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Insights into viticulture in Greece from Neolithic to Archaic times, using geometric morphometric analyses of archaeological grape seeds |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=January 2021 |volume=125 |pages=105263 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2020.105263 |bibcode=2021JArSc.125j5263P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valamoti |first1=Soultana Maria |title=Harvesting the 'wild'? Exploring the context of fruit and nut exploitation at Neolithic Dikili Tash, with special reference to wine |journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany |date=January 2015 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=35–46 |doi=10.1007/s00334-014-0487-6 |bibcode=2015VegHA..24...35V }}</ref> [[Armenia]] from {{circa|lk=no|4100}} BC (large-scale production),<ref name=":5">{{cite web | url=https://yalibnan.com/2011/01/11/6000-year-old-winery-found-in-armenia/ | title=6000-year-old winery found in Armenia – Ya Libnan | date=11 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=EIGHT OF THE WORLD'S OLDEST WINERIES |url=https://vinoenology.com/wine-news/read/9904/}}</ref><ref name="Deirdre Holding">{{cite book|last1=Holding|first1=Deirdre|title= Armenia: with Nagorno Karabagh|date=September 2014|publisher=The Globe Pequot Press Inc|isbn=9781841625553|page=284|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gbz-AwAAQBAJ&q=oldest+known+winery&pg=PA284}}</ref><ref name="Hugh Johnson">{{cite book|last1= Johnson |first1= Hugh |title= Hugh Johnson's Pocket Wine Book 2019|date=September 2014|publisher= Octopus Publishing Group |isbn= 9781784724825 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nMhUDwAAQBAJ&q=first+winery+4100+armenia&pg=PA28-IA16}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=y1ksAQAAMAAJ&q=armenia|magazine = Decanter magazine|volume=36|issue=5-8|title = Decanter|date = February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science20.com/news_articles/wine_4100_bc_worlds_oldest_winery_discovered|title=Wine 4,100 B.C. – World's Oldest Winery Discovered|date=27 August 2014}}</ref> and [[Sicily]] from {{circa|lk=no|4000}} BC.<ref name="SicilyGuardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/30/traces-of-6000-year-old-wine-discovered-in-sicilian-cave|title=Traces of 6,000-year-old wine discovered in Sicilian cave|last=Tondo|first=Lorenzo|date=30 August 2017|agency=The Guardian}}</ref> The earliest evidence of [[Alcoholic beverage|fermented alcoholic beverage]] of rice, honey and fruit, sometimes compared to wine, is claimed in [[China]] ({{circa|lk=no|7000}} BC).<ref name="Li_et_al">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.wep.2018.10.002|title = The worlds of wine: Old, new and ancient|journal = Wine Economics and Policy|volume = 7|issue = 2|pages = 178–182|year = 2018|last1 = Li|first1 = Hua|last2 = Wang|first2 = Hua|last3 = Li|first3 = Huanmei|last4 = Goodman|first4 = Steve|last5 = Van Der Lee|first5 = Paul|last6 = Xu|first6 = Zhimin|last7 = Fortunato|first7 = Alessio|last8 = Yang|first8 = Ping|doi-access = free|hdl = 10419/194558|hdl-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Cañete_et_al">{{cite journal |last1=Cañete |first1=Eduardo |last2=Chen |first2=Jaime |last3=Martín |first3=Cristian |last4=Rubio |first4=Bartolomé |title=Smart Winery: A Real-Time Monitoring System for Structural Health and Ullage in Fino Style Wine Casks |journal=Sensors |date=2018 |volume=18 |issue=3 |page=803 |url=https://helvia.uco.es/bitstream/handle/10396/17421/sensors-18-00803.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |doi=10.3390/s18030803|pmid=29518928 |pmc=5876521 |bibcode=2018Senso..18..803C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Hames">{{cite book|last1=Hames|first1=Gina|title=Alcohol in World History|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317548706|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPNTBAAAQBAJ&q=%22grape+wine%22+7000&pg=PA17}}</ref> The [[drunkenness|altered consciousness]] produced by wine has been [[Religion and alcohol|considered religious]] since its origin. The [[ancient Greeks]] worshiped [[Dionysus]] or [[Bacchus]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] carried on his cult.<ref name="greekwinemakers.com">[http://www.greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/2ancient.shtml The history of wine in ancient Greece] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020712171906/http://greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/2ancient.shtml |date=12 July 2002 }} at greekwinemakers.com</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mydestination.com/cyprus/things-to-do/177418/pafos-archaeological-park#|title=UNESCO Pafos Archaeological Park}}</ref> Consumption of [[kosher wine|ritual wine]], probably a certain type of sweet wine originally, was part of Jewish [[Feast of Wine|practice]] since [[Alcohol in the Bible|Biblical times]] and, as part of the [[communion wine|eucharist]] commemorating [[Jesus]]'s [[Last Supper]], became [[Christian views on alcohol|even more essential to the Christian Church]].<ref name="DODD, EMLYN K. 2020">{{Cite book|last=DODD, EMLYN K.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1139263254|title=ROMAN AND LATE ANTIQUE WINE PRODUCTION IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN : a comparative ... archaeological study at antiochia ad cragum.|date=2020|publisher=ARCHAEOPRESS|isbn=978-1-78969-403-1|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=1139263254}}</ref> Although Islam nominally forbade the production or consumption of wine, during its [[Islamic Golden Age|Golden Age]], [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemists]] such as [[Jābir ibn Hayyān|Geber]] [[history of distilled beverages|pioneered wine's distillation]] for [[Islamic medicine|medicinal]] and industrial purposes such as the production of perfume.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703045911/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%207.htm |date=3 July 2007}}</ref> [[Wine production]] and consumption increased, burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part of [[Age of Discovery|European expansion]]. Despite the devastating 1887 [[phylloxera]] louse infestation, modern science and technology adapted and industrial wine production and widespread consumption now occur throughout the world. ==Prehistory== ===Vine domestication=== The origins of wine predate [[history of writing|written records]], and [[modern archaeology]] is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wild [[grapevine]]s. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, and then began collecting them. After a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10,000–8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary style of living, which led to agriculture and wine domestication.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWh2AAAAQBAJ&q=PT18&pg=PT18|title=Wine Grapes|author1=Jancis Robinson |author2=Julia Harding |author3=Jose Vouillamoz |year=2013|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=9780062325518}}</ref> [[File:A terracotta Kvevri used to ferment and age wine decorated with depictions of bunches of grapes, First half of the 6th millennium BC, from Khramis Didid Gora, National Museum of Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] [[Kvevri]], a jar dated to the 6th millennium BC found at the Shulaveri site ([[Georgian National Museum]]).]] The fermenting of strains of ''[[Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris]]'' (the ancestor of the modern wine grape, ''[[V. vinifera]]'') would have become easier following the development of [[pottery]] during the later [[Neolithic]] period, {{circa|lk=no|11,000}} BC. The earliest discovered evidence, however, dates from several millennia later.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} ===Wine fermentation=== The earliest archaeological evidence of wine fermentation found has been at sites in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ({{circa|lk=no|6000}} BC),<ref name=independent8k/><ref>{{cite news|title=Evidence of ancient wine found in Georgia a vintage quaffed some 6,000 years BC|url=http://www.euronews.com/2015/05/21/evidence-of-ancient-wine-found-in-georgia-a-vintage-quaffed-some-6000-years-bc/|access-date=24 May 2015|agency=Euronews|date=21 May 2015|archive-date=24 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524115043/http://www.euronews.com/2015/05/21/evidence-of-ancient-wine-found-in-georgia-a-vintage-quaffed-some-6000-years-bc/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="npr.org1"/><ref name="Cultures of The World Georgia"/> [[Hajji Firuz Tepe|Hajj Firuz]], [[West Azerbaijan province]] of [[Iran]] ({{circa|lk=no|5000}} BC),<ref name="indie" /><ref name=archaeology96>{{cite journal |first=Mark |last=Berkowitz |title=World's Earliest Wine |url=http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html |publisher=[[Archaeological Institute of America]] |journal=[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]|volume=49 |issue=5 |year=1996}}</ref> [[Greece]] ({{circa|lk=no|4500}} BC), and [[Sicily]] ({{circa|lk=no|4000}} BC).<ref name="SicilyGuardian" /> The earliest evidence of steady production of wine has been found in [[Armenia]] ({{circa|lk=no|4100}} BC)<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":4"/> while the earliest evidence of a grape and rice mixed based fermented drink was found in ancient [[China]] ({{circa|lk=no|7000}} BC),.<ref name="Li_et_al"/><ref name="Cañete_et_al"/><ref name="Hames"/><ref name="McGovern">[https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=247]. Prehistoric China – The Wonders That Were Jiahu The World’s Earliest Fermented Beverage. Professor Patrick McGovern the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia. Retrieved on 3 January 2017.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Patrick E. McGovern |author2=Anne P. Underhill |author3=Hui Fang |author4=Fengshi Luan |author5=Gretchen R. Hall |author6=Haiguang Yu |author7=Chen-Shan Wang |author8=Fengshu Cai |author9=Zhijhun Zhao |author10=Gary M. Feinman |date=2004|title=Fermented Beverages of Pre- and Proto-Historic China.|url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/wp-content/uploads/asianperspectives.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|volume=101|issue=51|pages=17593–9|doi=10.1073/pnas.0407921102|pmid=15590771|pmc=539767|bibcode=2004PNAS..10117593M|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Iranian jars contained a form of [[retsina]], using [[Pistacia terebinthus|turpentine]] [[pine resin]] to more effectively seal and preserve the wine and is the earliest firm evidence of wine production to date.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1051/bioconf/20160703027 | title=Grape and wine culture in Georgia, the South Caucasus |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-with-the-principal-sites-that-preoduce-the-Neolithic-Shulaveris-Shomu-Culture-and_fig1_309470668 | date=2016 | last1=Maghradze | first1=David | last2=Samanishvili | first2=Giorgi | last3=Mekhuzla | first3=Levan | last4=Mdinaradze | first4=Irma | last5=Tevzadze | first5=George | last6=Aslanishvili | first6=Andro | last7=Chavchanidze | first7=Paata | last8=Lordkipanidze | first8=David | last9=Jalabadze | first9=Mindia | last10=Kvavadze | first10=Eliso | last11=Rusishvili | first11=Nana | last12=Nadiradze | first12=Eldar | last13=Archvadze | first13=Gvantsa | last14=McGovern | first14=Patrick | last15=This | first15=Patrice | last16=Bacilieri | first16=Roberto | last17=Failla | first17=Osvaldo | last18=Cola | first18=Gabriele | last19=Mariani | first19=Luigi | last20=Wales | first20=Nathan | last21=Gilbert | first21=M. Thomas P. | last22=Bouby | first22=Laurent | last23=Kazeli | first23=Tina | last24=Ujmajuridze | first24=Levan | last25=Batiuk | first25=Stephen | last26=Graham | first26=Andrew | last27=Megrelidze | first27=Lika | last28=Bagratia | first28=Tamar | last29=Davitashvili | first29=Levan | journal=Bio Web of Conferences | volume=7 | page=03027 | s2cid=3892614 | doi-access=free | hdl=2434/722349 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110112152642/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/|url-status = dead|archive-date = 12 January 2011|website = news.nationalgeographic.com|access-date = 2015-11-01|date = 2011-01-12}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|author-first1=David|author-last1=Furer|title = Armenian find is 'world's oldest winery' – Decanter|url = http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/armenian-find-is-world-s-oldest-winery-42433/|website = Decanter|access-date = 2015-11-01|date = 2011-01-12}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title = Scientists discover 'oldest' winery in Armenian cave|url = http://edition.cnn.com/2011/LIVING/01/12/oldest.winery/|website = edition.cnn.com|access-date = 2015-11-01}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news|title = Perhaps a Red, 4,100 B.C.|url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704458204576074141252276326|newspaper = The Wall Street Journal|access-date = 2015-11-01|issn = 0099-9660|first = Robert Lee|last = Hotz}}</ref> Production spread to other sites in [[Greater Iran]] and [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]] by {{circa|lk=no|4500}} BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes.<ref name="dsc.discovery.com">{{cite web|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000|title=Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103133450/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/03/16/oldgrapes_arc.html?category=archaeology&guid=20070316120000|archive-date=3 January 2008|website=Discovery News|author-first1=Jennifer|author-last1=Viegas|date=16 March 2007}}</ref> [[File:Areni-1 cave entrance.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Areni-1 cave in southern Armenia near the town of [[Areni]] where a winery dated to c. 4100 BC was found in 2007.]] The oldest-known [[winery]] was discovered in the [[Areni-1 winery|"Areni-1" cave]] in [[Vayots Dzor]], [[Armenia]]. Dated to {{circa|lk=no|4100}} BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112152642/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=12 January 2011 | title=Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave | date=12 January 2011 }}</ref><ref name="8,000-year-old wine">{{cite news |title=Now that's what you call a real vintage: professor unearths 8,000-year-old wine |author=David Keys |url=http://accuca.conectia.es/ind281203.htm |work=The Independent |date=28 December 2003 |access-date=13 January 2011 |archive-date=15 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515094551/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/now-thats-what-you-call-a-real-vintage-professor-unearths-8000yearold-wine-577863.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Archaeology">{{cite journal |author=Mark Berkowitz |date=September–October 1996 |title=World's Earliest Wine |journal=Archaeology |volume=49 |issue=5 |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |access-date=13 January 2011 |url=http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html}}</ref><ref name="Wine-making facility">{{cite news |title='Oldest known wine-making facility' found in Armenia |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12158341 |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=11 January 2011 |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> Archaeologists also found ''V. vinifera'' seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000&nbsp;BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier."<ref name="Wine-making facility"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient winery found in Armenia |author=Thomas H. Maugh II |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2011-jan-11-la-sci-ancient-winery-20110111-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |date=11 January 2011 |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> The seeds were from ''Vitis vinifera'', a grape still used to make wine.<ref name=":4"/> The cave remains date to about 4000 BC. This is 900 years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=6,000-year-old winery found in Armenian cave (Wired UK) |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-01/12/ancient-winery |magazine=Wired UK |access-date=2015-11-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208180627/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-01/12/ancient-winery |archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = World's oldest winery discovered in Armenian cave|url = http://news.am/eng/news/44129.html|website = news.am|access-date = 2015-11-01}}</ref> The fame of [[Persian wine]] has been well known in ancient times. The carvings on the Audience Hall, known as [[Apadana Palace]], in [[Persepolis]], demonstrate soldiers of subjected nations by the Persian Empire bringing gifts to the Persian king. Domesticated grapes were abundant in the [[Near East]] from the beginning of the early [[Bronze Age]], starting in 3200&nbsp;BC. There is also increasingly abundant evidence for winemaking in [[Sumer]] and [[Egypt]] in the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite news | first=Dan | last=Verango | title=White wine turns up in King Tutankhamen's tomb | date=2006-05-29 | url =https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/2006-05-29-tut-white-wine_x.htm | work =USA Today | access-date = 2007-09-06 }}</ref> === Legends of discovery === There are many [[etiological myth]]s told about the first cultivation of the grapevine and fermentation of wine. The [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Book of Genesis]] first mentions the production of wine by Noah following the [[Genesis flood narrative|Great Flood]]. [[Greek mythology]] placed the childhood of [[Dionysus]] and his discovery of [[viticulture]] at [[Mount Nysa]] but had him teach the practice to the peoples of central [[Anatolia]]. Because of this, he was rewarded to become a god of wine. In [[Persia]]n legend, [[Persian king|King]] [[Jamshid]] banished a lady of his [[harem]], causing her to become despondent and contemplate suicide. Going to the king's warehouse, the woman sought out a jar marked "poison" containing the remnants of the grapes that had spoiled and were now deemed undrinkable. After drinking the fermented wine, she found her spirits lifted. She took her discovery to the king, who became so enamored of his new drink that he not only accepted the woman back but also decreed that all grapes grown in [[Persepolis]] would be devoted to winemaking.<ref name="Pellechia pg XI-XII">Pellechia, T. ''Wine: The 8,000-Year-Old Story of the Wine Trade'', pp. XI–XII. Running Press (London), 2006. {{ISBN|1-56025-871-3}}.</ref> ==Antiquity== ===Ancient China=== {{Unbalanced|date=December 2023}} {{Main|History of alcohol in China|History of wine in China}} Archaeologists have discovered production from native "mountain grapes" like ''[[Vitis thunbergii|V. thunbergii]]''<ref>Eijkhoff, P. [http://www.eykhoff.nl/Wine%20in%20China.pdf Wine in China: its historical and contemporary developments] (PDF).</ref> and ''[[Vitis filifolia|V. filifolia]]''<ref name="temple 1986 101">Temple, Robert. (1986). ''The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention''. With a foreword by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. {{ISBN|0-671-62028-2}}. Page 101.</ref> during the 1st millennium BC.<ref>[http://www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u5-2.htm Wine Production in China 3000 years ago] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828140517/http://www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u5-2.htm |date=28 August 2008}}.</ref> Production of [[beer in China|beer]] had largely disappeared by the time of the [[Han dynasty]], in favor of stronger drinks fermented from [[millet]], [[rice]], and other grains. Although these [[huangjiu]] have frequently been translated as "wine", they are typically 20% [[alcohol content|ABV]] and considered quite distinct from grape wine ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|葡萄酒}}}}) within China. During the 2nd century BC, [[Zhang Qian]]'s exploration of the [[Western Regions]] (modern [[Xinjiang]]) reached the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] [[Diadochi|successor states]] of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]'s [[Alexandrian Empire|empire]]: [[Dayuan]], [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Bactria]], and the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. These had brought viticulture into [[Central Asia]] and trade permitted the first wine produced from ''V. vinifera'' grapes to be introduced to China.<ref name="temple 1986 101"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://monkeytree.org/silkroad/zhangqian.html|title=Zhang Qian: Opening the Silk Road|website=monkeytree.org|access-date=15 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020115046/http://www.monkeytree.org/silkroad/zhangqian.html|archive-date=20 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="gernet 134 135">Gernet, Jacques (1962). ''Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276''. Translated by H. M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0720-0}}. Page 134&ndash;135.</ref> Wine was imported again when trade with the west was restored under the [[Tang dynasty]], but it remained mostly imperial fare and it was not until the [[Song Dynasty|Song]] that its consumption spread among the [[gentry (China)|gentry]].<ref name="gernet 134 135"/> [[Marco Polo]]'s 14th-century account noted the continuing preference for [[rice wine]]s continuing in [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan China]].<ref name="gernet 134 135"/> ===Ancient Egypt=== [[File:Ägyptischer Maler um 1500 v. Chr. 001.jpg|thumb|Grape cultivation, winemaking{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}, and commerce in ancient Egypt {{circa|lk=no|1500}} BC]] Wine played an important role in [[ancient Egypt]]ian ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in the [[Nile Delta]] following the introduction of grape cultivation from the [[Levant]] to Egypt {{circa|lk=no|3000}}&nbsp;BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and [[Canaan]] during the early [[Bronze Age]], commencing from at least the 27th-century&nbsp;BC [[Third Dynasty]], the beginning of the [[Old Kingdom]] period. Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife. Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly [[red wine|red]]. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture. ''[[Shedeh]]'', the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented from [[pomegranate]]s as previously thought.<ref>Maria Rosa Guasch-Jané, Cristina Andrés-Lacueva, Olga Jáuregui and Rosa M. Lamuela-Raventós, The origin of the ancient Egyptian drink Shedeh revealed using LC/MS/MS, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol 33, Iss 1, Jan. 2006, pp. 98–101.</ref> [[Plutarch]]'s ''[[Moralia]]'' relates that, prior to [[Psammetichus I]], the [[pharaoh]]s did not drink wine nor [[libation|offer it to the gods]] "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung". This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears".<ref>{{cite web | url = https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/A.html | title = Isis & Osiris | publisher = University of Chicago}}</ref> Residue from five clay [[amphora]]s in [[Tutankhamun]]'s tomb, however, have been shown to be that of [[white wine]], so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/columnist/vergano/2006-05-29-tut-white-wine_x.htm White wine turns up in King Tutankhamen's tomb]. ''USA Today'', {{Nowrap|29 May}} 2006.</ref> ===Ancient Levant=== {{Main|Phoenicians and wine|Lebanese wine|Israeli wine}} In ancient times, the [[Levant]] region has played a vital role in the domain of winemaking. Archaeological findings, including charred grape seeds and occasionally intact berries or raisins, have been unearthed in numerous prehistoric and historic sites across [[West Asia|Southwest Asia]]. Having deep historical roots dating back to at least the [[Bronze Age]], winemaking in the Levant retained its importance as a significant regional industry until the decline of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule in the 7th century CE. This prolonged history of winemaking significantly enriched the cultural and economic tapestry of ancient societies in the region, giving rise to numerous legends and beliefs intertwined with its consumption in the Mediterranean and Near East.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Sivan |first1=Aviad |last2=Rahimi |first2=Oshrit |last3=Lavi |first3=Bar |last4=Salmon-Divon |first4=Mali |last5=Weiss |first5=Ehud |last6=Drori |first6=Elyashiv |last7=Hübner |first7=Sariel |date=2021 |title=Genomic evidence supports an independent history of Levantine and Eurasian grapevines |journal=Plants, People, Planet |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=414–427 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10197 |s2cid=235534373 |issn=2572-2611|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harutyunyan |first1=Mkrtich |last2=Malfeito-Ferreira |first2=Manuel |title=The Rise of Wine among Ancient Civilizations across the Mediterranean Basin |journal=[[Heritage (journal)|Heritage]] |date=2022 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=788–812 |doi=10.3390/heritage5020043 |doi-access=free|hdl=10400.5/24195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The ancient [[Phoenicia]]ns stood among the early civilizations to acknowledge the significance of cultivating and trading wine.<ref name="bbc.com" /> Positioned along the [[eastern Mediterranean]] coast, the Phoenicians leveraged their location for far-reaching trade networks across the ancient world. The [[Israelites|Israelite]] prophet [[Hosea]] (780–725 BC) is said to have urged his followers to return to [[Yahweh]] so that "they will blossom as the vine, [and] their fragrance will be like the wine of [[Mount Lebanon|Lebanon]]".<ref name=":5" /> The Phoenician use of [[amphora]]s for transporting wine was widely adopted and Phoenician-distributed grape varieties were important in the development of the wine industries of Rome and Greece. The Phoenicians also established [[Phoenician colonies|colonies]] along the Mediterranean coasts, from modern-day Tunisia to Spain, where they introduced viticulture practices and grape cultivation. One such colony was [[Carthage]], a city that later developed into a maritime empire. The only Carthaginian recipe to survive the [[Punic Wars]] was one by [[Mago (agricultural writer)|Mago]] for [[passum]], a [[raisin wine]] that later became popular in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] as well. Wine held a significant and favored role within [[ancient Israelite cuisine]], serving not only as a dietary staple but also as a crucial element of Israelite cultural and religious practices. In [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]], wine found its place in both everyday use and ceremonial rituals such as sacrificial libations.<ref name="MD222">{{cite book |last=Macdonald |first=Nathan |title=What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? |year=2008 |pages=22–23}}</ref> These traditions became an integral part of Jewish customs and celebrations, upholding the enduring importance of wine within [[Judaism]] to this very day. The abundancy of archeological remnants of facilities dedicated to the production of wine (at ancient [[Gibeon (ancient city)|Gibeon]], for example), coupled with detailed depictions of vineyard establishment and grape varieties within the [[Hebrew Bible]],<ref name="MD222" /><ref name="EJFWine2">{{cite book |last=Marks |first=Gil |title=Encyclopedia of Jewish Food |year=2010 |pages=616–618 |author-link=Gil Marks}}</ref> underscore the prominence of wine as the primary alcoholic choice for the ancient Israelites. Within the [[Hebrew language]], a multitude of terms emerged relating to vines and the various stages of winemaking.<ref name="Atiqot">{{Cite journal |last=Yeivin |first=Z |year=1966 |title=none |journal=Journal of the Israel Department of Antiquities |location=Jerusalem |publisher=Israel Department of Antiquities |volume=3 |pages=52–62}}</ref> Winemaking also included the incorporation of spices, honey, herbs, and other ingredients. Following the fermentation process, the wine was meticulously stored in amphorae, often lined with protective resin coatings to ensure preservation. Jewish winemaking evolved during the [[Hellenistic period]], with dried grapes producing sweeter, higher alcohol content wine that required dilution with water for consumption.<ref name="EJFWine2"/> During [[Late antiquity|Late Antiquity]], when the [[Diocese of the East|Levant was under Byzantine control]], the region established itself as a renowned center for winemaking. [[Ashkelon]] and [[Gaza City|Gaza]], two ancient port cities in modern-day [[Israel]] and [[Gaza Strip]], rose to prominence as important trade centers, facilitating extensive wine exports throughout the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The writings of 4th-century CE priest [[Jerome]] vividly depicted the [[Holy Land]]'s landscape adorned with sprawling vineyards. The wines of this region, as described by the 6th-century CE poet [[Corippus]], stood out for their attributes of being white, light, and sweet.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Decker |first=M. |title=Tilling the Hateful Earth: Agricultural Production and Trade in the Late Antique East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |pages=136–139}}</ref> In the [[Arabian Peninsula]], wine was traded by [[Arameans|Aramaic]] merchants, as the climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines. Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including date and [[Mead|honey wines]]. ===Ancient Greece=== {{Main|Ancient Greece and wine}} [[File:Dionysos vineyard MNE Villa Giulia 106463.jpg|thumb|180px|Dionysus in a vineyard, depicted on an [[amphora]] from the late 6th century BC.]] Much of modern wine culture derives from the practices of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]]. The vine preceded both the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] cultures.<ref name="greekwinemakers.com"/><ref name="dsc.discovery.com"/> Many of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown there exclusively and are similar or identical to the [[varietal|varieties]] grown in ancient times. Indeed, the most popular modern Greek wine, a strongly aromatic white called [[retsina]], is thought to be a carryover from the ancient practice of lining the [[amphora|wine jugs]] with tree resin, imparting a distinct flavor to the drink. The "Feast of the Wine" (''Me-tu-wo Ne-wo'') was a festival in [[Mycenaean Greece]] celebrating the "Month of the New Wine".<ref>[https://archive.today/20120630174743/http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/26.html Mycenaean and Late Cycladic Religion and Religious Architecture], Dartmouth College</ref><ref>T.G. Palaima, [http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf ''The Last days of Pylos Polity''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516070021/http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf |date=16 May 2011}}, Université de Liège</ref><ref>James C. Wright, ''The Mycenaean feast'', American School of Classical Studies, 2004, on [https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6vBrYKPnMC&dq=me-tu-wo-ne-wo&pg=PA203 Google books]</ref> Several ancient sources, such as the Roman [[Pliny the Elder]], describe the ancient Greek method of using partly dehydrated [[gypsum]] before fermentation and some type of [[lime (material)|lime]] after, in order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The Greek [[Theophrastus]] provides the oldest known description of this aspect of Greek winemaking.<ref name=Theophrastus>{{cite book | last = Caley | first = Earle | title = Theophrastis on Stone | publisher = Ohio State University | year = 1956}}[http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_215 Online version: Gypsum/lime in wine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108192330/http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_215 |date=8 January 2014 }}</ref><ref name="farlang">[http://www.farlang.com/content/2007-07-26.3408347790 Wine Drinking and Making in Antiquity: Historical References on the Role of Gemstones] Many classic scientists such as [[Al Biruni]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Georg Agricola]], [[Albertus Magnus]] as well as newer authors such as [[George Frederick Kunz]] describe the many talismanic, medicinal uses of minerals and wine combined.</ref> In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served in "[[krater|mixing bowls]]" rather than consumed in an undiluted state. [[Dionysus]], the Greek god of revelry and wine—frequently referred to in the works of [[Homer]] and [[Aesop]]—was sometimes given the epithet ''Acratophorus'', "giver of unmixed wine".<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], viii. 39. § 4</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last = Schmitz | first = Leonhard | author-link = Leonhard Schmitz | contribution = Acratophorus | editor-last = Smith | editor-first = William | title = Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology | volume = 1 | page = 14 | place = Boston, MA | publisher = Little, Brown and Company | year = 1867 | contribution-url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0023.html | title-link = Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology }}</ref> [[Homer]] frequently refers to the "wine-dark sea" ({{lang|grc|οἶνωψ πόντος}}, ''oīnōps póntos''): while having several words for the color ''blue'' despite modern claims, the Greeks would simply refer to red wine's color as the sea appeared darker than their perspective of a 'blue' shade. The earliest reference to a named wine is from the 7th-century BC lyrical poet [[Alcman]], who praises ''Dénthis'', a wine from the western foothills of Mount [[Taygetus]] in [[Messenia]], as ''anthosmías'' ("flowery-scented"). [[Chian wine|Chian]] was credited as the first [[red wine]], although it was known to the Greeks as "black wine".<ref name="EmpireBook">{{cite book | author = Andrew Dalby | title = Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World | year = 2002 | publisher = Routledge | page = 136 | isbn = 978-0-415-28073-0| author-link = Andrew Dalby}}</ref><ref name="Lucian">{{cite book |author1=Aristoula Georgiadou |author2=David H.J. Larmour | title = Lucian's Science Fiction Novel 'True Histories': Interpretation and Commentary | publisher = BRILL | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-90-04-10970-4 | pages = 73–74}}</ref> [[Coan wine|Coan]] was mixed with sea water and famously salty;<ref name="Empire">{{cite book | author = Andrew Dalby | title = Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World | year = 2002 | publisher = Routledge | pages = 134–136 | isbn = 978-0-415-28073-0| author-link = Andrew Dalby}}</ref> Pramnian or [[Lesbian wine]] was a famous export as well. [[Aristotle]] mentions [[Lemnos Island|Lemnian]] wine, which was probably the same as the modern-day [[Lemnió]] varietal, a red wine with a bouquet of [[oregano]] and [[thyme]]. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation. For Greece, alcohol such as wine had not fully developed into the rich 'cash crop' that it would eventually become toward the peak of its reign. However, as the emphasis of viticulture increased with economic demand so did the consumption of alcohol during the years to come. The Greeks embraced the production aspect as a way to expand and create economic growth throughout the region. Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the [[Mediterranean]], as [[amphora]]s with Greek styling and art have been found throughout the area. The Greeks may have even been involved in the first appearance of wine in ancient Egypt.<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=2146412958&mode=thread&order=06500 year old Mashed grapes found] World's earliest evidence of crushed grapes</ref> They introduced the ''V. vinifera'' vine to<ref name=Jacobson>Introduction to Wine Laboratory Practices and Procedures, Jean L. Jacobson, Springer, p.84</ref> and made wine in their numerous colonies in modern-day Italy,<ref name=Fagan>The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Brian Murray Fagan, 1996 Oxford Univ Pr, p.757</ref> [[Sicily]],<ref name="Sandler">Wine: A Scientific Exploration, Merton Sandler, Roger Pinder, CRC Press, p.66</ref> southern France,<ref name="Kibler">Medieval France: an encyclopedia, William Westcott Kibler, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, p.964</ref> and Spain.<ref name="Jacobson"/> ===Ancient Persia=== [[Herodotus]], writing about the culture of the ancient [[Persian people|Persians]] (in particular, those of [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]) writes that they were "very fond" of wine and drank it in large quantities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/herodotus-persians.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> ===Ancient Thrace=== {{Main|Thracians}} The works of [[Homer]], [[Herodotus]] and other historians of Ancient Greece refer to the [[Thracians|ancient Thracians]]' love for winemaking and consumption,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Thrace, the Motherland of Wine Culture {{!}} Code de Vino |url=https://www.codedevino.com/world-of-wine/the-way-of-wine/ancient-thrace-the-motherland-of-wine-culture |access-date=2022-08-15 |language=en-EN}}</ref> as early as 6000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Advertorial |date=2021-11-17 |title=Who Are the Thracians and Why Wine Was an Integral Part of Their Culture and Tradition 6000 Years Ago? |url=https://wineindustryadvisor.com/2021/11/17/thracians-why-wine-integral-culture |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Wine Industry Advisor |language=en-US}}</ref> the Thracians are considered the first to worship the god of wine called [[Dionysus]] in Greek or [[Zagreus]] in Thracian. Later this cult reached Ancient Greece.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McEvilley |first=Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTfm8KHn900C&pg=PA118 |title=The Shape of Ancient Thought |publisher=Allsworth press |year=2002 |isbn=9781581159332 |edition= |location=New York, NY |pages=118–121 |oclc=460134637}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41320191 |title=Ancient Greeks West and East |publisher=Brill |editor=Gocha R. Tsetskhladze |year=1999 |isbn=90-04-11190-5 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |pages=429 |oclc=41320191}}</ref> Some consider [[Thrace]] (modern day [[Bulgaria]]) as the motherland of wine culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Thrace, the Motherland of Wine Culture {{!}} Code de Vino |url=https://www.codedevino.com/world-of-wine/the-way-of-wine/ancient-thrace-the-motherland-of-wine-culture |access-date=2023-10-13 |language=en-EN}}</ref> ===Roman Empire=== {{Main|Ancient Rome and wine}} [[File:Commerce du vin sur la Durance (époque gallo-romaine).png|thumb|Shipping wine in Roman Gaul: [[amphora]]s (top) were the traditional Mediterranean vessels, but the Gauls introduced the use of barrels.]] The [[Roman Empire]] had an immense impact on the development of [[viticulture]] and [[oenology]]. Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet and winemaking became a precise business. Virtually all of the major [[wine-producing regions]] of Western Europe today were established during the Roman Imperial era. During the Roman Empire, social norms began to shift as the production of alcohol increased. Further evidence suggests that widespread drunkenness and true alcoholism among the Romans began in the first century BC and reached its height in the first century AD.<ref>Jellinek, E. M. 1976. "Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome." Edited by Carole D. Yawney and Robert E. Popham. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 37 (11): 1718-1740.</ref> Viniculture expanded so much that by AD {{circa|lk=no|92}} the [[list of Roman emperors|emperor]] [[Domitian]] was forced to pass the first [[wine laws]] on record, banning the planting of any new vineyards in [[Roman Italy|Italy]] and uprooting half of the vineyards in the [[Roman provinces|provinces]] in order to increase the production of the necessary but less profitable grain. (The measure was widely ignored but remained on the books until its 280 repeal by [[Marcus Aurelius Probus|Probus]].<ref name=jro>J. Robinson (ed). ''The Oxford Companion to Wine'', 3rd Ed., p. 234. Oxford Univ. Press (Oxford), 2006. {{ISBN|0-19-860990-6}}</ref>) [[File:Satyrs vine press BM D550.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Satyr working at a wine press of wicker-work mats (1st century AD [[relief]]).]] Winemaking technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire, though technologies from the [[Bronze Age]] continued to be used alongside newer innovations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dodd|first=Emlyn|title=Pressing Issues: A New Discovery in the Vineyard of Region I.20, Pompeii|url=https://www.academia.edu/35130874|journal=Archeologia Classica|date=January 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="DODD, EMLYN K. 2020"/> [[Vitruvius]] noted how wine storage rooms were specially built facing north, "since that quarter is never subject to change but is always constant and unshifting",<ref>[[Vitruvius]]. ''[[De architectura]]'', I.4.2.</ref> and special [[smokehouse]]s (''[[fumarium|fumaria]]'') were developed to speed or mimic [[aging (wine)|aging]]. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were developed. Barrels (invented by the [[Gauls]]) and glass bottles (invented by the [[Syrians]]) began to compete with [[terracotta]] [[amphora]]s for storing and shipping wine. The Romans also created a precursor to today's appellation systems, as certain regions gained reputations for their fine wines. The most famous was the white [[Falernian wine|Falernian]] from the [[Latium|Latian]]–[[Campania]]n border, principally because of its high (~15%) alcohol content. The Romans recognized three appellations: [[Caucinian Falernian]] from the highest slopes, [[Faustian Falernian]] from the center (named for its one-time owner [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla (quaestor 54 BC)|Faustus Cornelius Sulla]], son of the [[Sulla|dictator]]), and generic Falernian from the lower slopes and plain. The esteemed vintages grew in value as they aged, and each region produced different varieties as well: dry, sweet, and light. Other famous wines were the sweet [[Alban wine|Alban]] from the [[Alban Hills]] and the [[Caecuban wine|Caecuban]] beloved by [[Horace]] and extirpated by [[Nero]]. Pliny cautioned that such 'first-growth' wines not be smoked in a ''fumarium'' like lesser vintages.<ref>Hugh Johnson, ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' pg 72. Simon and Schuster 1989.</ref> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] and others also named [[Vinum Hadrianum]] as one of the most rated wines, along with Praetutian from Ancona on the Adriatic, Mamertine from Messina in Sicily, Rhaetic from Verona, and a few others.<ref>Merton Sandler, Roger Pinder, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yq2W6dwJa5gC&dq=hadrianum+wine&pg=PA66 Wine: A Scientific Exploration]'' p. 66, 2003, {{ISBN|0203373944}}</ref> Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed to serve medicinal purposes. During Roman times, the upper classes might dissolve [[pearl]]s in wine for better health. [[Cleopatra]] created her own legend by promising [[Mark Antony|Antony]] she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of the beverage.<ref name="farlang" /> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] relates that, after the ascension of [[Augustus]], [[Setinum wine|Setinum]] became the imperial wine because it did not cause him indigestion.<ref>Pliny. ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]'', XIV.61.</ref> When the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire fell]] during the 5th century, Europe entered a period of invasions and social turmoil, with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as the only stable social structure. Through the Church, grape growing and winemaking technology, essential for the Mass, were preserved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeinitaly.com/wines/history.asp|title=History of Wine I|website=Life in Italy|date=2018-10-28|access-date=21 March 2007|archive-date=9 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909210847/http://www.lifeinitaly.com/wines/history.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Over the course of the later Empire, wine production gradually shifted to the east as Roman infrastructure and influence in the western regions gradually diminished. Production in Asia Minor, the Aegean and the Near East flourished through Late Antiquity and the Byzantine era.<ref name="DODD, EMLYN K. 2020"/> The [[Carmona Wine Urn|oldest surviving urn of wine in liquid state]] was found in 2019 in a Roman mausoleum in Carmona, southern Spain, and is about 2000 years old.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cosano |first1=Daniel |last2=Manuel Román |first2=Juan |last3=Esquivel |first3=Dolores |last4=Lafont |first4=Fernando |last5=Ruiz Arrebola |first5=José Rafael |date=2024-09-01 |title=New archaeochemical insights into Roman wine from Baetica |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=57 |pages=104636 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104636 |issn=2352-409X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024JArSR..57j4636C }}</ref> The second oldest surviving bottle still containing liquid wine is the [[Speyer wine bottle]], that belonged to a Roman nobleman and it is dated at 325 or 350 AD.<ref name=dw>{{cite web|title=The Roman Wine of Speyer: The oldest Wine of the World that's still liquid|url=http://www.deutscheweine.de/icc/Internet-EN/nav/4b4/4b470693-6826-7e21-e66b-48554c41ed8b&_ic_uCon=016407a8-5735-f431-aecd-f9916f135e25|publisher=Deutsches Weininstitut|access-date=25 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215229/http://www.deutscheweine.de/icc/Internet-EN/nav/4b4/4b470693-6826-7e21-e66b-48554c41ed8b%26_ic_uCon%3D016407a8-5735-f431-aecd-f9916f135e25|archive-date=26 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=local2011>{{cite news|title=Museum scared to open ancient Roman wine|url=http://www.thelocal.de/20111209/39405|access-date=25 April 2014|newspaper=The Local – Germany edition|date=9 December 2011}}</ref> ==Medieval period== ===Medieval Middle East=== {{Main|Wine in the Middle East}} {{See also|Phoenicians and wine|Lebanese wine}} The advent of [[Islam]] and [[Early Muslim conquests|subsequent Muslim conquests]] in the 7th and 8th centuries brought many territories under Muslim control. Alcoholic drinks were prohibited by law, but the production of alcohol, wine in particular, seems to have thrived.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tillier |first1=Mathieu |last2=Vanthieghem |first2=Naïm |date=2022-09-02 |title=Des amphores rouges et des jarres vertes: Considérations sur la production et la consommation de boissons fermentées aux deux premiers siècles de l'hégire |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ils/30/1-2/article-p1_001.xml |journal=Islamic Law and Society |volume=30 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–64 |doi=10.1163/15685195-bja10025 |s2cid=252084558 |issn=0928-9380}}</ref> Wine was a subject for many poets, even under Islamic rule, and many [[Khilafah|khalifas]] used to drink alcoholic beverages during their social and private meetings. [[History of the Jews in Egypt|Jews in Egypt]] leased vineyards from the [[Fatimid]] and [[Mamluk]] governments, produced wine for sacramental and medicinal use, and traded wine throughout the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]. Christian monasteries in the [[Levant]] and Iraq often cultivated grapevines; they then distributed their vintages in taverns located on monastery grounds. [[Zoroastrians]] in Persia and Central Asia also engaged in the production of wine. Though not much is known about their wine trade, they did become known for their taverns. Wine in general found an industrial use in the medieval Middle East as [[raw material|feedstock]] after advances in [[distillation]] by [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim]] [[alchemy|alchemists]] allowed for the production of relatively pure [[ethanol]], which was used in the [[perfume]] industry. Wine was also for the first time distilled into [[brandy]] during this period. In the Levant, the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]] suppressed winemaking after centuries of regional prominence, and the 13th-century Mamluk conquest resulted in its complete prohibition.<ref name=":6" /> [[File:Monk tasting wine from a barrel.jpg|thumb|upright|Monastic cellarer tasting wine, from ''Li Livres dou Santé'' (French manuscript, late 13th century)]] ===Medieval Europe=== {{See also|History of Bordeaux wine}} {{rquote|right|It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the [Christian medieval] [[blood libel]]—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous [[pogrom]]s. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur are [[Halacha|halachically]] exempted from using [[Kosher wine|[kosher] red wine]], lest it be seized as "evidence" against them.| Pesach: What We Eat and Why We Eat It| Project Genesis<ref name=reWineBloodlibel>{{cite web|last= Rutman |first= Rabbi Yisrael |title=Pesach: What We Eat and Why We Eat It |url=http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20011224184517/http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |url-status= dead |archive-date= 24 December 2001 |publisher= Project Genesis Inc. |access-date=14 April 2013}}</ref>}} In the [[Middle Ages]], wine was the common drink of all social classes in the south of Europe, where grapes were cultivated. In the north and east, where few if any grapes were grown, [[beer]] and [[ale]] were the usual beverages of both commoners and nobility. Wine was exported to the northern regions, but because of its relatively high expense was seldom consumed by the lower classes. Since wine was necessary, however, for the celebration of the [[Catholic Mass]], assuring a supply was crucial. The [[Benedictine]] monks became one of the largest producers of wine in France and Germany, followed closely by the [[Cistercian]]s. Other orders, such as the [[Carthusians]], the [[Templars]], and the [[Carmelites]], are also notable both historically and in modern times as wine producers. The Benedictines owned vineyards in [[Champagne (wine region)|Champagne]] ([[Dom Pérignon (person)|Dom Perignon]] was a Benedictine monk), [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]], and [[Bordeaux]] in France, and in the [[Rheingau]] and [[Franconia]] in Germany. In 1435 Count John&nbsp;IV of [[Katzenelnbogen]], a wealthy member of the high nobility of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from near [[Frankfurt]], was the first to plant [[Riesling]], the most important German grape. The nearby winemaking monks made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship all over Europe for secular use. [[Portugal]], a country with one of the oldest wine traditions, developed the first wine [[appellation]] system in the world. A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for [[mead]]s from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of [[honey]]. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy alcohol-consumption, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of wine. One medieval application of wine was the use of snake-stones (banded [[agate]] resembling the figural rings on a [[snake]]) dissolved in wine as a remedy for snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.<ref name="farlang" /> [[Jofroi of Waterford]], a 13th-century Dominican, wrote a catalogue of all the known wines and ales of Europe, describing them with great relish and recommending them to academics and counsellors. [[Rashi]], a [[France in the Middle Ages|medieval French]] [[rabbi]] called the "father" of all subsequent commentaries on the Talmud and the Tanakh,<ref name="chabad">Miller, Chaim. ''Chabad''. "[http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/476620/jewish/Rashis-Method-of-Biblical-Commentary.htm Rashi's Method of Biblical Commentary]".</ref> earned his living as a [[vintner]]. Medieval names for types of wine included "pimentum"<ref> {{cite book |last1 = Langland |first1 = William |author-link1 = William Langland |editor-last1 = Skeat |editor-first1 = Walter William |editor-link1 = Walter William Skeat |year = 1885 |title = The Vision of William Concerning Piers Plowman: Together with Vita de Dowel, Dobet, Et Dobest, and Richard the Redeles |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ePhDAAAAYAAJ |series = Early English Text Society (Series).: Original series: 67 |publication-place = London |publisher = N. Trübner & Company |page = 433 |access-date = 4 April 2024 |quote = ''Pigmentum'', or ''pimentum'', wine spiced, or mingled with honey, called in French ''piment'', was formerly in high estimation. }} </ref> and "[[malmsey]]". ==Modern era== ===Spread and development in the Americas=== {{see also|New World wine}} Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. European grape varieties were first brought to what is now Mexico by the first Spanish [[conquistador]]s to provide the necessities of the Catholic [[Holy Eucharist]]. Planted at Spanish [[Mission (Christian)|mission]]s, one variety came to be known as the [[Mission (grape)|Mission grape]] and is still planted today in small amounts. Spanish missionaries also took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to Baja California in the 18th.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Wine {{!}} Definition, History, Varieties, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/wine |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Succeeding waves of immigrants, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, imported French, Italian and German ''V. vinifera'' grapes, although wine from those native to the Americas (whose flavors can be distinctly different) is also produced. Mexico became the most important wine producer starting in the 16th century, to the extent that its output began to affect Spanish commercial production. In this competitive climate, the Spanish king sent an executive order to halt Mexico's production of wines and the planting of vineyards. During the devastating phylloxera blight in late 19th-century Europe, it was found that Native American vines were immune to the pest. [[French-American hybrid]] grapes were developed and saw some use in Europe, but more important was the practice of grafting European grapevines to American rootstocks to protect vineyards from the insect. The practice continues to this day wherever phylloxera is present. The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains in [[Argentina]] and [[Chilean wine|Chile]]. In [[California wine|California]], the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino.<ref name="britannica.com" /> Today, wine in the Americas is still often associated with these regions, all of which produce a wide variety of wines, from inexpensive jug wines to high-quality varietals and proprietary blends. Most of the wine production in the Americas is based on Old World grape varieties, and wine-growing regions there have often "adopted" grapes that have become particularly closely identified with them. California's [[Zinfandel]] (from Croatia and Southern Italy), Argentina's [[Malbec]], and Chile's [[Carmenère]] (both from France) are well-known examples. Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally viewed as inferior to that of Europe. However, with the surprisingly favorable American showing at the [[Judgment of Paris (wine)|Paris Wine tasting of 1976]], New World wine began to garner respect in the land of wine's origins. ===Developments in Europe=== {{Main|Great French Wine Blight}} In the late 19th century, the [[phylloxera]] louse brought widespread destruction to grapevines, wine production, and those whose livelihoods depended on them; far-reaching repercussions included the loss of many indigenous varieties. Lessons learned from the infestation led to the positive transformation of Europe's wine industry. Bad vineyards were uprooted and their land turned to better uses. Some of France's best [[butter]] and [[cheese]], for example, is now made from cows that graze on [[Charentais]] soil, which was previously covered with vines. ''Cuvées'' were also standardized, important in creating certain wines as they are known today; Champagne and Bordeaux finally achieved the grape mixes that now define them. In the [[Balkans]], where phylloxera had had little impact, the local varieties survived. However, the uneven transition from Ottoman rule has meant only gradual transformation in many vineyards. It is only in recent times that local varieties have gained recognition beyond "mass-market" wines like [[retsina]]. ===Australia, New Zealand and South Africa=== {{See also|History of South African wine|Australian wine#History}} In the context of wine, [[Australian wine|Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in the [[Cape Province]] of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia's [[First Fleet]] (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century. === East Asia === In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was [[Japanese wine]], developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Hugh |author1-link=Hugh Johnson (wine writer) |last2=Robinson |first2=Jancis |author2-link=Jancis Robinson |date=2013 |title=[[The World Atlas of Wine]] |publisher=Octopus Publishing Group |page=376 |isbn=978-1784724030}}</ref> The earliest wine brewing companies in Japan include [[Suntory]] and [[Mercian Corporation|Mercian]]. ==See also== {{Portal|Wine|History}} * [[History of Champagne]] * [[History of Chianti]] * [[History of French wine]] * [[History of Portuguese wine]] * [[History of South African wine]] * [[History of Sherry]] * [[History of Rioja wine]] * [[History of the wine press]] * [[Phoenicians and wine]] * [[Lebanese wine]] * [[Wine in China]] * [[Indian wine]] *[[Speyer wine bottle]] *[[Wine warehouses of Bercy]] == References == {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book| title=Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture |author=Patrick E. McGovern |year=2007 |isbn=978-0691127842 |publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{cite book| title=Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages | author=Patrick E. McGovern |year=2010 |isbn=978-0520267985 |publisher=University of California Press}} * Emlyn K. Dodd (2020). ''Roman and Late Antique wine production in the eastern Mediterranean''. Archaeopress. {{ISBN|978-1-78969-402-4}} *Muraresku, Brian C. (2020). ''The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name.'' Macmillan USA. {{ISBN|978-1250207142}} * {{cite journal |last1=Magris |first1=Gabriele |last2=Jurman |first2=Irena |last3=Fornasiero |first3=Alice |last4=Paparelli |first4=Eleonora |last5=Schwope |first5=Rachel |last6=Marroni |first6=Fabio |last7=Di Gaspero |first7=Gabriele |last8=Morgante |first8=Michele |title=The genomes of 204 Vitis vinifera accessions reveal the origin of European wine grapes |journal=Nature Communications |date=21 December 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=7240 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-27487-y |pmid=34934047 |pmc=8692429 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.7240M }} {{Wines |state=expanded |selected=gen/prod}} {{Alcoholic beverages |selected=hist/prod}} {{Prehistoric technology |state=collapsed |selected=culture}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History of Wine}} [[Category:History of wine| ]] [[Category:Ancient wine]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this 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