R1/L = 0.9, R2/L = 0.25; (d) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.9; (e) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.5; (f) R1/L = 0.5, R2/L = 0.25; (g) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.9; (h) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.5; (i) R1/L = 0.25, R2/L = 0.25.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g019-550.jpg?1731914726" title=" <strong>Figure 19</strong><br/> <p>Variations in pressure contours on the upper surface of the wing with different rotor angles: (<b>a</b>) 30°; (<b>b</b>) 60°; (<b>c</b>) 90°; (<b>d</b>) 120°; (<b>e</b>) 150°; (<b>f</b>) 180°; (<b>g</b>) 210°; (<b>h</b>) 240°; (<b>i</b>) 270°; (<b>j</b>) 300°; (<b>k</b>) 330°; (<b>l</b>) 360°.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a><a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/aerospace/aerospace-11-00945/article_deploy/html/images/aerospace-11-00945-g020-550.jpg?1731914727" title=" <strong>Figure 20</strong><br/> <p>Variations in pressure contours on the lower surface of the wing with different rotor angles: (<b>a</b>) 30°; (<b>b</b>) 60°; (<b>c</b>) 90°; (<b>d</b>) 120°; (<b>e</b>) 150°; (<b>f</b>) 180°; (<b>g</b>) 210°; (<b>h</b>) 240°; (<b>i</b>) 270°; (<b>j</b>) 300°; (<b>k</b>) 330°; (<b>l</b>) 360°.</p> <strong style='display: block; margin-top: 10px; font-size: 18px;'><a style='color: #fff' href='/2226-4310/11/11/945'>Full article</a></strong> "></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="generic-item last-item"> <a class="bold" href="/search?q=&journal=aerospace&sort=pubdate&page_count=50">More Articles...</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 large-pull-6 medium-3 medium-pull-6 small-12 columns"> <div id="js-large-main-top-container"> <div id="js-main-top-container" class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/aerospace"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/aerospace-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" alt="aerospace-logo" title="Aerospace" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border" style="position: relative;"> <div class=""> <a class="button button--color button--color-journal 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