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href="#1925_Copenhagen_Conference_and_1927_revision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 1925 Copenhagen Conference and 1927 revision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1925_Copenhagen_Conference_and_1927_revision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1928_revisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1928_revisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 1928 revisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1928_revisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1932_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1932_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 1932 chart </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1932_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1938_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1938_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 1938 chart </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1938_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1947_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1947_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 1947 chart </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1947_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1949_Principles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1949_Principles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 1949 Principles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1949_Principles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1951_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1951_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 1951 chart </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1951_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1979_chart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1979_chart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 1979 chart </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1979_chart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_chart_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/330px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/495px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_2020.svg/660px-IPA_chart_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>The latest chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet, revised to 2020</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> was created soon after the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> was established in the late 19th century. It was intended as an international system of phonetic transcription for <a href="/wiki/Oral_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral language">oral languages</a>, originally for pedagogical purposes. The Association was established in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1886 by French and British language teachers led by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Passy" title="Paul Passy">Paul Passy</a>. The prototype of the alphabet appeared in <a href="#CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1888b)</a>. The Association based their alphabet upon the <a href="/wiki/Romic_alphabet" title="Romic alphabet">Romic alphabet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Henry Sweet</a>, which in turn was based on the <a href="/wiki/English_Phonotypic_Alphabet" title="English Phonotypic Alphabet">Phonotypic Alphabet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Pitman" title="Isaac Pitman">Isaac Pitman</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Palaeotype_alphabet" title="Palaeotype alphabet">Palæotype</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis" title="Alexander John Ellis">Alexander John Ellis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly1981-1">[1]</a> The alphabet has undergone a number of revisions during its history, the most significant being the one put forth at the Kiel Convention in 1989. Changes to the alphabet are proposed and discussed in the Association's organ, <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a>, previously known as Le Maître Phonétique and before that as The Phonetic Teacher, and then put to a vote by the Association's Council. The <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_IPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Extensions to the IPA">extensions to the IPA</a> for disordered speech were created in 1990, with a major revision in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallHowardMiller2018-2">[2]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_alphabets">Early alphabets</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early alphabets">edit</a>]</div> The International Phonetic Association was founded in Paris in 1886 under the name Dhi Fonètik Tîtcerz' Asóciécon (The Phonetic Teachers' Association), a development of L'Association phonétique des professeurs d'Anglais ("The English Teachers' Phonetic Association"), to promote an international phonetic alphabet, designed primarily for English, French, and German, for use in schools to facilitate acquiring foreign pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999194–7-3">[3]</a> Originally the letters had different phonetic values from language to language. For example, English [ʃ] was transcribed with ⟨c⟩ and French [ʃ] with ⟨x⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999196-4">[4]</a> As of May and November 1887, the alphabets were as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887a-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887b-6">[6]</a> <table role="presentation" class="mw-collapsible"> <caption class="nowrap">Early alphabets of the Phonetic Teachers' Association </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: top;"> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>English </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Letter </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Conventions_for_English" title="Help:IPA/Conventions for English">Modern equivalent</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>May </th> <th>Nov. </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">k</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">g</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ɡ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">t</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">d</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">p</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>p </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">b</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">h</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">y</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>j </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">s</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">z</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">c</td> <td>she</td> <td>ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">j</td> <td>measure</td> <td>ʒ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">r</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>r </td></tr> <tr> <td>th</td> <td>θ</td> <td>thin</td> <td>θ </td></tr> <tr> <td>dh</td> <td>ð</td> <td>then</td> <td>ð </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">f</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>f </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">v</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>v </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">hw</td> <td>what</td> <td>ʍ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">w</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>w </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">l</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɴ</td> <td>sing</td> <td>ŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">n</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">m</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">i</td> <td>pity</td> <td>ɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">î</td> <td>peat</td> <td>iː </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>met</td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>e</td> <td>met, learn</td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ei</td> <td>mate</td> <td>eɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a</td> <td>man</td> <td>æ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">æ</td> <td>air</td> <td>ɛə </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ᴀ</td> <td>ask</td> <td>ɑː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">œ<a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a></td> <td>but, burn</td> <td>ʌ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">o</td> <td>not</td> <td>ɒ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ô</td> <td>all</td> <td>ɔː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɔ</td> <td>more, fellow</td> <td>ɔ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɔu</td> <td>note</td> <td>oʊ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">u</td> <td>pull</td> <td>ʊ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">û</td> <td>pool</td> <td>uː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ə</td> <td>rival</td> <td>ə </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ai</td> <td>ride</td> <td>aɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">au</td> <td>how</td> <td>aʊ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">oi</td> <td>oil</td> <td>ɔɪ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>French </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Letter </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">Modern equivalent</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>May </th> <th>Nov. </th></tr> <tr> <td>k</td> <td>q</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">g</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ɡ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">t</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">d</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">p</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>p </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">b</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">h</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <td>j</td> <td>y</td> <td>yak</td> <td>j </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">s</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">z</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td>x</td> <td>c</td> <td>chat</td> <td>ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ᴊ</td> <td>j</td> <td>je</td> <td>ʒ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">f</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>f </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">v</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>v </td></tr> <tr> <td>y</td> <td>ᴜ</td> <td>huile</td> <td>ɥ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">w</td> <td>oui</td> <td>w </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">r</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ʁ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">l</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɴ</td> <td>règne</td> <td>ɲ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">n</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">m</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>ɯ</td> <td>tout</td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">o</td> <td>pot</td> <td>o </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɔ</td> <td>note</td> <td>ɔ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ᴀ</td> <td>tas</td> <td>ɑ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a</td> <td>rat</td> <td>a </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">æ</td> <td>très</td> <td>ɛ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">e</td> <td>nez</td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">i</td> <td>lit</td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">œ</td> <td>cœur</td> <td>œ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ö</td> <td>ɶ</td> <td>peu</td> <td>ø </td></tr> <tr> <td>ü</td> <td>u</td> <td>nu</td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ᴇ</td> <td>méchant</td> <td>e </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ə</td> <td>je</td> <td>ə </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ô</td> <td>ton</td> <td>ɔ̃ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">â</td> <td>tant</td> <td>ɑ̃ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ê</td> <td>teint</td> <td>ɛ̃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>û</td> <td>œ̃</td> <td>un</td> <td>œ̃ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">.</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>: </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>German </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Letter </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">Modern equivalent</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>May </th> <th>Nov. </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">k</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">g</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ɡ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">t</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">d</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">p</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>p </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">b</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">h</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <td>c</td> <td>x</td> <td>ach</td> <td>x </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɢ</td> <td>wagen</td> <td>ɣ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ç</td> <td>ich</td> <td>ç </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">j</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>j </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">s</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">z</td> <td>so</td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <td>x</td> <td>c</td> <td>tisch</td> <td>ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ᴊ</td> <td>ʒ</td> <td>genie</td> <td>ʒ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">f</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>f </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">v</td> <td>wer</td> <td>v </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">w</td> <td>zwei</td> <td>ʋ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">r</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ʁ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">l</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ɴ</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">n</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">m</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">û</td> <td>du</td> <td>uː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">u</td> <td>nuss</td> <td>ʊ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ô</td> <td>so</td> <td>oː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">o</td> <td>soll</td> <td>ɔ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">a</td> <td>kann</td> <td>a </td></tr> <tr> <td>â</td> <td>ᴀ</td> <td>kahn</td> <td>aː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">æ</td> <td>bær</td> <td>ɛː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">e</td> <td>nett</td> <td>ɛ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ê</td> <td>see</td> <td>eː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">i</td> <td>mit</td> <td>ɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">î</td> <td>viel</td> <td>iː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">œ</td> <td>kœnnen</td> <td>œ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ö</td> <td>ɶ</td> <td>sœhne</td> <td>øː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">y</td> <td>dünn</td> <td>ʏ </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ü</td> <td>kühn</td> <td>yː </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ə</td> <td>gabe</td> <td>ə </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">'</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—</td> <td>ʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1888_alphabet">1888 alphabet</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1888 alphabet">edit</a>]</div> In the August–September 1888 issue of its journal, the Phonetic Teachers' Association published a standardized alphabet intended for transcription of multiple languages, reflecting its members' consensus that only one set of alphabet ought to be used for all languages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888a-8">[7]</a> along with a set of six principles: <blockquote> <ol><li>There should be a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word.</li> <li>When any sound is found in several languages, the same sign should be used in all. This applies also to very similar shades of sound.</li> <li>The alphabet should consist as much as possible of the ordinary letters of the roman alphabet; as few new letters as possible being used.</li> <li>In assigning values to the roman letters, international usage should decide.</li> <li>The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones.</li> <li>Diacritic marks should be avoided, being trying for the eyes and troublesome to write.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b-9">[8]</a></li></ol> </blockquote> The principles would govern all future development of the alphabet, with the exception of #5 and in some cases #2,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1949back_endpaper-10">[9]</a> until they were revised drastically in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a-11">[10]</a> #6 has also been loosened, as diacritics have been admitted for limited purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2006407-12">[11]</a> The devised alphabet was as follows. The letters marked with an asterisk were "provisional shapes", which were meant to be replaced "when circumstances will allow".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b-9">[8]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Shape </th> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="4">Value </th></tr> <tr> <th>English </th> <th>French </th> <th>German </th> <th>Other languages </th></tr> <tr> <td>p</td> <td rowspan="46" style="vertical-align: top;">as in</td> <td>put</td> <td>pas</td> <td>pferd</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>b</td> <td>but</td> <td>bas</td> <td>boot</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>t</td> <td>ten</td> <td>tant</td> <td>tot</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>d</td> <td>den</td> <td>dent</td> <td>da</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>k</td> <td>kind</td> <td>képi</td> <td>kuh</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>g</td> <td>good</td> <td>gai</td> <td>gut</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>m</td> <td>my</td> <td>ma</td> <td>mein</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>n</td> <td>no</td> <td>non</td> <td>nein</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɴ</td> <td></td> <td>règne</td> <td></td> <td>Ital. regno </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɴ</td> <td>thing</td> <td></td> <td>ding</td> <td>Ital. anche </td></tr> <tr> <td>l</td> <td>lull</td> <td>la</td> <td>lang</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ʎ</td> <td></td> <td>fille (in the south)</td> <td></td> <td>Sp. llano, Ital. gli </td></tr> <tr> <td>r</td> <td>red</td> <td>rare</td> <td>rot</td> <td>(tongue-point r) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʀ</td> <td></td> <td>rare</td> <td>rot</td> <td>(back r). – Dan. træ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ᴜ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>quer</td> <td>Flem. wrocht, Span. bibir. </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɥ</td> <td></td> <td>buis</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>w</td> <td>wel</td> <td>oui</td> <td></td> <td>Ital. questo </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>full</td> <td>fou</td> <td>voll</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>v</td> <td>vain</td> <td>vin</td> <td>wein</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>θ</td> <td>thin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Span. razon </td></tr> <tr> <td>ð</td> <td>then</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Dan. gade </td></tr> <tr> <td>s</td> <td>seal</td> <td>sel</td> <td>weiss</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>z</td> <td>zeal</td> <td>zèle</td> <td>weise</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*c</td> <td>she</td> <td>chat</td> <td>fisch</td> <td>Swed. skæl, Dan. sjæl, Ital. lascia </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʒ</td> <td>leisure</td> <td>jeu</td> <td>genie</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ç</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ich</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>j</td> <td>you</td> <td>yak</td> <td>ja</td> <td>Swed. ja, Ital. jena </td></tr> <tr> <td>x</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ach</td> <td>Span. jota </td></tr> <tr> <td>q</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>wagen</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>h</td> <td>high</td> <td>(haut)</td> <td>hoch</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>full</td> <td>cou</td> <td>nuss</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>o</td> <td>soul</td> <td>pot</td> <td>soll</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɔ</td> <td>not</td> <td>note</td> <td></td> <td>Ital. notte </td></tr> <tr> <td>ᴀ</td> <td></td> <td>pas</td> <td>vater</td> <td>Swed. sal </td></tr> <tr> <td>*a</td> <td>father</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Ital. mano, Swed. mann. </td></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>eye, how</td> <td>patte</td> <td>mann</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>æ</td> <td>man</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɛ</td> <td>air</td> <td>air</td> <td>bær</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>men</td> <td>né</td> <td>nett</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>i</td> <td>pit</td> <td>ni</td> <td>mit</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*œ</td> <td>but, fur</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>œ</td> <td></td> <td>seul</td> <td>kœnnen</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɶ</td> <td></td> <td>peu</td> <td>sœhne</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>y</td> <td></td> <td>nu</td> <td>dünn</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>für</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ə</td> <td>never</td> <td>je</td> <td>gabe</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ʼ</td> <td colspan="4">Glottal catch </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">˗u, u˗</td> <td colspan="3">Weak stressed u</td> <td rowspan="3">These modifications apply to all letters </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">ꞏu, uꞏ, u̇</td> <td colspan="3">Strong stressed u </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">u꞉</td> <td colspan="3">Long u </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">œ̃</td> <td colspan="4">Nasal œ (or any other vowel) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">û</td> <td colspan="4">Long and narrow u (or any other vowel) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">hl, lh</td> <td colspan="4">Voiceless l (or any other consonant) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">꞉</td> <td colspan="4">Mark of length </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1900_chart">1900 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1900 chart">edit</a>]</div> During the 1890s, the alphabet was expanded to cover sounds of Arabic and other non-European languages which did not easily fit the Latin alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999196-4">[4]</a> Throughout the first half of the 1900s, the Association published a series of booklets outlining the specifications of the alphabet in several languages, the first being a French edition published in 1900.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMahon198635,_38_n._20-13">[12]</a> In the book, the chart appeared as follows:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b7-14">[13]</a> <table class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Laryn- gales </th> <th>Guttu- rales </th> <th>Uvu- laires </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Vélaires </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Palatales </th> <th>Linguales </th> <th>Labiales </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1221560606">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-rl){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header{line-height:1;max-width:1em;padding:0.4em;vertical-align:bottom;width:1em}html.client-js .mw-parser-output .sortable:not(.jquery-tablesorter) .ts-vertical-header:not(.unsortable),html.client-js .mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.headerSort{background-position:50%.4em;padding-right:0.4em;padding-top:21px}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-top{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-middle{vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-normal{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{display:inline-block;transform:rotate(180deg);writing-mode:vertical-rl}@supports(writing-mode:sideways-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{transform:none;writing-mode:sideways-lr}}}</style>Consonnes</div> </th> <th>Plosives </th> <td>ʔ </td> <td> </td> <td>q  ɢ </td> <td>k  ɡ </td> <td>c  ɟ </td> <td>t  d </td> <td>p  b </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nasales </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ŋ </td> <td>ɲ </td> <td>n </td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <th>Latérales </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ł </td> <td>ʎ </td> <td>l </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Roulées </th> <td> </td> <td>ꞯ </td> <td>ᴙ  ʀ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>r </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fricatives </th> <td>h </td> <td>ʜ  ɦ </td> <td>ᴚ  ʁ </td> <td>(ʍ w)  x ǥ<a href="#cite_note-barred-g-15">[b]</a> </td> <td>(ɥ)  ç j </td> <td><div>ɹ,  θ ð,  ʃ ʒ,  s z</div> <div style="text-align: right;">ᵷ ʒ</div><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> </td> <td><div style="float: left;">f v</div><div style="float: right;">ꜰ ʋ</div> <div style="clear: both;">ʍ w  ɥ</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Voyelles</div> </th> <th style="border: none;">Fermées </th> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="5" class="wrap"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">uɯüïyi</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;">ᴜ   ʏı</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">o<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Ɐöëøe</div> <div>ə</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">ɔʌɔ̈ä<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a>œɛ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;"> ɐæ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 50%;">ɑa</div> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5" style="text-align: right; vertical-align: top;"><div>(u ü y)</div> <div>(o ö ø)</div> <div>(ɔ ɔ̈ œ)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Mi-fermées </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Moyennes </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Mi-ouvertes </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Ouvertes </th></tr></tbody></table> Initially, the charts were arranged with laryngeal sounds on the left and labial ones on the right, following the convention of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Melville_Bell" title="Alexander Melville Bell">Alexander Melville Bell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681-18">[16]</a> Vowels and consonants were placed in a single chart, reflecting how sounds ranged in openness from stops (top) to open vowels (bottom). The <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">voiced velar fricative</a> was represented by ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ (distinct from ⟨ɡ⟩, which represents a plosive) since 1895 until it was replaced by ⟨ǥ⟩ in 1900.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1895-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a-20">[18]</a> ⟨ǥ⟩ too would be replaced by ⟨ɣ⟩ in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931-21">[19]</a> Not all letters, especially those in the fricatives row which included both <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> in the modern sense and <a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximants</a>, were self-explanatory and could only be discerned in the notes following the chart, which redefined letters using the orthographies of languages wherein the sounds they represent occur. For example: <blockquote>(ꞯ) [is] the Arabic ain [modern ⟨ʕ⟩]. (ꜰ) (ʋ) is a simple bilabial fricative [modern ⟨ɸ β⟩] ... (θ) is the English hard th, Spanish z, Romaic [Greek] θ, Icelandic þ; (ð) the English soft th, Icelandic ð, Romaic δ. (ɹ) is the non-rolled r of Southern British, and can also be used for the simple r of Spanish and Portuguese [modern ⟨ɾ⟩] ... (x) is found in German in ach; (ǥ), in wagen, as often pronounced in the north of Germany [modern ⟨ɣ⟩]. (ᴚ) is the Arabic kh as in khalifa [modern ⟨χ⟩]; (ʁ) the Danish r; the Parisian r is intermediate between (ʀ) and (ʁ). — (ʜ) [modern ⟨ħ⟩] and (ɦ) are the ha and he in Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> — (ᵷ) and (ʒ) are sounds in <a href="/wiki/Adyghe_language" title="Adyghe language">Circassian</a> [approximately modern ⟨ɕ ʑ⟩<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8-24">[22]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Nasalized_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasalized vowel">Nasalized vowels</a> were marked with a <a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a>: ⟨ã⟩, ⟨ẽ⟩, etc. It was noted that ⟨ə⟩ may be used for "any vowel of obscure and intermediate quality found in weak syllables".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8-24">[22]</a> A long sound was distinguished by trailing ⟨ː⟩. Stress may be marked by ⟨´⟩ before the stressed syllable, as necessary, and the Swedish and Norwegian 'compound tone' (double tone) with ⟨ˇ⟩ before the syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8-24">[22]</a> A voiced sound was marked by ⟨◌̬⟩ and a voiceless one by ⟨◌̥⟩. <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex consonants</a> were marked by ⟨◌̣⟩, as in ⟨ṣ, ṭ, ṇ⟩. Arabic <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a> were marked by ⟨◌̤⟩: ⟨s̤, t̤, d̤⟩. Consonants accompanied by a glottal stop (<a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejectives</a>) were marked by ⟨ʼ⟩: ⟨kʼ, pʼ⟩. <a href="/wiki/Tense_and_lax_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense and lax vowels">Tense and lax vowels</a> were distinguished by acute and grave accents: naught [nɔ́ːt], not [nɔ̀t]. Non-syllabic vowels were marked by a <a href="/wiki/Breve" title="Breve">breve</a>, as in ⟨ŭ⟩, and syllabic consonants by an acute below, as in ⟨n̗⟩. Following letters, ⟨꭫⟩ stood for advanced tongue, ⟨꭪⟩ for retracted tongue, ⟨˕⟩ for more open, ⟨˔⟩ for more close, ⟨˒⟩ for more rounded, and ⟨˓⟩ for more spread. It was also noted that a superscript letter may be used to indicate a tinge of that sound in the sound represented by the preceding letter, as in ⟨ʃᶜ̧⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b9-25">[23]</a> It was emphasized, however, that such details need not usually be repeated in transcription.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b9-25">[23]</a> The equivalent part of the 1904 English edition said: <blockquote>[I]t must remain a general principle to leave out everything self-evident, and everything that can be explained once for all. This allows us to dispense almost completely with the modifiers, and with a good many other signs, except in scientific works and in introductory explanations. We write English fill and French fil the same way fil; yet the English vowel is 'wide' and the French 'narrow', and the English l is formed much further back than the French. If we wanted to mark these differences, we should write English fìl꭪, French fíl꭫. But we need not do so: we know, once for all, that English short i is always ì, and French i always í; that English l is always l꭪ and French l always l꭫.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale190410-26">[24]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1904_chart">1904 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1904 chart">edit</a>]</div> In the 1904 Aim and Principles of the International Phonetic Association, the first of its kind in English, the chart appeared as:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19047-27">[25]</a> <table class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Bronchs </th> <th>Throat </th> <th>Uvula </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Back </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Front </th> <th>Tongue-point </th> <th>Lip </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Consonants</div> </th> <th>Stopped </th> <td> </td> <td>ˀ </td> <td>q  ɢ </td> <td>k  ɡ </td> <td>c  ɟ </td> <td>t  d </td> <td>p  b </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nasal </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ŋ </td> <td>ɲ </td> <td>n </td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <th>Side </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ɫ </td> <td>ʎ </td> <td>l </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Trilled </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ᴙ  ʀ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>r </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Squeezed </th> <td>ʜ  ꞯ </td> <td>h  ɦ </td> <td>ᴚ  ʁ </td> <td>(ʍ w)  x ǥ<a href="#cite_note-barred-g-15">[b]</a> </td> <td>(ɥ)  ç j </td> <td>ɹ,  θ ð,  ʃ ʒ,  s z </td> <td><div style="float: left;">f v</div><div style="float: right;">ꜰ ʋ</div> <div style="clear: both;">ʍ w  ɥ</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Vowels</div> </th> <th style="border: none;">Close </th> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="5" class="wrap"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">uɯüïyi</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;">ʊ   ʏı</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">o<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Ɐöëøe</div> <div>ə</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">ɔʌɔ̈äœɛ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;"> ɐæ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 50%;">ɑa</div> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5" style="text-align: right; vertical-align: top;"><div>(u ü y)</div> <div>(ʊ   ʏ)</div> <div>(o ö ø)</div> <div> </div> <div>(ɔ ɔ̈ œ)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-close </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Mid </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-open </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Open </th></tr></tbody></table> In comparison to the 1900 chart, the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> appeared as a modifier letter ⟨ˀ⟩ rather than a full letter ⟨ʔ⟩, ⟨ʊ⟩ replaced ⟨ᴜ⟩, and ⟨ɫ⟩ replaced ⟨ł⟩. ⟨ᵷ, ʒ⟩ were removed from the chart and instead only mentioned as having "been suggested for a Circassian dental hiss [sibilant] and its voiced correspondent".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale190410-26">[24]</a> ⟨σ⟩ is suggested for the Bantu labialized sibilant, and ⟨*⟩ as a diacritic to mark <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">click consonants</a>. It is noted that some prefer iconic ⟨ɵ ʚ⟩ to ⟨ø œ⟩, and that ⟨ı⟩ and ⟨ː⟩ are unsatisfactory letters. Laryngeal consonants had also been moved around, reflecting little understanding about the mechanisms of laryngeal articulations at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeselwood2013112–3-28">[26]</a> ⟨ʜ⟩ and ⟨ꞯ⟩ were defined as the Arabic ح and ع.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19048-29">[27]</a> In the notes, the half-length mark ⟨ˑ⟩ is now mentioned, and it is noted that whispered sounds may be marked with a diacritical comma, as in ⟨u̦, i̦⟩. A syllabic consonant is now marked by a vertical bar, as in ⟨n̩⟩, rather than ⟨n̗⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19049-30">[28]</a> It is noted, in this edition only, that "shifted vowels" may be indicated: ⟨꭪꭪⟩ for in-mixed or in-front, and ⟨꭫꭫⟩ for out-back.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1912_chart">1912 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1912 chart">edit</a>]</div> Following 1904, sets of specifications in French appeared in 1905 and 1908, with little to no changes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1905-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1908-33">[31]</a> In 1912, the second English booklet appeared. For the first time, labial sounds were shown on the left and laryngeal ones on the right:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191210-34">[32]</a> <table class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Lips </th> <th>Lip-teeth </th> <th>Point and Blade </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Front </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Back </th> <th>Uvula </th> <th>Throat </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Consonants</div> </th> <th>Plosive </th> <td>p  b </td> <td> </td> <td>t  d </td> <td style="text-align: left;">c  ɟ </td> <td style="text-align: right;">k  ɡ </td> <td>q  ɢ </td> <td>ˀ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nasal </th> <td>m </td> <td> </td> <td>n </td> <td style="text-align: left; padding-left: 1em;">ɲ </td> <td style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;">ŋ </td> <td>ɴ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Lateral </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>l  ɫ </td> <td style="text-align: left; padding-left: 1em;">ʎ </td> <td style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.8em;">(ɫ) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Rolled </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>r  ř </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ʀ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fricative </th> <td><div>ꜰ  ʋ</div> <div>ʍ w  ɥ</div> <div>σ  ƍ</div> </td> <td>f  v </td> <td><div>θ ð  s z</div> <div>σ ƍ  ʃ ʒ  ɹ</div> </td> <td style="text-align: left;">ç j  (ɥ) </td> <td style="text-align: right;">(ʍ w)  x ǥ<a href="#cite_note-barred-g-15">[b]</a> </td> <td>ᴚ  ʁ </td> <td>h  ɦ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Vowels</div> </th> <th style="border: none;"> </th> <td style="border-bottom: none;"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border: none;"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">Front Mixed Back</div> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Close </th> <td rowspan="4" style="vertical-align: top; border-top: none;"><div>(u ü y)</div> <div>(ʊ ʏ)</div> <div>(o ö ø)</div> <div> </div> <div>(ɔ ɔ̈ œ)</div> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" class="wrap" style="border-top: none;"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">i  yï  üɯ  u</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;">ɪ  ʏʊ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">e  øë  ö<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Ɐ  o</div> <div>ə</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">ɛ  œɛ̈  ɔ̈ʌ  ɔ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;">æɐ </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 50%;">aɑ</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-close </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-open </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Open </th></tr></tbody></table> ⟨ř⟩ was added for the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar fricative trill">Czech fricative trill</a>, ⟨ɛ̈⟩ replaced ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ɪ⟩ replaced ⟨ı⟩, following their approval in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPassy1909-35">[33]</a> Though not included in the chart, ⟨ɱ⟩ was mentioned as an optional letter for the <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental nasal">labiodental nasal</a>. ⟨ɹ⟩ was still designated as the "provisional" letter for the alveolar tap/flap. ⟨σ, ƍ⟩ were defined as the Bantu sounds with "tongue position of θ, ð, combined with strong lip-rounding". ⟨ʜ, ꞯ⟩ were still included though not in the chart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191212-36">[34]</a> ⟨ᴙ⟩ was removed entirely. For the first time, affricates, or "'[a]ssibilated' consonant groups, i. e. groups in which the two elements are so closely connected that the whole might be treated as a single sound", were noted as able to be represented with a <a href="/wiki/Tie_(typography)" title="Tie (typography)">tie bar</a>, as in ⟨t͡ʃ, d͜z⟩. <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalized</a> consonants could be marked by a <a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot</a> above the letter, as in ⟨ṡ, ṅ, ṙ⟩, "suggesting the connexion with the sounds i and j".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191213-37">[35]</a> ⟨꭫, ꭪⟩ were no longer mentioned. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1921_chart">1921 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1921 chart">edit</a>]</div> The 1921 Écriture phonétique internationale introduced new letters, some of which were never to be seen in any other booklet:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218-38">[36]</a> <table class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Laryn- gales </th> <th>Uvu- laires </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Vélaires </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Palatales </th> <th>Linguales </th> <th>Labiales </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Consonnes</div> </th> <th>Plosives </th> <td>ʔ<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> </td> <td>q  ɢ </td> <td style="text-align: left;">k  ɡ </td> <td style="text-align: right;">c  ɟ </td> <td>t  d </td> <td>p  b </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nasales </th> <td> </td> <td>ɴ </td> <td style="text-align: left;">ŋ </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ɲ </td> <td>n </td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <th>Latérales </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ʎ </td> <td>l </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Roulées </th> <td> </td> <td>ᴙ  ʀ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>r </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fricatives </th> <td>h </td> <td>χ  ʁ </td> <td>(ƕ w)  x ǥ<a href="#cite_note-barred-g-15">[b]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/File:H_turned_H_ligature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/16px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/24px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/32px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> ɥ)ç j </td> <td><div>ʃ ʒ  s z</div> <div>ɹ  θ ð</div> </td> <td><div>f v  ꜰ ʋ</div> <div>ƕ w  <a href="/wiki/File:H_turned_H_ligature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/16px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/24px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/32px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> ɥ</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Voyelles</div> </th> <th style="border: none;">Fermées </th> <td rowspan="4"> </td> <td rowspan="4"> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" class="wrap"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">u  ɯʉ  ɨy  i</div> <div> </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">o  ɤ<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a>ɵ  ɘø  e</div> <div>ə</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">ɔ  ʌʚ  ᴈœ  ɛ</div> <div>ɐ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 50%;">ɑa</div> </td> <td rowspan="4"> </td> <td rowspan="4" style="vertical-align: top;"><div>(u ʉ y)</div> <div> </div> <div>(o ɵ ø)</div> <div> </div> <div>(ɔ ʚ œ)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Mi-fermées </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Mi-ouvertes </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Ouvertes </th></tr></tbody></table> ⟨χ⟩ replaced ⟨ᴚ⟩ and ⟨ɤ⟩ replaced ⟨<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Ɐ⟩, both of which would not officially be approved until 1928.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928-41">[39]</a> ⟨ƕ⟩ replaced ⟨ʍ⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:H_turned_H_ligature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/16px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/24px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/H_turned_H_ligature.svg/32px-H_turned_H_ligature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ was added for a devoiced [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93palatal_approximant" title="Voiced labial–palatal approximant">ɥ</a>], but neither has appeared in any other IPA chart and the latter is not supported by Unicode. Also added were dedicated letters for the central vowels, ⟨ɨ, ʉ, ɘ, ɵ, ᴈ, ʚ⟩, which appeared again in <a href="#CITEREFTrofimovJones1923">Trofimov & Jones (1923)</a>, p. 40 and in the chart in Le Maître Phonétique from 1926 to 1927, though without the Council's approval.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681–2-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1975-43">[41]</a> Of these, only ⟨ɨ, ʉ, ᴈ, ɵ⟩ were approved in the 1928 revision, with a different value for ⟨ᴈ⟩, until ⟨ɘ, ʚ⟩ were revived and ⟨ᴈ⟩ regained the 1921 value in 1993. The old convention of ⟨ï, ü, ë, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈⟩ was retained for where central vowels were not phonemically distinct. ⟨ə, ɐ⟩ were still for obscure or indeterminate vowels, as opposed to the others, which would indicate clear pronunciations. The book also mentioned letters "already commonly used in special works", some of which had long been part of the IPA but others which "have not yet been definitively adopted":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218–9-44">[42]</a> <ul><li>⟨ɾ⟩ for a single-tap r</li> <li>⟨ř⟩ for the Czech fricative trill</li> <li>⟨ɦ⟩ for a voiced [h]</li> <li>⟨ħ, ʕ⟩ for the Arabic ح and ع, "whose formation we do not yet agree on"</li> <li>⟨σ, ƍ⟩ (dental) and ⟨ƪ, ƺ⟩ (alveolar or palatal) for labialized sibilants found in South African languages</li> <li>As "suggested": <ul><li>⟨ᵷ, ʒ⟩ for Circassian dental fricatives</li> <li>⟨ɮ⟩ for fricative [l] of Bantu languages</li> <li>⟨ɺ⟩ for a sound between [r] and [l] found in African languages and in Japanese</li></ul></li> <li>Small j for palatalized consonants: ⟨ƫ, ᶎ⟩</li> <li>Overlaying tilde for velarized and Arabic emphatic consonants: ⟨ᵵ, ᵭ⟩</li> <li>⟨ɕ, ʑ⟩ for "dentalized palatals"</li> <li>⟨𝼪⟩, ⟨𝼥⟩, ⟨r⟩, etc. for retroflex consonants, previously represented by ⟨ṭ, ḍ, ṛ⟩ etc.<a href="#cite_note-retroflex-45">[43]</a></li> <li>⟨ʧ⟩, ⟨ʤ⟩, ⟨ʦ⟩, ⟨ʣ⟩, ⟨pf⟩, ⟨tl⟩, etc. for affricates</li> <li>⟨ᴜ, ɪ, ʏ⟩ for the near-close equivalents of [o, e, ø]</li> <li>⟨ɒ, æ⟩ for the near-open vowels in English not, man</li> <li>⟨ʇ, ʖ, ʞ, ʗ⟩ for clicks, with ⟨ʞ⟩ for the common <a href="/wiki/Palatal_click" title="Palatal click">palatal click</a> (this would be called "velar" in later editions of the IPA, following Jones' terminology)</li></ul> It also introduced several new suprasegmental specifications:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19219-46">[44]</a> <ul><li>⟨ˎ⟩ for "half-accent"</li> <li>⟨˝⟩ for "reinforced accent"</li> <li>Tones could be indicated either before the syllable or on the nuclear vowel: ⟨´◌, ◌́⟩ high rising, ⟨ˉ◌, ◌̄⟩ high level, ⟨ˋ◌, ◌̀⟩ high falling, ⟨ˏ◌, ◌̗⟩ low rising, ⟨ˍ◌, ◌̠⟩ low level, ⟨ˎ◌, ◌̖⟩ low falling, ⟨ˆ◌, ◌̂⟩ rise-fall, ⟨ˇ◌, ◌̌⟩ fall-rise</li> <li>Medium tones, as necessary: ⟨´◌⟩ mid rising, ⟨ˉ◌⟩ mid level, ⟨˴◌⟩ mid falling</li></ul> It recommended the use of a circumflex for the Swedish grave accent, as in [ˆandən] ("the spirit").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19219-46">[44]</a> It was mentioned that some authors prefer ⟨˖, ˗⟩ in place of ⟨꭫, ꭪⟩. Aspiration was marked as ⟨pʻ, tʻ, kʻ⟩ and stronger aspiration as ⟨ph, th, kh⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale192110-47">[45]</a> The click letters ⟨ʇ, ʖ, ʞ, ʗ⟩ were conceived by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a>. In 1960, <a href="/wiki/A._C._Gimson" title="A. C. Gimson">A. C. Gimson</a> wrote to a colleague: <blockquote>Paul Passy recognized the need for letters for the various clicks in the July–August 1914 number of Le Maître Phonétique and asked for suggestions. This number, however, was the last for some years because of the war. During this interval, Professor Daniel Jones himself invented the four letters, in consultation with Paul Passy and they were all four printed in the pamphlet L'Écriture Phonétique Internationale published in 1921. The letters were thus introduced in a somewhat unusual way, without the explicit consent of the whole Council of the Association. They were, however, generally accepted from then on, and, as you say, were used by Professor <a href="/wiki/Clement_Martyn_Doke" title="Clement Martyn Doke">Doke</a> in 1923. I have consulted Professor Jones in this matter, and he accepts responsibility for their invention, during the period of the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreckwoldt1972285-48">[46]</a></blockquote> ⟨ʇ, ʖ, ʗ⟩ would be approved by the Council in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928-41">[39]</a> ⟨ʞ⟩ would be included in all subsequent booklets,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones192826-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCamilli193311-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesDahl194412-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194914-52">[50]</a> but not in the single-page charts. They would be replaced with the <a href="/wiki/Click_letter" title="Click letter">Lepsius/Bleek letters</a> in the 1989 Kiel revision. The 1921 book was the first in the series to mention the word phoneme (phonème).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale192110-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1925_Copenhagen_Conference_and_1927_revision">1925 Copenhagen Conference and 1927 revision</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1925 Copenhagen Conference and 1927 revision">edit</a>]</div> In April 1925, 12 linguists led by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a>, including IPA Secretary <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a>, attended a conference in Copenhagen and proposed specifications for a standardized system of phonetic notation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersenPedersen1926-53">[51]</a> The proposals were largely dismissed by the members of the IPA Council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees1998315-54">[52]</a> Nonetheless, the following additions recommended by the Conference were approved in 1927:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927-55">[53]</a> <ul><li>⟨ˑ⟩ could now indicate full length when there is no need to distinguish half and full length</li> <li>Straight ⟨ˈ⟩ for stress instead of the previous slanted ⟨´⟩, and ⟨ˌ⟩ for secondary stress</li> <li>⟨◌̫⟩ (recalling a w) for labialized and ⟨◌̪⟩ (recalling a tooth) for dental</li> <li>⟨ʈ, ɖ, ɳ, ɭ, ɽ, ʂ, ʐ⟩, with the arm moved under the letter, for retroflex consonants</li> <li>⟨ɸ, β⟩ for bilabial fricatives, replacing ⟨ꜰ, ʋ⟩ (⟨ʋ⟩ was repurposed for the <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental approximant">labiodental approximant</a>)</li> <li>⟨◌̣⟩ for more close and ⟨◌᪷⟩ for more open</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1928_revisions">1928 revisions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1928 revisions">edit</a>]</div> In 1928, the following letters were adopted:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928-41">[39]</a> <ul><li>⟨ɬ, ɮ⟩ for lateral fricatives</li> <li>⟨ᵭ⟩, ⟨ᵶ⟩, etc. for <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealization</a> (by extension from ⟨ɫ⟩)</li> <li>⟨ƫ⟩, ⟨ᶁ⟩, ⟨ᶇ⟩, etc. for <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalized</a> consonants</li> <li>⟨ɓ⟩, ⟨ɗ⟩, etc. for <a href="/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">implosives</a></li></ul> The following letters, which had appeared in earlier editions, were repeated or formalized:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928-41">[39]</a> <ul><li>⟨ɕ, ʑ⟩</li> <li>⟨ƪ, ƺ⟩</li> <li>⟨χ⟩</li> <li>⟨ħ, ʕ⟩</li> <li>⟨ɨ, ʉ, ɵ⟩</li> <li>⟨ɤ⟩</li> <li>⟨ᴈ⟩</li> <li>⟨ɒ⟩</li> <li>⟨ɺ⟩</li> <li>⟨ʇ, ʖ, ʗ⟩</li></ul> <a href="#CITEREFJones1928">Jones (1928)</a> also included ⟨ɱ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental nasal">labiodental nasal</a>, ⟨ɾ⟩ for a dental or alveolar tap, ⟨ʞ⟩ for a palatal ('velar') click, and the tonal notation system seen in <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, p. 9. For the Swedish and Norwegian compound tones he recommended "any arbitrarily chosen mark", with the illustration [˟andən] ("the spirit"). He used ⟨ᴜ⟩ in place of ⟨ʊ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones192823,_25–7-56">[54]</a> Apart from ⟨ᴜ⟩ and ⟨ʞ⟩, these new specifications would be inherited in the subsequent charts and booklets. The diacritics for whispered, ⟨◌̦⟩, and for tense and lax, ⟨◌́, ◌̀⟩, were no longer mentioned. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1932_chart">1932 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1932 chart">edit</a>]</div> An updated chart appeared as a supplement to <a href="/wiki/Le_Ma%C3%AEtre_Phon%C3%A9tique" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Maître Phonétique">Le Maître Phonétique</a> in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932-57">[55]</a> <table class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Bi-labial </th> <th>Labio- dental </th> <th colspan="3">Dental and Alveolar </th> <th>Retroflex </th> <th>Palato- alveolar </th> <th>Alveolo- palatal </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Palatal </th> <th style="min-width: 6em; max-width: 6em;">Velar </th> <th>Uvular </th> <th>Pharyngal </th> <th>Glottal </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="8" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Consonants</div> </th> <th style="text-align: left;">Plosive </th> <td colspan="2">p  b </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">t  d </td> <td>ʈ  ɖ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: left;">c  ɟ </td> <td style="text-align: right;">k  ɡ </td> <td>q  ɢ </td> <td> </td> <td>ˀ </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Nasal </th> <td colspan="2">m </td> <td>ɱ </td> <td colspan="3">n </td> <td>ɳ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: left;">ɲ </td> <td style="text-align: right;">ŋ </td> <td>ɴ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Lateral Fricative </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">ɬ  ɮ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Lateral Non-fricative </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">l </td> <td>ɭ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: left;">ʎ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Rolled </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">r </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ʀ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Flapped </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3">ɾ </td> <td>ɽ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ʀ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Fricative </th> <td colspan="2">ɸ  β </td> <td>f  v </td> <td>θ ð </td> <td>s z </td> <td>ɹ </td> <td>ʂ  ʐ </td> <td>ʃ ʒ </td> <td>ɕ  ʑ </td> <td style="text-align: left;">ç  j </td> <td style="text-align: right;">x  ɣ </td> <td>χ  ʁ </td> <td>ħ  ʕ </td> <td>h  ɦ </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left;">Frictionless Continuants and Semi-vowels </th> <td>w </td> <td>ɥ </td> <td>ʋ </td> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: right;">ɹ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: left;">j  (ɥ) </td> <td style="text-align: right;">(w) </td> <td>ʁ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Vowels</div> </th> <th style="border: none;"> </th> <td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: none;"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border: none;"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">Front Central Back</div> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td> <td rowspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Close </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" style="vertical-align: top; border-top: none;"><div>(y ʉ u)</div> <div> </div> <div>(ø o)</div> <div> </div> <div>(œ ɔ)</div> <div> </div> <div>(ɒ)</div> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" class="wrap" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right; border-top: none;"><div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">i  yɨ  ʉɯ  u</div> <div> </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">e  øɤ  o</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 75%;"> ə </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">ɛ  œʌ  ɔ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;">æɐ </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 50%;">aɑ  ɒ</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-close </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Half-open </th></tr> <tr> <th style="border: none;">Open </th></tr></tbody></table> The vowels were now arranged in a right-angled trapezium as opposed to an <a href="/wiki/Isosceles_trapezium" class="mw-redirect" title="Isosceles trapezium">isosceles trapezium</a>, reflecting <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a>'s development of the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Vowel">Cardinal Vowel</a> theory. A practically identical chart—with the exception of ⟨ɣ⟩—in German had appeared in <a href="#CITEREFJones1928">Jones (1928)</a>, p. 23. The substitution of ⟨ɣ⟩ for ⟨ǥ⟩ was approved in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931-21">[19]</a> The accompanying notes read: <blockquote style="text-indent: 2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Other Sounds.—Palatalized consonants: ƫ, ᶁ, etc. Velarized or pharyngealized consonants: ɫ, ᵭ, ᵴ, etc. Ejective consonants (plosives [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] with simultaneous glottal stop): pʼ, tʼ, etc. Implosive voiced consonants: ɓ, ɗ, etc. ř fricative trill. σ, ƍ (labialized θ, ð, or s, z). ƪ, ƺ (labialized ʃ, ʒ). ʇ, ʗ, ʖ (clicks, Zulu c, q, x). ɺ (a sound between r and l). ʍ (voiceless w). ɪ, ʏ, ʊ (lowered varieties of i, y, u). ᴈ (a variety of ə). ɵ (a vowel between ø and o). Affricates are normally represented by groups of two consonants (ts, tʃ, dʒ, etc.), but, when necessary, ligatures are used (ʦ, ʧ, ʤ, etc.), or the marks  ͡    or  ͜    (t͡s or t͜s, etc.). c, ɟ may occasionally be used in place of tʃ, dʒ. Aspirated plosives: ph, th, etc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Length, Stress, Pitch.— ː (full length). ˑ (half length). ˈ (stress, placed at the beginning of the stressed syllable). ˌ (secondary stress). ˉ (high level pitch); ˍ (low level); ˊ (high rising); ˏ (low rising); ˋ (high falling); ˎ (low falling); ˆ (rise-fall); ˇ (fall-rise). See Écriture Phonétique Internationale, p. 9. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Modifiers.— ˜ nasality. ˳ breath (l̥ = breathed l). ˬ voice (s̬ = z). ʻ slight aspiration following p, t, etc.  ̣ specially close vowel (ẹ = a very close e). ᪷ specially open vowel (e᪷ = a rather open e).  ̫ labialization (n̫ = labialized n).  ̪ dental articulation (t̪ = dental t). ˙ palatalization (ż = ᶎ). ˔ tongue slightly raised. ˕ tongue slightly lowered. ˒ lips more rounded. ˓ lips more spread. Central vowels ï (= ɨ), ü (= ʉ), ë (= ə˔), ö (= ɵ), ɛ̈, ɔ̈. ˌ (e.g. n̩) syllabic consonant. ˘ consonantal vowel. ʃˢ variety of ʃ resembling s, etc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932-57">[55]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1938_chart">1938 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1938 chart">edit</a>]</div> A new chart appeared in 1938, with a few modifications. ⟨ɮ⟩ was replaced by ⟨ꜧ⟩, which was approved earlier in the year with the form ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_(narrow).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/10px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/15px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/20px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="10" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ approved as a compromise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1938-58">[56]</a> The use of tie bars ⟨◌͡◌, ◌͜◌⟩ was allowed for <a href="/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant" title="Co-articulated consonant">synchronous articulation</a> in addition to affricates, as in ⟨m͡ŋ⟩ for simultaneous [m] and [ŋ], which was approved in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937-59">[57]</a> In the notes, the reference to <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, p. 9, in regard to tonal notation was removed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1947_chart">1947 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1947 chart">edit</a>]</div> A new chart appeared in 1947, reflecting minor developments up to the point. They were:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947-61">[59]</a> <ul><li>⟨ʔ⟩ for the glottal stop, replacing ⟨ˀ⟩</li> <li>⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_(narrow).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/10px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/15px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/20px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="10" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩, the compromise form approved in 1938,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1938-58">[56]</a> replacing ⟨ꜧ⟩</li> <li>⟨ʆ, ʓ⟩ for palatalized [ʃ, ʒ]</li> <li>⟨ɼ⟩ replacing ⟨ř⟩, approved in 1945<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1945-62">[60]</a></li> <li>⟨ƞ⟩ for the Japanese syllabic nasal</li> <li>⟨ɧ⟩ for a combination of [x] and [ʃ]</li> <li>⟨ɩ, ɷ⟩ replacing ⟨ɪ, ʊ⟩, approved in 1943 while condoning the use of the latter except in the Association's official publications<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1943-63">[61]</a></li> <li>⟨ƾ, ƻ⟩ as alternatives for [t͡s, d͡z]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-coloured_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="R-coloured vowel">R-coloured vowels</a>: ⟨eɹ⟩, ⟨aɹ⟩, ⟨ɔɹ⟩, etc., ⟨eʴ⟩, ⟨aʴ⟩, ⟨ɔʴ⟩, etc., or ⟨ᶒ⟩, ⟨ᶏ⟩, ⟨ᶗ⟩, etc.</li> <li>R-coloured [ə]: ⟨əɹ⟩, ⟨əʴ⟩, ⟨ɹ⟩, or ⟨ᶕ⟩</li> <li>⟨◌̟, ◌˖⟩ and ⟨◌̠, ◌˗⟩ (or with serifs, as in ⟨◌I⟩) for advanced and retracted, respectively, officially replacing ⟨◌꭫, ◌꭪⟩</li></ul> The word "plosives" in the description of ejectives and the qualifier "slightly" in the definitions of ⟨˔, ˕⟩ were removed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1949_Principles">1949 Principles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1949 Principles">edit</a>]</div> The 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association was the last installment in the series until it was superseded by the Handbook of the IPA in 1999.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999vii-64">[62]</a> It introduced some new specifications:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194915–9-65">[63]</a> <ul><li>Inserting a hyphen between a plosive and a homorganic fricative to denote they are separately pronounced, as in ⟨t-s⟩, ⟨d-z⟩, ⟨t-ʃ⟩</li> <li>⟨eh⟩, ⟨ah⟩, etc. or ⟨e̒⟩, ⟨a̒⟩, etc. for "vowels pronounced with 'breathy voice' (h-coloured vowels)"</li> <li>⟨m̆b⟩, ⟨n̆d⟩, etc. "to show that a nasal consonant is very short and that the intimate combination with the following plosive counts as a single sound", in parallel to use for non-syllabic vowels</li> <li>An "arbitrarily chosen mark" such as ⟨˟⟩ or ⟨ˇ⟩ for a Swedish or Norwegian compound tone, as in [ˇandən] ("the spirit")</li></ul> None of these specifications were inherited in the subsequent charts. ⟨ˌ⟩ was defined as an indicator of "medium stress".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194918-66">[64]</a> ⟨ʞ⟩ was defined as a velar click, whereas previously it had been identified as the <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoekhoe</a> click not found in Xhosa (that is, as a <a href="/wiki/Palatal_click" title="Palatal click">palatal click</a>). In 1948, ⟨ɡ⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ were approved as typographic alternatives, while it was also acknowledged that ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ may be used for a velar plosive and ⟨ɡ⟩ (or preferably ⟨ꞔ⟩) for an advanced one in narrow transcription of a language where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1948-67">[65]</a> The 1949 Principles recommended this alternation of the letters but did not mention their typographic equivalency in other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194914-52">[50]</a> Nevertheless, the recommendation was hardly adopted,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2006-68">[66]</a> not even by <a href="#CITEREFJonesWard1969">Jones & Ward (1969)</a>, who used ⟨ɡ⟩ and ⟨ᶃ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesWard1969115-69">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1951_chart">1951 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1951 chart">edit</a>]</div> The 1951 chart added ⟨ɚ⟩ as yet another alternative to an r-coloured [ə],<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952-70">[68]</a> following its approval in 1950.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson1950-71">[69]</a> Conceived by <a href="/wiki/John_Samuel_Kenyon" title="John Samuel Kenyon">John S. Kenyon</a>, the letter was in itself a combination of ⟨ə⟩ and the hook for retroflex consonants approved by the IPA in 1927. Since its introduction in 1935, the letter was widely adopted by American linguists and the IPA had been asked to recognize it as part of the alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyon1951315–7-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEditors_of_''American_Speech''1939-73">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1979_chart">1979 chart</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1979 chart">edit</a>]</div> In 1979, a revised chart appeared, incorporating the developments in the alphabet which were made earlier in the decade:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1978-74">[72]</a> <table role="presentation" class="wikitable nowrap mw-collapsible mw-collapsible-leftside-toggle" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border-bottom: none;">THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (Revised to 1979) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none;"> <table style="border-spacing: 0; border-top: solid 1px;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em; border-left: solid 1px;">Bilabial </td> <td colspan="2">Labiodental </td> <td colspan="5" style="border-left: solid 1px;">Dental, Alveolar, or Post-alveolar </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em;">Retroflex </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em; vertical-align: top; border-left: solid 1px;">Palato- alveolar </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em;">Palatal </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em;">Velar </td> <td colspan="2">Uvular </td> <td colspan="2" style="vertical-align: bottom; border-left: solid 1px;">Labial- Palatal </td> <td colspan="2" style="vertical-align: bottom;">Labial- Velar </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;">Pharyngeal </td> <td colspan="2" style="padding: 0.5em;">Glottal </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="12" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style="letter-spacing: 1.5em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">CONSONANTS</div> </td> <td rowspan="8" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">(pulmonic air-stream mechanism)</div> </td> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">Nasal </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">m </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɱ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">n </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɳ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɲ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ŋ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɴ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Plosive </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">p </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">b </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">t </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">d </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʈ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɖ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">c </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɟ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">k </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɡ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">q </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɢ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">k͡p </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">g͡b </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;">ʔ </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: bottom;"> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">(Median) Fricative </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ɸ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">β </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">f </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">v </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">θ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ð </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">s </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">z </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʂ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʐ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʃ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʒ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ç </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">j </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">x </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɣ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">χ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʁ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʍ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ħ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʕ </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">h </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɦ </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: bottom;"> <td style="text-align: left;">(Median) Approximant </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ʋ </td> <td colspan="4" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɹ </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɻ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>j </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɰ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;">ɥ </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>w </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: bottom;"> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">Lateral Fricative </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ɬ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="8" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: bottom;"> <td style="text-align: left;">Lateral (Approximant) </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>l </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>ɭ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ʎ </td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">Trill </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">r </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʀ </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Tap or Flap </td> <td>ɾ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>ɽ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-left: solid 1px;">ʀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style="max-width:2em; width:2em;"><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">(non-pulmonic air-stream)</div> </td> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">Ejective </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">pʼ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">tʼ </td> <td colspan="5" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">kʼ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Implosive </td> <td style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɓ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɗ </td> <td colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="5" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ɠ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; border-top: solid 1px;">(Median) Click </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;">ʘ </td> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʇ </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px;">ʗ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px; border-left: solid 1px;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Lateral Click </td> <td colspan="4" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="border-left: solid 1px;"> </td> <td>ʖ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"> <td colspan="16" style="border-top: solid 1px; padding: 0.5em;"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2">DIACRITICS </td> <td>OTHER SYMBOLS </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.2;"> <td style="width: 33%;"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̥ </td> <td>Voiceless n̥ d̥ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̬ </td> <td>Voiced s̬ t̬ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ʰ </td> <td>Aspirated tʰ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̤ </td> <td>Breathy-voiced b̤ ə̤ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̪ </td> <td>Dental t̪ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̫ </td> <td>Labialized t̫ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̡ </td> <td>Palatalized ƫ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: top;"> ̴ </td> <td>Velarized or Pharyn- gealized ᵵ, ɫ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̩ </td> <td>Syllabic n̩ l̩ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: top;"> ͡    or  ͜    </td> <td>Simultaneous s͜f (but see also under the heading Affricates) </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="width: 33%;"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˔ or  ̣ </td> <td>Raised e˔, e̝, ẹ  ẉ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˕ or ᪷ </td> <td>Lowered e˕, e̞, e᪷ ʁ᪷ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˖ </td> <td>Advanced u˖, u̟ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˗ or I </td> <td>Retracted i̠, i˗,  t̠ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">¨ </td> <td>Centralized ë </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;"> ̃ </td> <td>Nasalized ɑ̃ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ʴ, ʵ, ʶ </td> <td>r-coloured ɑʴ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ː </td> <td>Long ɑː </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ˑ </td> <td>Half-long ɑˑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˘ </td> <td>Non-syllabic ŭ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˒ </td> <td>More rounded ɔ˒ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">˓ </td> <td>Less rounded y˓ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td style="width: 33%;"> <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɕ, ʑ </td> <td>Alveolo-palatal fricatives </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ʆ, ʓ </td> <td>Palatalized ʃ, ʒ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɼ </td> <td>Alveolar fricative trill </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɺ </td> <td>Alveolar lateral flap </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɧ </td> <td>Simultaneous ʃ and x </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: top;">ʃˢ </td> <td>Variety of ʃ resembling s, etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɪ </td> <td>= ɩ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ʊ </td> <td>= ɷ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɜ<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> </td> <td>= Variety of ə </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">ɚ </td> <td>= r-coloured ə </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td colspan="4" style="min-width: 10em; max-width: 10em; border-top: solid 1px;"><div style="padding: 0.5em; display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">Front Back</div> <div class="wrap" style="text-align: right; border: solid 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;"> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">iɨɯ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;"> ɩ   </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;">eɤ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;"> ə </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">ɛʌ</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 70%;">æɐ </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;">aɑ</div> </div> <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center;">Unrounded</div> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border-top: solid 1px; padding: 0.5em;"><div>VOWELS</div> <div style="padding-top: 0.5em;"> <div>Close</div> <div> </div> <div>Half-close</div> <div> </div> <div>Half-open</div> <div> </div> <div>Open</div> </div> </td> <td colspan="4" style="min-width: 10em; max-width: 10em; border-top: solid 1px;"><div style="padding: 0.5em; display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">Front Back</div> <div class="wrap" style="text-align: right; border: solid 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;"> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;">yʉu</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 100%;"> ʏ ɷ </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;">øo</div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 90%;"> ɵ </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 80%;">œɔ</div> <div> </div> <div style="display: inline-flex; justify-content: space-between; width: 60%;">ɶɒ</div> </div> <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center;">Rounded</div> </td> <td colspan="4" style="max-width: 12em; border-top: solid 1px; padding: 0.5em; line-height: 1.2;"><div>STRESS, TONE (PITCH)</div> ˈ stress, placed at begin- ning of stressed syllable: ˌ secondary stress: ˉ high level pitch, high tone: ˍ low level: ˊ high rising: ˏ low rising: ˋ high falling: ˎ low falling: ˆ rise-fall: ˇ fall-rise. AFFRICATES can be written as digraphs, as ligatures, or with slur marks; thus ts, tʃ, dʒ: ʦ ʧ ʤ: t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ. c, ɟ may occasionally be used for tʃ, dʒ. </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> ⟨ɻ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex approximant">retroflex approximant</a> was approved in 1973. On the same occasion, ⟨š⟩, ⟨ž⟩, ⟨č⟩, and ⟨ǰ⟩ or ⟨ǧ⟩ as alternatives for [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ] were proposed but the votes were inconclusive. Diacritics ⟨◌̢⟩ (subscript, not attached) for retroflexion, ⟨◌̮⟩ for palatalization, and ⟨◌̯⟩ for indicating non-fricative continuant were proposed but rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson1973-76">[74]</a> The following changes were approved in 1976:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1976-77">[75]</a> <ul><li>⟨ɶ⟩ for the rounded equivalent of [a] (taken from the accompanying text to <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a>'s 1956 recording of the Secondary <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal Vowels">Cardinal Vowels</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1975-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones195612–3,_15-78">[76]</a></li> <li>⟨◌̈⟩ representing "centralized" rather than "central"</li> <li>⟨ʰ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspiration</a> (though this was approved merely as an alternative to ⟨ʻ⟩, neither the latter diacritic nor the letter ⟨h⟩ succeeding a plosive were mentioned in the 1979 chart)</li> <li>⟨◌̚⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Unreleased_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreleased stop">absence of audible release</a> (omitted in the chart)</li> <li>⟨ʘ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_click" title="Bilabial click">bilabial click</a></li> <li>⟨◌̤⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a></li> <li>⟨ɰ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Velar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar approximant">velar approximant</a></li> <li>Application of ⟨◌̣, ◌᪷⟩ (but not ⟨◌̝ ◌˔, ◌̞ ◌˕⟩) to consonant letters to denote fricative and approximant, respectively, as in ⟨ɹ̣, ɹ᪷⟩</li></ul> On the same occasion, the following letters and diacritics were removed because they had "fallen into disuse":<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1976-77">[75]</a> <ul><li>⟨◌̇⟩ for palatalization</li> <li>⟨ƾ, ƻ⟩ for [t͡s, d͡z]</li> <li>⟨ƞ⟩ for Japanese moraic nasal</li> <li>⟨σ, ƍ, ƪ, ƺ⟩ for labialized [θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ]</li> <li>⟨◌̢⟩ for r-colouring, as in ⟨ᶒ, ᶏ, ᶗ, ᶕ⟩</li></ul> On the other hand, ⟨ɘ⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">close-mid central unrounded vowel</a>, ⟨ɞ⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">open-mid central rounded vowel</a>, and ⟨ᴀ⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">open central unrounded vowel</a> were proposed but rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1975-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1976-77">[75]</a> The proposal of ⟨ɘ, ɞ⟩ was based on <a href="#CITEREFAbercrombie1967">Abercrombie (1967)</a>, p. 161.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClure197220-79">[77]</a> ⟨ʝ⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">voiced palatal fricative</a> and ⟨◌̰⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a> were proposed but the votes were inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1976-77">[75]</a> In the 1979 chart, ⟨ɩ, ʏ, ɷ⟩, previously defined as "lowered varieties of i, y, u", appeared slightly centered rather than simply midway between [i, y, u] and [e, ø, o] as they did in the 1912 chart. ⟨ɪ, ʊ⟩, the predecessors to ⟨ɩ, ɷ⟩, were acknowledged as alternatives to ⟨ɩ, ɷ⟩ under the section "Other symbols". ⟨ɵ⟩ appeared as the rounded counterpart to [ə] rather than between [ø] and [o]. The name of the column "Dental and alveolar" was changed to "Dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar". "Pharyngeal", "trill", "tap or flap", and "approximant" replaced "pharyngal", "rolled", "flapped", and "frictionless continuants", respectively. ⟨ɹ, ʁ⟩, which were listed twice in both the fricative and frictionless continuant rows in the previous charts, now appeared as an approximant and a fricative, respectively, while the line between the rows was erased, indicating certain fricative letters may represent approximants and vice versa, with the employment of the raised and lowered diacritics if necessary. ⟨ʍ⟩, previously defined as "voiceless w", was specified as a fricative. ⟨j⟩ remained listed twice in the fricative and approximant rows. ⟨ɺ⟩, previously defined merely as "a sound between r and l", was redefined as an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral flap">alveolar lateral flap</a>, in keeping with the use for which it had been originally approved, "a sound between l and d". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1989_Kiel_Convention">1989 Kiel Convention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1989 Kiel Convention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_as_of_1989.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/IPA_as_of_1989.png/440px-IPA_as_of_1989.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/IPA_as_of_1989.png/660px-IPA_as_of_1989.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/IPA_as_of_1989.png/880px-IPA_as_of_1989.png 2x" data-file-width="3882" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The IPA in 1989 (recreated from the 2005 chart; some glyphs may not be accurate)</figcaption></figure> By the 1980s, phonetic theories had developed so much since the inception of the alphabet that the framework of it had become outdated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedRoach1986-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987a-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987b-82">[80]</a> To resolve this, at the initiative of IPA President <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a>, approximately 120 members of the IPA gathered at a convention held in <a href="/wiki/Kiel" title="Kiel">Kiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, in August 1989, to discuss revisions of both the alphabet and the principles it is founded upon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a-11">[10]</a> It was at this convention that it was decided that the Handbook of the IPA (<a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association 1999</a>) would be written and published to supersede the 1949 Principles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a69-83">[81]</a> In addition to the revisions of the alphabet, two workgroups were set up, one on computer coding of IPA characters and computer representation of individual languages, and the other on pathological speech and voice quality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999165,_185-84">[82]</a> The former group concluded that each IPA character should be assigned a three-digit number for computer coding known as IPA Number, which was published in <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 161–185. The latter devised a set of recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech based on the IPA known as the <a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet</a> or extIPA, which was published in 1990 and adopted by the <a href="/wiki/International_Clinical_Phonetics_and_Linguistics_Association" title="International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association">International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association</a>, which now maintains it, in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999186-85">[83]</a> A drastically renewed chart of the alphabet reflecting decisions made at the convention appeared later in the year. Additions were:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b-86">[84]</a> <ul><li>Consonants <ul><li>⟨ʙ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_trill" title="Voiced bilabial trill">voiced bilabial trill</a></li> <li>⟨ʝ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">voiced palatal fricative</a>, with ⟨j⟩ now standing for only the approximant</li> <li>⟨ʟ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced velar lateral approximant">voiced velar lateral approximant</a> (proposed at least as far back as 1926)</li> <li>⟨ʄ, ʛ⟩ for voiced palatal and uvular implosives</li> <li>⟨ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ⟩ for voiceless implosives</li> <li>⟨ʜ, ʢ⟩ for epiglottal fricatives</li> <li>⟨ʡ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_plosive" title="Epiglottal plosive">voiced epiglottal plosive</a> [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>]</li> <li>⟨ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ⟩ for dental, (post)alveolar, alveolar lateral and palatal clicks, replacing ⟨ʇ, ʖ, ʗ⟩ and obsolescent ⟨ʞ⟩ (see <a href="/wiki/Click_letter" title="Click letter">click letter</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöhlerLadefogedSnymanTraill1988-87">[85]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Diacritics <ul><li>⟨◌̰⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a></li> <li>⟨◌̼, ◌̺, ◌̻⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">linguolabial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">laminal</a></li> <li>⟨◌̹, ◌̜⟩ for more and less rounded, now placed under the letter</li> <li>⟨◌̽⟩ for mid-centralized</li> <li>⟨◌̘, ◌̙⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Advanced_and_retracted_tongue_root" title="Advanced and retracted tongue root">advanced and retracted tongue root</a></li> <li>⟨◌ ˞⟩ for <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">rhoticity</a></li> <li>⟨◌ʷ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialization</a>, replacing ⟨◌̫⟩</li> <li>⟨◌ʲ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a>, replacing ⟨◌̡⟩</li> <li>⟨◌ˠ, ◌ˤ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealization</a>, augmenting ⟨◌̴⟩</li> <li>⟨◌ⁿ, ◌ˡ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Nasal_release" title="Nasal release">nasal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lateral_release_(phonetics)" title="Lateral release (phonetics)">lateral release</a></li> <li>⟨◌̯⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">non-syllabic</a>, replacing ⟨◌̆⟩, which now stood for extra-short</li></ul></li> <li>Suprasegmentals <ul><li>⟨◌̆⟩, which had previously stood for non-syllabic, for <a href="/wiki/Extra-short" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-short">extra-short</a></li> <li>⟨.⟩ for a syllable break</li> <li>⟨|, ‖⟩ for minor (foot) and major (intonation) groups</li> <li>⟨‿⟩ for linking (absence of a break)</li> <li>⟨↗, ↘⟩ for global rise and fall of pitch</li> <li>⟨ꜜ, ꜛ⟩ for <a href="/wiki/Downstep" title="Downstep">downstep</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upstep" title="Upstep">upstep</a></li></ul></li></ul> Tone, which had been indicated with an iconic line preceding the syllable or above or below the vowel, was now written one of two ways: with a similar iconic line following the syllable and anchored to a vertical bar, as in ⟨˥, ˦, ˧˩˨⟩ (<a href="/wiki/Yuen_Ren_Chao" title="Yuen Ren Chao">Chao</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tone_letter" title="Tone letter">tone letters</a>), or with more abstract diacritics written over the vowel (acute = high, macron = mid, grave = low), which could be compounded with each other, as in ⟨ə᷄, ə᷆, ə᷈, ə̋, ə̏⟩. The palato-alveolar column was removed and ⟨ʃ, ʒ⟩ were listed alongside the postalveolars. ⟨ɹ⟩ appeared at the same horizontal position as the other alveolars rather than slightly more back as did in the previous charts. ⟨ʀ⟩ was specified as a trill rather than either a trill or flap. The alternative raised and lowered diacritics ⟨◌̣, ◌᪷⟩ were eliminated in favour of ⟨◌̝, ◌̞⟩, which could now be attached to consonants to denote fricative or approximant, as in ⟨ɹ̝, β̞⟩. Diacritics for relative articulation placed next to, rather than below, a letter, namely ⟨◌˖, ◌˗ (◌I), ◌˔, ◌˕⟩, were no longer mentioned. The diacritic for no audible release ⟨◌̚⟩ was finally mentioned in the chart. ⟨ɩ, ɷ⟩ were eliminated in favour of ⟨ɪ, ʊ⟩. The letter for the <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">close-mid back unrounded vowel</a> was modified from ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ ("baby gamma"), with a flat top, to ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ ("ram's horns"), with a rounded top, to better distinguish it from ⟨ɣ⟩, which represents a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">voiced velar fricative</a>. ⟨ɮ⟩ was revived in place of ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_(narrow).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/10px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/15px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg/20px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt_%28narrow%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="10" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩. ⟨ɚ⟩ was no longer mentioned, and instead a right-hook diacritic ⟨˞⟩ was added for rhoticity; the superscript rhotic diacritics were retired. ⟨ʆ, ʓ⟩ for palatalized [ʃ, ʒ] and ⟨ɼ⟩ for the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_fricative_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar fricative trill">alveolar fricative trill</a> were withdrawn (now written ⟨ʃʲ, ʒʲ⟩ and ⟨r̝⟩). The affricate ligatures were withdrawn. The tie bar below letters for affricates and doubly articulated consonants, as in ⟨t͜s⟩, was no longer mentioned. The practice of placing a superscript letter to indicate the resemblance to a sound, previously illustrated by ⟨ʃˢ⟩, was no longer explicitly recommended. At the convention, proposals such as ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:W_with_left_hook.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/W_with_left_hook.svg/16px-W_with_left_hook.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/W_with_left_hook.svg/24px-W_with_left_hook.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/W_with_left_hook.svg/32px-W_with_left_hook.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ for a voiced labial–velar fricative, ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:L_with_reversed_belt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/L_with_reversed_belt.svg/16px-L_with_reversed_belt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/L_with_reversed_belt.svg/24px-L_with_reversed_belt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/L_with_reversed_belt.svg/32px-L_with_reversed_belt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless velar lateral fricative">voiceless velar lateral fricative</a>, ⟨ɮ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced velar lateral fricative">voiced velar lateral fricative</a>, ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg/16px-Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg/24px-Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg/32px-Turned_Y_with_reversed_belt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal lateral fricative">voiceless palatal lateral fricative</a>, ⟨ŝ, ẑ⟩ for "the 'hissing-hussing' fricatives of some Caucasian languages", and ⟨ᴀ⟩ for an <a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">open central unrounded vowel</a> were discussed but dismissed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a72,_74-88">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_principles">New principles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New principles">edit</a>]</div> The six principles set out in 1888 were replaced by a much longer text consisting of seven paragraphs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a-11">[10]</a> The first two paragraphs established the alphabet's purpose, namely to be "a set of symbols for representing all the possible sounds of the world's languages" and "representing fine distinctions of sound quality, making the IPA well suited for use in all disciplines in which the representation of speech sounds is required".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a67-89">[87]</a> The second paragraph also said, "[p] is a shorthand way of designating the intersection of the categories voiceless, bilabial, and plosive; [m] is the intersection of the categories voiced, bilabial, and nasal; and so on",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68-90">[88]</a> refining the previous, less clearly defined principle #2 with the application of the <a href="/wiki/Distinctive_feature" title="Distinctive feature">distinctive feature</a> theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199937–8-91">[89]</a> Discouragement of diacritics was relaxed, though recommending their use be limited: "(i) For denoting length, stress and pitch. (ii) For representing minute shades of sounds. (iii) When the introduction of a single, diacritic obviates the necessity for designing a number of new symbols (as, for instance, in the representation of nasalized vowels)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68-90">[88]</a> The principles also adopted the recommendation of enclosing phonetic transcriptions in square brackets [ ] and phonemic ones in slashes / /,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68-90">[88]</a> a practice that emerged in the 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitner2003326_n.&nbsp;6-92">[90]</a> The principles were reprinted in the 1999 Handbook.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999159–60-93">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1993_revision">1993 revision</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1993 revision">edit</a>]</div> Following the 1989 revision, a number of proposals for revisions appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the IPA</a>, which were submitted to the Council of the IPA. In 1993, the Council approved the following changes:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a-94">[92]</a> <ul><li>⟨ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ⟩ for the voiceless implosives were withdrawn.</li> <li>The non-pulmonic consonants (ejectives and implosives) were removed from the main table and set up with the clicks in a separate section, with ⟨ʼ⟩ acknowledged as an independent modifier for ejective (therefore allowing combinations absent in the chart).</li> <li>It was noted that subdiacritics may be moved above a letter to avoid interference with a descender.</li> <li>The central vowels of the 1921 chart were restored, bringing the total back to five: schwa plus open-mid ⟨ɜ⟩ and ⟨ʚ⟩, and close-mid ⟨ɘ⟩ and ⟨ɵ⟩.</li> <li>The right half of the cell for pharyngeal plosives was shaded, indicating the impossibility of a voiced pharyngeal plosive.</li></ul> On the same occasion, it was reaffirmed that ⟨ɡ⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ are typographic alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a-94">[92]</a> The revised chart was now portrait-oriented. ⟨ə⟩ and ⟨ɐ⟩ were moved to the centerline of the vowel chart, indicating that they are not necessarily unrounded. The word "voiced" was removed from the definition for ⟨ʡ⟩, now simply "<a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_plosive" title="Epiglottal plosive">epiglottal plosive</a>". "Other symbols" and diacritics were slightly rearranged. The outer stroke of the letter for a bilabial click ⟨ʘ⟩ was modified from a circle with a uniform line width to the shape of uppercase O.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1996_update">1996 update</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1996 update">edit</a>]</div> In 1996, it was announced that the form of the <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">open-mid central rounded vowel</a> in the 1993 chart, ⟨ʚ⟩, was a typographical error and should be changed to ⟨ɞ⟩, stating the latter was the form that "<a href="/wiki/J._C._Catford" title="J. C. Catford">J. C. Catford</a> had in mind when he proposed the central vowel changes ... in 1990", also citing <a href="#CITEREFAbercrombie1967">Abercrombie (1967)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFCatford1977">Catford (1977)</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling1995-96">[94]</a> who had ⟨ɞ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967161-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatford1977178–9-98">[96]</a> However, the letter Catford had proposed for the value in 1990 was in fact ⟨ꞓ⟩ (a barred ⟨ɔ⟩), with an alternative being ⟨ʚ⟩, but not ⟨ɞ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECatford1990-99">[97]</a> Errata for <a href="#CITEREFCatford1990">Catford (1990)</a> appeared in 1992, but the printed form was again ⟨ʚ⟩ and the errata even acknowledged that ⟨ʚ⟩ was included in <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, pp. 6–7, as pointed out by <a href="/wiki/David_Abercrombie_(linguist)" title="David Abercrombie (linguist)">David Abercrombie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1991-100">[98]</a> In the updated chart, which was published in the front matter of the 1999 Handbook of the IPA, the subsections were rearranged so that the left edge of the vowel chart appeared right beneath the palatal column, hinting at the palatal place of articulation for [i, y], as did in all pre-1989 charts, though the space did not allow the back vowels to appear beneath the velars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010697-101">[99]</a> A tie bar placed below letters, as in ⟨t͜s⟩, was mentioned again. ⟨˞⟩ was now attached to the preceding letter, as in ⟨ə˞⟩. A few illustrations in the chart were changed: ⟨a˞⟩ was added for rhoticity, and ⟨i̠, ɹ̩⟩ were replaced with ⟨e̠, n̩⟩. The examples of "high rising" and "low rising" tone contours were changed from ⟨˦˥⟩ (4–5) and ⟨˩˨⟩ (1–2) to ⟨˧˥⟩ (3–5) and ⟨˩˧⟩ (1–3), respectively. The word "etc." was dropped from the list of contours, though the 1999 Handbook would continue to use contours that did not appear on the chart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999ix-102">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1999_Handbook">1999 Handbook</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1999 Handbook">edit</a>]</div> The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association was the first book outlining the specifications of the alphabet in 50 years, superseding the 1949 Principles of the IPA. It consisted of just over 200 pages, four times as long as the Principles. In addition to what was seen in the 1996 chart,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999ix-102">[100]</a> the book included ⟨ᵊ⟩ for mid central vowel release, ⟨ᶿ⟩ for voiceless dental fricative release, and ⟨ˣ⟩ for voiceless velar fricative release as part of the official IPA in the "Computer coding of IPA symbols" section.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999167,_170–1,_179-103">[101]</a> The section also included ⟨ᶑ ⟩ for a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">voiced retroflex implosive</a>, noting it was "not explicitly IPA approved".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999166-104">[102]</a> The book also said ⟨ᶹ⟩ "might be used" for "a secondary reduction of the lip opening accompanied by neither protrusion nor velar constriction".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199917-105">[103]</a> It abandoned the 1949 Principles' recommendation of alternating ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0067.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ and ⟨ɡ⟩ for ordinary and advanced velar plosives, and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199919-106">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st-century_developments">21st-century developments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 21st-century developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_chart_(C)2005.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf/page1-220px-IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf/page1-330px-IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8f/IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf/page1-440px-IPA_chart_%28C%292005.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>The 2005 chart</figcaption></figure> In 2005, ⟨ⱱ⟩ was added for the <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental flap">labiodental flap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolaidis2005-107">[105]</a> In 2011, it was proposed that ⟨ᴀ⟩ be added to represent the <a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">open central unrounded vowel</a>, but this was declined by the Council the following year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2012-108">[106]</a> In 2012, the IPA chart and its subparts were released under the <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2012-109">[107]</a> In 2016, three versions of a revised chart dated 2015 were released online, each with the characters rendered in a different typeface (IPA Kiel/LS Uni developed by Linguist's Software, <a href="/wiki/Doulos_SIL" title="Doulos SIL">Doulos SIL</a>, and <a href="/wiki/DejaVu_Sans" class="mw-redirect" title="DejaVu Sans">DejaVu Sans</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2016-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2016-111">[109]</a> No character was added or withdrawn, but some notes and the shapes of a few were slightly modified. In particular, ⟨ə˞⟩ was replaced by ⟨ɚ⟩, with a continuous, slanted stroke, and the example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was changed from ⟨˦˥˦⟩ (4–5–4) to ⟨˧˦˧⟩ (3–4–3).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2016-111">[109]</a> In 2018, another slightly modified chart in different fonts was released, this time also in <a href="/wiki/TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TeX TIPA Roman</a> developed by Rei Fukui, which was selected as best representing the IPA symbol set by the Association's Alphabet, Charts and Fonts committee, established the previous year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2018-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2018-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2017-114">[112]</a> The example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was again changed from ⟨˧˦˧⟩ (3–4–3) to ⟨˧˦˨⟩ (3–4–2).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2018-112">[110]</a> In 2020, another set of charts was released, with the only changes being minor adjustments in the layout, and Creative Commons icons replacing the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright sign">copyright sign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2020-115">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Summary">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Values_that_have_been_represented_by_different_characters">Values that have been represented by different characters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Values that have been represented by different characters">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Value</th> <th>1900</th> <th>1904</th> <th>1912</th> <th>1921</th> <th>1932</th> <th>1938</th> <th>1947</th> <th>1979</th> <th>1989</th> <th>1993 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">Glottal stop</a> </td> <td>ʔ </td> <td colspan="2">ˀ </td> <td colspan="7">ʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">Voiceless bilabial fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="4">ꜰ </td> <td colspan="6">ɸ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">Voiced bilabial fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="4">ʋ </td> <td colspan="6">β </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">Voiced velar fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/File:G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/16px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/24px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/32px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/16px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/24px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/32px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td> <td colspan="6">ɣ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">Voiceless uvular fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ᴚ </td> <td colspan="7">χ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">Voiceless pharyngeal fricative</a> (or Arabic ح) </td> <td colspan="3">ʜ </td> <td colspan="7">ħ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">Voiced pharyngeal fricative</a> (or Arabic ع) </td> <td colspan="3">ꞯ </td> <td colspan="7">ʕ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">Voiceless labial–velar fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ʍ </td> <td>ƕ </td> <td colspan="6">ʍ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral fricative">Voiced alveolar lateral fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>ɮ </td> <td>ꜧ </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x026E_alt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2">ɮ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar fricative trill">Voiced alveolar fricative trill</a> </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="4">ř </td> <td colspan="2">ɼ </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex consonants</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ṭ, ḍ, etc. </td> <td>𝼪, 𝼥, etc. </td> <td colspan="3">ʈ, ɖ, ɳ, ɽ, ʂ, ʐ, ɭ </td> <td colspan="3">ʈ, ɖ, ɳ, ɽ, ʂ, ʐ, ɻ, ɭ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_click" title="Bilabial click">Bilabial click</a> </td> <td colspan="7" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">⊙ </td> <td>ʘ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Dental_click" title="Dental click">Dental click</a> </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">ʇ </td> <td>ǀ [short] </td> <td>ǀ [long] </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_click" title="Alveolar click">Alveolar click</a> </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">ʗ </td> <td colspan="2">ǃ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral click">Alveolar lateral click</a> </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">ʖ </td> <td>ǁ [short] </td> <td>ǁ [long] </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_click" title="Palatal click">Palatal click</a> </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="1">ʞ </td> <th colspan="3"> </th> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>ǂ [short] </td> <td>ǂ [long] </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Value</th> <th>1900</th> <th>1904</th> <th>1912</th> <th>1921</th> <th>1932</th> <th>1947</th> <th>1979</th> <th>1989</th> <th>1993</th> <th>1996 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">Close-mid back unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Ɐ </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">Close central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ï </td> <td>ɨ, ï </td> <td colspan="6">ɨ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">Close central rounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ü </td> <td>ʉ, ü </td> <td colspan="6">ʉ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">Close-mid central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ë </td> <td>ɘ, ë </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">ɘ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">Close-mid central rounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ö </td> <td>ɵ, ö </td> <td colspan="2">ɵ </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">ɵ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">Open-mid central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="2">ä </td> <td>ɛ̈ </td> <td>ɜ, ɛ̈ </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">ɜ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">Open-mid central rounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">ɔ̈ </td> <td>ʚ, ɔ̈ </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>ʚ </td> <td>ɞ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">Near-close (near-)front unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="2">ı </td> <td colspan="3">ɪ </td> <td>ɩ </td> <td>ɩ, ɪ </td> <td colspan="3">ɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">Near-close (near-)back rounded vowel</a> </td> <td>ᴜ </td> <td colspan="2">ʊ </td> <td>ᴜ </td> <td>ʊ </td> <td>ɷ </td> <td>ɷ, ʊ </td> <td colspan="3">ʊ </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Modifiers and suprasegmentals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Value</th> <th>1900</th> <th>1904</th> <th>1912</th> <th>1921</th> <th>1932</th> <th>1947</th> <th>1949</th> <th>1951</th> <th>1979</th> <th>1989</th> <th>1993</th> <th>1996</th> <th>2015</th> <th>2018 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a> </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">◌ʻ, ◌h </td> <td colspan="6">◌ʰ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">More <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> </td> <td colspan="9">◌˒ </td> <td>◌̹ </td> <td colspan="4">◌̹, ◌͗ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Less rounded </td> <td colspan="9">◌˓ </td> <td>◌̜ </td> <td colspan="4">◌̜, ◌͑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Advanced </td> <td colspan="2">◌꭫ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="4">◌˖, ◌̟ </td> <td colspan="5">◌̟ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Retracted </td> <td colspan="2">◌꭪ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="4">◌˗, ◌̠, ◌I </td> <td colspan="5">◌̠ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Raised (vowel) </td> <td colspan="3">◌˔ </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">◌̣, ◌˔, ◌̝ </td> <td colspan="5" rowspan="2">◌̝ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Raised (consonant) </td> <td colspan="8" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>◌̣ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Lowered (vowel) </td> <td colspan="3">◌˕ </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">◌᪷, ◌˕, ◌̞ </td> <td colspan="5" rowspan="2">◌̞ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Lowered (consonant) </td> <td colspan="8" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>◌᪷ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Syllabic </td> <td>◌̗ </td> <td colspan="9">◌̩ </td> <td colspan="4">◌̩, ◌̍ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Non-syllabic</a> </td> <td colspan="9">◌̆ </td> <td>◌̯ </td> <td colspan="4">◌̯, ◌̑ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">Rhoticity</a> </td> <td colspan="5" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="3">◌ɹ, ◌ʴ, ◌̢ </td> <td>◌ʴ, ◌ʵ, ◌ʶ </td> <td colspan="2">◌ ˞ </td> <td colspan="3">◌˞ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">R-coloured [ə] </td> <td colspan="5" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">əɹ, əʴ, ɹ, ᶕ </td> <td>əɹ, əʴ, ɹ, ᶕ, ɚ </td> <td>ɚ </td> <td colspan="2">ə ˞ </td> <td>ə˞ </td> <td colspan="2">ɚ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">Breathy voice</a> </td> <td colspan="6" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>◌h, ◌̒ </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">◌̤ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialized</a> </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">◌̫ </td> <td colspan="5">◌ʷ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">Palatalized</a> </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>◌̇ </td> <td>◌̡ </td> <td colspan="4">◌̡ , ◌̇ </td> <td>◌̡ </td> <td colspan="5">◌ʲ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Primary stress </td> <td colspan="4">´ </td> <td colspan="10">ˈ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">High level </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">ˉ◌, ◌̄ </td> <td colspan="5">◌́, ◌˦ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Mid level </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>ˉ◌ </td> <td colspan="5" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">◌̄, ◌˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Low level </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">ˍ◌, ◌̠ </td> <td colspan="5">◌̀, ◌˨ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">High rising </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">´◌, ◌́ </td> <td colspan="2">◌᷄, ◌˦˥ </td> <td colspan="3">◌᷄, ◌˧˥ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Low rising </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">ˏ◌, ◌̗ </td> <td colspan="2">◌᷅, ◌˩˨ </td> <td colspan="3">◌᷅, ◌˩˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Rising–falling </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">ˆ◌, ◌̂ </td> <td colspan="3">◌᷈, ◌˦˥˦ </td> <td>◌᷈, ◌˧˦˧ </td> <td>◌᷈, ◌˧˦˨ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left;">Falling–rising </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="6">ˇ◌, ◌̌ </td> <td colspan="3">◌᷈, ◌˨˩˨ </td> <td>◌᷈, ◌˧˨˧ </td> <td>◌᷈, ◌˧˨˦ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Characters_that_have_been_given_different_values">Characters that have been given different values</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Characters that have been given different values">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Character</th> <th>1900</th> <th>1904</th> <th>1912</th> <th>1921</th> <th>1932</th> <th>1947</th> <th>1949</th> <th>1979</th> <th>1989</th> <th>1993 </th></tr> <tr> <td>ʀ </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">Voiced uvular trill</a> </td> <td colspan="4">Voiced uvular trill or <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced uvular flap">flap</a> </td> <td colspan="2">Voiced uvular trill </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʜ </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">Voiceless pharyngeal fricative</a> (or Arabic ح) </td> <td colspan="4" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless epiglottal fricative">Voiceless epiglottal fricative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʁ </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">Voiced uvular fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="3">Voiced uvular fricative or approximant </td> <td colspan="3">Voiced uvular fricative </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɹ </td> <td colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">Voiced postalveolar fricative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar approximant">approximant</a> </td> <td>Postalveolar approximant </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar approximant">Alveolar approximant</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʋ </td> <td colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">Voiced bilabial fricative</a> </td> <td colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental approximant">Labiodental approximant</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɺ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="3">A sound between [r] and [l] </td> <td>A sound between [d] and [l] </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral flap">Alveolar lateral flap</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ä </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">Open-mid central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">Open central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="3">Centralized open front unrounded vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɐ </td> <td colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">Near-open central vowel</a> (unroundedness implicit) </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-open central unrounded vowel">Near-open central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td>Near-open central vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ə </td> <td colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">Mid central vowel</a> (unroundedness implicit) </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid central unrounded vowel">Mid central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td>Mid central vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɜ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">Open-mid central unrounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="5">Variety of [ə] </td> <td>Open-mid central unrounded vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɵ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">Close-mid central rounded vowel</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid central rounded vowel">Mid central rounded vowel</a> </td> <td>Close-mid central rounded vowel </td></tr> <tr> <td>ɪ </td> <td colspan="5">Near-close front unrounded vowel </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">Near-close near-front unrounded vowel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʏ </td> <td colspan="7">Near-close front rounded vowel </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">Near-close near-front rounded vowel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʊ </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="2">Near-close back rounded vowel </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>Near-close back rounded vowel </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">Near-close near-back rounded vowel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̈ </td> <td colspan="7">Central </td> <td colspan="3">Centralized </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̆ </td> <td colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Non-syllabic</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Extra-short" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-short">Extra-short</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌́ </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">Tense</a> </td> <td colspan="5">High rising </td> <td colspan="2">High level </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̀ </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">Lax</a> </td> <td colspan="5">High falling </td> <td colspan="2">Low level </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̄ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">High level </td> <td colspan="2">Mid level </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̌ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">Fall-rise </td> <td colspan="2">Rising </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̂ </td> <td colspan="3" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="5">Rise-fall </td> <td colspan="2">Falling </td></tr> <tr> <td>◌̣ </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td colspan="4">Raised </td> <td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols_in_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet">Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist phonetic notation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> ⟨œ⟩ for English is omitted in the key but nonetheless seen in transcriptions in the May 1887 article. </li> <li id="cite_note-barred-g-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-barred-g_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-barred-g_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-barred-g_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-barred-g_15-3">d</a> To be precise, the shape of ⟨ǥ⟩ is close to ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/16px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/24px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg/32px-G_with_open_slanted_tail_and_stroke.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ in the 1900, 1904, and 1912 charts, and to ⟨<a href="/wiki/File:Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/16px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/24px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg/32px-Unicode_0x01E5_open-tail_character_variant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>⟩ in the 1921 chart and <a href="#CITEREFJones1928">Jones (1928)</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly1981-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelly1981_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelly1981">Kelly (1981)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallHowardMiller2018-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBallHowardMiller2018_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBallHowardMiller2018">Ball, Howard & Miller (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999194–7-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999194–7_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 194–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999196-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999196_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999196_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887a-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887a_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887a">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1887a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887b-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887b_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887b">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1887b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888a-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888a_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888a">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1888a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1888b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1949back_endpaper-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1949back_endpaper_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association (1949)</a>, back endpaper. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a_11-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a">International Phonetic Association (1989a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKemp2006407-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKemp2006407_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKemp2006">Kemp (2006)</a>, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMahon198635,_38_n._20-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacMahon198635,_38_n._20_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1986">MacMahon (1986)</a>, pp. 35, 38 n. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b7-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b7_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b">Association phonétique internationale (1900b)</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> ʒ (turned <a href="/wiki/Ezh" title="Ezh">ezh</a>) is not supported by Unicode. It may be substituted with ⟨↋⟩ (turned three). </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Although ⟨ä⟩ may seem to be a typo for expected ⟨ɛ̈⟩, it was not corrected in the next edition of the IPA and so is more likely to derive from <a href="/wiki/German_alphabet" title="German alphabet">German ⟨ä⟩</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling (2010)</a>, p. 681. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1895-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1895_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1895">Association phonétique internationale (1895)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a">Association phonétique internationale (1900a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931">Association phonétique internationale (1931)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> The 1904 English edition says that ⟨ɦ⟩ is the Arabic and English voiced h -- its use for English, though Arabic has no such sound. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> The 1904 English edition describes these sounds as the "Circassian dental hiss". See <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">[ŝ, ẑ]</a> for details on these sounds, which do not currently have IPA support. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b8_24-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b">Association phonétique internationale (1900b)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b9-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b9_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b9_25-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b">Association phonétique internationale (1900b)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale190410-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale190410_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale190410_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904">Association phonétique internationale (1904)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19047-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19047_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904">Association phonétique internationale (1904)</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeselwood2013112–3-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeselwood2013112–3_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeselwood2013">Heselwood (2013)</a>, pp. 112–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19048-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19048_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904">Association phonétique internationale (1904)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19049-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19049_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904">Association phonétique internationale (1904)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904">Association phonétique internationale (1904)</a>, p. 9, citing <a href="#CITEREFSweet1902">Sweet (1902)</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1905-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1905_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1905">Association phonétique internationale (1905)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1908-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1908_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1908">Association phonétique internationale (1908)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191210-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191210_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1912">Association phonétique internationale (1912)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPassy1909-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPassy1909_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPassy1909">Passy (1909)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191212-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191212_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1912">Association phonétique internationale (1912)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191213-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale191213_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1912">Association phonétique internationale (1912)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> The typographic form of ⟨ʔ⟩, which was now sized as a full letter, was a question mark ⟨?⟩ with the dot removed. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> ⟨ɤ⟩ had the typographic form <a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/16px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/24px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg/32px-IPA_Unicode_0x0264_baby_gamma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a>, sometimes called "baby gamma", that would later be modified to prevent confusion with actual gamma. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928_41-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928">Association phonétique internationale (1928)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681–2-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsling2010681–2_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling (2010)</a>, pp. 681–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1975-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1975_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1975_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1975_43-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1975">Wells (1975)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218–9-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19218–9_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-retroflex-45"><a href="#cite_ref-retroflex_45-0">^</a> Unicode supports ⟨𝼪 𝼥 𝼧 𝼦 𝼩⟩ and ⟨𝼨⟩ for 'r', but not the 'z' </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19219-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19219_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale19219_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale192110-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale192110_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale192110_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921">Association phonétique internationale (1921)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreckwoldt1972285-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreckwoldt1972285_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreckwoldt1972">Breckwoldt (1972)</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones192826-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones192826_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1928">Jones (1928)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesCamilli193311-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesCamilli193311_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesCamilli1933">Jones & Camilli (1933)</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesDahl194412-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesDahl194412_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesDahl1944">Jones & Dahl (1944)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194914-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194914_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194914_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association (1949)</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersenPedersen1926-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJespersenPedersen1926_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJespersenPedersen1926">Jespersen & Pedersen (1926)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees1998315-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees1998315_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1998">Collins & Mees (1998)</a>, p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927">Association phonétique internationale (1927)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones192823,_25–7-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones192823,_25–7_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1928">Jones (1928)</a>, pp. 23, 25–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932_57-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932">Association phonétique internationale (1932)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1938-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1938_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1938_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1938">Jones (1938)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937">Association phonétique internationale (1937)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938">Association phonétique internationale (1938)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947">Association phonétique internationale (1947)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1945-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1945_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1945">Jones (1945)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1943-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1943_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1943">Jones (1943)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999vii-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999vii_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. vii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194915–9-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194915–9_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association (1949)</a>, pp. 15–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194918-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association194918_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949">International Phonetic Association (1949)</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1948-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1948_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1948">Jones (1948)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2006-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2006_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2006">Wells (2006)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesWard1969115-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesWard1969115_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJonesWard1969">Jones & Ward (1969)</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952">Association phonétique internationale (1952)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson1950-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGimson1950_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGimson1950">Gimson (1950)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyon1951315–7-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyon1951315–7_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKenyon1951">Kenyon (1951)</a>, pp. 315–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEditors_of_''American_Speech''1939-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEditors_of_''American_Speech''1939_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEditors_of_American_Speech1939">Editors of American Speech (1939)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1978-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1978_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1978">International Phonetic Association (1978)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> At some point, rotated ⟨ᴈ⟩ of the 1957 chart was replaced with reversed (mirror-image) ⟨ɜ⟩ of the Kiel convention. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson1973-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGimson1973_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGimson1973">Gimson (1973)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1976-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1976_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1976_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1976_77-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1976_77-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1976">Wells (1976)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones195612–3,_15-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones195612–3,_15_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones1956">Jones (1956)</a>, pp. 12–3, 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClure197220-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClure197220_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcClure1972">McClure (1972)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedRoach1986-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedRoach1986_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefogedRoach1986">Ladefoged & Roach (1986)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987a-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987a_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefoged1987a">Ladefoged (1987a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987b-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged1987b_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefoged1987b">Ladefoged (1987b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a69-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a69_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a">International Phonetic Association (1989a)</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999165,_185-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999165,_185_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 165, 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999186-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999186_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b">International Phonetic Association (1989b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöhlerLadefogedSnymanTraill1988-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKöhlerLadefogedSnymanTraill1988_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKöhlerLadefogedSnymanTraill1988">Köhler et al. (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a72,_74-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a72,_74_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a">International Phonetic Association (1989a)</a>, pp. 72, 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a67-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a67_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a">International Phonetic Association (1989a)</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a68_90-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a">International Phonetic Association (1989a)</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199937–8-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199937–8_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 37–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitner2003326_n.&nbsp;6-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitner2003326_n.&nbsp;6_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeitner2003">Heitner (2003)</a>, p. 326 n. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999159–60-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999159–60_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 159–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a_94-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a">International Phonetic Association (1993a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b">International Phonetic Association (1993b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling1995-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsling1995_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsling1995">Esling (1995)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967161-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbercrombie1967161_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbercrombie1967">Abercrombie (1967)</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatford1977178–9-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatford1977178–9_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCatford1977">Catford (1977)</a>, pp. 178–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECatford1990-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECatford1990_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCatford1990">Catford (1990)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1991-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1991_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1991">International Phonetic Association (1991)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsling2010697-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsling2010697_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsling2010">Esling (2010)</a>, p. 697. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999ix-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999ix_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999ix_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999167,_170–1,_179-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999167,_170–1,_179_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, pp. 167, 170–1, 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999166-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association1999166_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199917-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199917_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199919-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association199919_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolaidis2005-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolaidis2005_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNicolaidis2005">Nicolaidis (2005)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2012-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeating2012_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeating2012">Keating (2012)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2012-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2012_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2012">International Phonetic Association (2012)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2016-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeating2016_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeating2016">Keating (2016)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2016-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2016_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2016_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2016">International Phonetic Association (2016)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2018-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeating2018_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeating2018_112-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeating2018">Keating (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2018-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2018_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2018">International Phonetic Association (2018)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeating2017-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeating2017_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeating2017">Keating (2017)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2020-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Phonetic_Association2020_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2020">International Phonetic Association (2020)</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Le Maître Phonétique. 10 (1): 16–17. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44707535">44707535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=v%C9%94t+syr+l+alfab%C9%9B&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-17&rft.date=1895&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44707535%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1900a). "akt ɔfisjɛl" [Acte officiel]. 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Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44707964">44707964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=9%E2%80%9310&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1912&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44707964%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921" class="citation book cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ecriturephonetiqueinternationale1921">L'Ecriture phonétique internationale : exposé populaire avec application au français et à plusieurs autres langues</a> (2nd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Ecriture+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale+%3A+expos%C3%A9+populaire+avec+application+au+fran%C3%A7ais+et+%C3%A0+plusieurs+autres+langues&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1921&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fecriturephonetiqueinternationale1921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1927). "desizjɔ̃ dy kɔ̃sɛːj rəlativmɑ̃ o prɔpozisjɔ̃ d la kɔ̃ferɑ̃ːs də *kɔpnag" [Décisions du conseil relativement aux propositions de la conférence de Copenhague]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 5 (18): 13–18. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704201">44704201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+dy+k%C9%94%CC%83s%C9%9B%CB%90j+r%C9%99lativm%C9%91%CC%83+o+pr%C9%94pozisj%C9%94%CC%83+d+la+k%C9%94%CC%83fer%C9%91%CC%83%CB%90s+d%C9%99+%2Ak%C9%94pnag&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=13-18&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704201%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1928). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 6 (23): 51–53. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704266">44704266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=51-53&rft.date=1928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704266%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1931). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 9 (35): 40–42. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704452">44704452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=40-42&rft.date=1931&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704452%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1932). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1932)". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 10 (37). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44749172">44749172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1932%29&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1932&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44749172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1996">MacMahon (1996)</a>, p. 830.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1937). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 15 (52): 56–57. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704932">44704932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=52&rft.pages=56-57&rft.date=1937&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704932%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1938). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1938)". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 16 (62). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44748188">44748188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1938%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=62&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44748188%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1947). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1947)". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 25 (88). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44748304">44748304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1947%29&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=88&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44748304%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFAlbright1958">Albright (1958)</a>, p. 57.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952" class="citation journal cs1">Association phonétique internationale (1952). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1951)". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 30 (97). Front matter. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44748475">44748475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1951%29&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=97&rft.pages=Front+matter&rft.date=1952&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44748475%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Association+phon%C3%A9tique+internationale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon2010">MacMahon (2010)</a>, p. 270.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallHowardMiller2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_J._Ball" title="Martin J. Ball">Ball, Martin J.</a>; Howard, Sara J.; Miller, Kirk (2018). "Revisions to the extIPA chart". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 48 (2): 155–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100317000147">10.1017/S0025100317000147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151863976">151863976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Revisions+to+the+extIPA+chart&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=155-164&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100317000147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151863976%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.&rft.au=Howard%2C+Sara+J.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Kirk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreckwoldt1972" class="citation book cs1">Breckwoldt, G. H. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coli.uni-saarland.de/groups/BM/phonetics/icphs/ICPhS1971/p7_281.pdf">"A Critical Investigation of Click Symbolism"</a> (PDF). In Rigault, André; Charbonneau, René (eds.). Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. The Hague and Paris: Mouton. pp. 281–293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110814750-017">10.1515/9783110814750-017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110814750" title="Special:BookSources/9783110814750"><bdi>9783110814750</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Critical+Investigation+of+Click+Symbolism&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Seventh+International+Congress+of+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.place=The+Hague+and+Paris&rft.pages=281-293&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110814750-017&rft.isbn=9783110814750&rft.aulast=Breckwoldt&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coli.uni-saarland.de%2Fgroups%2FBM%2Fphonetics%2Ficphs%2FICPhS1971%2Fp7_281.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatford1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._C._Catford" title="J. C. Catford">Catford, J. C.</a> (1977). Fundamental Problems in Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85224-279-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85224-279-4"><bdi>0-85224-279-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Problems+in+Phonetics&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-85224-279-4&rft.aulast=Catford&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatford1990" class="citation journal cs1">Catford, J. C. (1990). "A proposal concerning central vowels". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 20 (2): 26–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004230">10.1017/S0025100300004230</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144311902">144311902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=A+proposal+concerning+central+vowels&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=26-28&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300004230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144311902%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Catford&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsMees1998" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Beverly; Mees, Inger M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/realprofessorhig00coll_0">The Real Professor Higgins: The Life and Career of Daniel Jones</a>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-015124-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-015124-3"><bdi>3-11-015124-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Real+Professor+Higgins%3A+The+Life+and+Career+of+Daniel+Jones&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=3-11-015124-3&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Beverly&rft.au=Mees%2C+Inger+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frealprofessorhig00coll_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsMees2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Collins, Beverly; Mees, Inger M., eds. (2003). Daniel Jones: Selected Works. Vol. VII: Selected Papers. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23343-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23343-7"><bdi>0-415-23343-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daniel+Jones%3A+Selected+Works&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-23343-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEditors_of_American_Speech1939" class="citation journal cs1">Editors of American Speech (1939). "A Petition". <a href="/wiki/American_Speech" title="American Speech">American Speech</a>. 14 (3): 206–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F451421">10.2307/451421</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/451421">451421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Speech&rft.atitle=A+Petition&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=206-208&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F451421&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F451421%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Editors+of+%27%27American+Speech%27%27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsling1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John H.</a> (1995). "News of the IPA". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 25 (1): 48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300000207">10.1017/S0025100300000207</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144622771">144622771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=News+of+the+IPA&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=48&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300000207&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144622771%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Esling&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsling2010" class="citation book cs1">Esling, John H. (2010). "Phonetic Notation". In Hardcastle, William J.; Laver, John; Gibbon, Fiona E. (eds.). The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 678–702. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444317251.ch18">10.1002/9781444317251.ch18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4590-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-4590-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-4590-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Notation&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.pages=678-702&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444317251.ch18&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9&rft.aulast=Esling&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimson1950" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._C._Gimson" title="A. C. Gimson">Gimson, A. C.</a> (1950). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 28 (94): 40–41. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44705333">44705333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=94&rft.pages=40-41&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44705333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gimson&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimson1973" class="citation journal cs1">Gimson, A. C. (1973). "The Association's Alphabet". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 3 (2): 60–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300000773">10.1017/S0025100300000773</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249408229">249408229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+Association%27s+Alphabet&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=60-61&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300000773&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249408229%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gimson&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeselwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Heselwood, Barry (2013). Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4073-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4073-7"><bdi>978-0-7486-4073-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Transcription+in+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4073-7&rft.aulast=Heselwood&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeitner2003" class="citation journal cs1">Heitner, Reese M. (2003). "Brackets and slashes, stars and dots: understanding the notation of linguistic types". <a href="/wiki/Language_Sciences" title="Language Sciences">Language Sciences</a>. 25 (4): 319–330. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0388-0001%2803%2900003-2">10.1016/S0388-0001(03)00003-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Sciences&rft.atitle=Brackets+and+slashes%2C+stars+and+dots%3A+understanding+the+notation+of+linguistic+types&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=319-330&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0388-0001%2803%2900003-2&rft.aulast=Heitner&rft.aufirst=Reese+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a> (1949). "The Principles of the International Phonetic Association". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 27 (91). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40200179">i40200179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=91&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fi40200179%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40 (3), December 2010, pp. 299–358, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100311000089">10.1017/S0025100311000089</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1978" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1978). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 1979)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 8 (1–2). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44541414">44541414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28Revised+to+1979%29&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44541414%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon2010">MacMahon (2010)</a>, p. 271.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1989a). "Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 19 (2): 67–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300003868">10.1017/S0025100300003868</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44526032">44526032</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249412330">249412330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Report+on+the+1989+Kiel+Convention&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=67-80&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249412330%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44526032%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300003868&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1989b). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1989)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 19 (2). Centerfold. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030000387X">10.1017/S002510030000387X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249414249">249414249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1989%29&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Centerfold&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002510030000387X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249414249%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1991" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300005910">"Errata"</a>. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 21 (1). Front matter. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300005910">10.1017/S0025100300005910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Errata&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=Front+matter&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300005910&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0025100300005910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1993a). "Council actions on revisions of the IPA". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 23 (1): 32–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030000476X">10.1017/S002510030000476X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249420050">249420050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Council+actions+on+revisions+of+the+IPA&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-34&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002510030000476X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249420050%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b" class="citation journal cs1">International Phonetic Association (1993b). "The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 1993)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 23 (1). Center pages. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004746">10.1017/S0025100300004746</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242001518">242001518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+International+Phonetic+Alphabet+%28revised+to+1993%29&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=Center+pages&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300004746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242001518%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1996">MacMahon (1996)</a>, p. 822.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999" class="citation book cs1">International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63751-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-63751-1"><bdi>0-521-63751-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Use+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-521-63751-1&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2012" class="citation web cs1">International Phonetic Association (1 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201207/ipa-chart-now-under-creative-commons-licence">"IPA Chart now under a Creative Commons Licence"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPA+Chart+now+under+a+Creative+Commons+Licence&rft.date=2012-07-01&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fnews%2F201207%2Fipa-chart-now-under-creative-commons-licence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2016" class="citation web cs1">International Phonetic Association (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305165838/https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart">"Full IPA Chart"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart">the original</a> on 5 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Full+IPA+Chart&rft.date=2016&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fcontent%2Ffull-ipa-chart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2018" class="citation web cs1">International Phonetic Association (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180524110302/http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/IPA_charts_2018.html">"IPA charts and sub-charts in four fonts"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/IPA_charts_2018.html">the original</a> on 24 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPA+charts+and+sub-charts+in+four+fonts&rft.date=2018&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.ucla.edu%2Fpeople%2Fkeating%2FIPA%2FIPA_charts_2018.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2020" class="citation web cs1">International Phonetic Association (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_chart_orig/IPA_charts_E.html">"IPA charts and sub-charts in four fonts"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPA+charts+and+sub-charts+in+four+fonts&rft.date=2020&rft.au=International+Phonetic+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2FIPAcharts%2FIPA_chart_orig%2FIPA_charts_E.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersenPedersen1926" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a>; <a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Pedersen, Holger</a> (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-80279873">Phonetic Transcription and Transliteration: Proposals of the Copenhagen Conference, April 1925</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Transcription+and+Transliteration%3A+Proposals+of+the+Copenhagen+Conference%2C+April+1925&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.obj-80279873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1928" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (1928). "Das System der Association Phonétique Internationale (Weltlautschriftverein)". In Heepe, Martin (ed.). Lautzeichen und ihre Anwendung in verschiedenen Sprachgebieten. Berlin: Reichsdruckerei. pp. 18–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Das+System+der+Association+Phon%C3%A9tique+Internationale+%28Weltlautschriftverein%29&rft.btitle=Lautzeichen+und+ihre+Anwendung+in+verschiedenen+Sprachgebieten&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=18-27&rft.pub=Reichsdruckerei&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in Le Maître Phonétique 3, 6 (23), July–September 1928, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704262">44704262</a>. Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees2003">Collins & Mees (2003)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1938" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel (1938). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 16 (61): 14–15. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704878">44704878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=61&rft.pages=14-15&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704878%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1943" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel (1943). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 21 (80): 27–28. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44705153">44705153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=80&rft.pages=27-28&rft.date=1943&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44705153%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1945" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel (1945). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 23 (83): 11–17. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44705184">44705184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=11-17&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44705184%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1948" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel (1948). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl" [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 26 (90): 28–31. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44705217">44705217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=desizj%C9%94%CC%83+ofisj%C9%9Bl&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=90&rft.pages=28-31&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44705217%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1956" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Daniel (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3-euw1-ap-pe-ws4-cws-streaming.ri-prod/9781444183092/cardinal.pdf">Cardinal Vowels Spoken by Daniel Jones: Text of Records with Explanatory Notes by Professor Jones</a> (PDF). London: Linguaphone Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cardinal+Vowels+Spoken+by+Daniel+Jones%3A+Text+of+Records+with+Explanatory+Notes+by+Professor+Jones&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Linguaphone+Institute&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fs3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com%2Fs3-euw1-ap-pe-ws4-cws-streaming.ri-prod%2F9781444183092%2Fcardinal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesCamilli1933" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel; Camilli, Amerindo (1933). "Fondamenti di grafia fonetica secondo il sistema dell'Associazione fonetica internazionale". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 11 (43). Supplement. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44704558">44704558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=Fondamenti+di+grafia+fonetica+secondo+il+sistema+dell%27Associazione+fonetica+internazionale&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=43&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44704558%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Camilli%2C+Amerindo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees2003">Collins & Mees (2003)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesDahl1944" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Daniel; Dahl, Ivar (1944). "Fundamentos de escritura fonética según el sistema de la Asociación Fonética Internacional". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième série. 22 (82). Supplement.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=Fundamentos+de+escritura+fon%C3%A9tica+seg%C3%BAn+el+sistema+de+la+Asociaci%C3%B3n+Fon%C3%A9tica+Internacional&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=82&rft.pages=Supplement&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Dahl%2C+Ivar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees2003">Collins & Mees (2003)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesWard1969" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969). The Phonetics of Russian. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonetics+of+Russian&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Ward%2C+Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Keating" title="Patricia Keating">Keating, Patricia</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000114">"IPA Council votes against new IPA symbol"</a>. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 42 (2): 245. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000114">10.1017/S0025100312000114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=IPA+Council+votes+against+new+IPA+symbol&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100312000114&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0025100312000114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating2016" class="citation web cs1">Keating, Patricia (20 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201602/new-versions-ipa-chart-3-different-fonts">"New versions of IPA chart - 3 different fonts"</a>. International Phonetic Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+versions+of+IPA+chart+-+3+different+fonts&rft.pub=International+Phonetic+Association&rft.date=2016-02-20&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fnews%2F201602%2Fnew-versions-ipa-chart-3-different-fonts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating2017" class="citation web cs1">Keating, Patricia (14 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201706/ipa-council-establishes-new-committees">"IPA Council establishes new committees"</a>. International Phonetic Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPA+Council+establishes+new+committees&rft.pub=International+Phonetic+Association&rft.date=2017-06-14&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fnews%2F201706%2Fipa-council-establishes-new-committees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating2018" class="citation web cs1">Keating, Patricia (18 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/news/201805/2018-ipa-charts-now-posted-online">"2018 IPA charts now posted online"</a>. International Phonetic Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2018+IPA+charts+now+posted+online&rft.pub=International+Phonetic+Association&rft.date=2018-05-18&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalphoneticassociation.org%2Fnews%2F201805%2F2018-ipa-charts-now-posted-online&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp2006" class="citation book cs1">Kemp, Alan (2006). "Phonetic Transcription: History". In Brown, Keith (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Language_and_Linguistics" title="Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics">Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics</a>. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 396–410. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00015-8">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00015-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phonetic+Transcription%3A+History&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=396-410&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00015-8&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1981" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, John (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/towardshistoryof0000unse/page/248">"The 1847 Alphabet: an Episode of Phonotypy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Asher" title="Ronald E. Asher">Asher, R. E.</a>; Henderson, Eugene J. A. (eds.). Towards a History of Phonetics. 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"lernərz kornər" [Learners' corner]. The Phonetic Teacher. 2 (13): 5–8. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44706347">44706347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phonetic+Teacher&rft.atitle=lern%C9%99rz+korn%C9%99r&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=5-8&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44706347%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Phonetic+Teachers%27+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1887b" class="citation journal cs1">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1887b). "lernərz kornər" [Learners' corner]. The Phonetic Teacher. 2 (19): 46–48. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44706366">44706366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phonetic+Teacher&rft.atitle=lern%C9%99rz+korn%C9%99r&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=46-48&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44706366%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Phonetic+Teachers%27+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888a" class="citation journal cs1">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1888a). "aur alfəbits" [Our alphabets]. The Phonetic Teacher. 3 (5): 34–35. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44707197">44707197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phonetic+Teacher&rft.atitle=aur+alf%C9%99bits&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=34-35&rft.date=1888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44707197%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Phonetic+Teachers%27+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers'_Association1888b" class="citation journal cs1">Phonetic Teachers' Association (1888b). "aur rivàizd ælfəbit" [Our revised alphabet]. The Phonetic Teacher. 3 (7–8): 57–60. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44701189">44701189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phonetic+Teacher&rft.atitle=aur+riv%C3%A0izd+%C3%A6lf%C9%99bit&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=7%E2%80%938&rft.pages=57-60&rft.date=1888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44701189%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Phonetic+Teachers%27+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweet1902" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sweet" title="Henry Sweet">Sweet, Henry</a> (1902). A Primer of Phonetics (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Phonetics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Sweet&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrofimovJones1923" class="citation book cs1">Trofimov, M. V.; Jones, Daniel (1923). The Pronunciation of Russian. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pronunciation+of+Russian&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Trofimov&rft.aufirst=M.+V.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"> Reprinted in Collins, Beverly; Mees, Inger M., eds. (2003), Daniel Jones: Selected Works, Volume V: European Languages II – Russian, London: Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23341-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23341-0">0-415-23341-0</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1975). "The Association's alphabet". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a>. 5 (2): 52–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300001274">10.1017/S0025100300001274</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249411014">249411014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+Association%27s+alphabet&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=52-58&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300001274&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249411014%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1976" class="citation journal cs1">Wells, John C. (1976). "The Association's Alphabet". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 6 (1): 2–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300001420">10.1017/S0025100300001420</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249403800">249403800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=The+Association%27s+Alphabet&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-3&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300001420&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249403800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2006" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John C. (6 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/blog0611a.htm">"Scenes from IPA history"</a>. John Wells's phonetic blog. Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, University College London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog&rft.atitle=Scenes+from+IPA+history&rft.date=2006-11-06&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fhome%2Fwells%2Fblog0611a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitley2003" class="citation journal cs1">Whitley, M. Stanley (2003). "Rhotic representation: problems and proposals". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 23 (1): 81–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001166">10.1017/S0025100303001166</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145538124">145538124</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Rhotic+representation%3A+problems+and+proposals&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-86&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100303001166&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145538124%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Whitley&rft.aufirst=M.+Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbel1972" class="citation journal cs1">Abel, James W. (1972). "Vowel-R symbolization: An historical development". <a href="/wiki/Speech_Monographs" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech Monographs">Speech Monographs</a>. 39 (1): 23–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03637757209375735">10.1080/03637757209375735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speech+Monographs&rft.atitle=Vowel-R+symbolization%3A+An+historical+development&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-36&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03637757209375735&rft.aulast=Abel&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkamatsu1992" class="citation journal cs1">Akamatsu, Tsutomu (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revistacontextos.es/1992/1.-Tsu%C3%ADomu.Akamatsu.pdf">"A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1951, 1979 and 1989)"</a> (PDF). Contextos. 10 (19–20): 7–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contextos&rft.atitle=A+critique+of+the+IPA+chart+%28revised+to+1951%2C+1979+and+1989%29&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=19%E2%80%9320&rft.pages=7-45&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Akamatsu&rft.aufirst=Tsutomu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revistacontextos.es%2F1992%2F1.-Tsu%25C3%25ADomu.Akamatsu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkamatsu1996" class="citation journal cs1">Akamatsu, Tsutomu (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revistacontextos.es/1996/01.-Tsutomu.Akamatsu.pdf">"A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1993)"</a> (PDF). Contextos. 14 (27–28): 9–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contextos&rft.atitle=A+critique+of+the+IPA+chart+%28revised+to+1993%29&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=27%E2%80%9328&rft.pages=9-22&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Akamatsu&rft.aufirst=Tsutomu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revistacontextos.es%2F1996%2F01.-Tsutomu.Akamatsu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkamatsu2003–2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Akamatsu, Tsutomu (2003–2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revistacontextos.es/2003-2004/Akamatsu1.pdf">"A critique of the IPA chart (revised to 1996)"</a> (PDF). Contextos. 21–22 (41–44): 135–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contextos&rft.atitle=A+critique+of+the+IPA+chart+%28revised+to+1996%29&rft.volume=21%E2%80%9322&rft.issue=41%E2%80%9344&rft.pages=135-149&rft.date=2003%2F2004&rft.aulast=Akamatsu&rft.aufirst=Tsutomu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revistacontextos.es%2F2003-2004%2FAkamatsu1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoerner1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._F._K._Koerner" title="E. F. K. Koerner">Koerner, E. F. Konrad</a> (1993). "Historiography of Phonetics: the State of the Art". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 23 (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004710">10.1017/S0025100300004710</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145182661">145182661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Historiography+of+Phonetics%3A+the+State+of+the+Art&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100300004710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145182661%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=E.+F.+Konrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Roach, Peter</a> (1987). "Rethinking phonetic taxonomy". <a href="/wiki/Transactions_of_the_Philological_Society" title="Transactions of the Philological Society">Transactions of the Philological Society</a>. 85 (1): 24–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1987.tb00710.x">10.1111/j.1467-968X.1987.tb00710.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=Rethinking+phonetic+taxonomy&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-37&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1987.tb00710.x&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+International+Phonetic+Alphabet" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/history-ipa">History of the International Phonetic Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_hist/IPA_hist_2018.html">Historical charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235389435">.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-captioned{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#202122);padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-caption{padding:0.2em;text-align:center;background-color:#f2f2ce;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}.mw-parser-output .IPA-common-table{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Phonetic_Alphabet_(chart)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_navigation" title="Template:IPA navigation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IPA_navigation" title="Template talk:IPA navigation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IPA_navigation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IPA navigation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Phonetic_Alphabet_(chart)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">chart</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="IPA_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">IPA topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">IPA</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" title="International Phonetic Association">International Phonetic Association</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_Quality_Symbols" title="Voice Quality Symbols">Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association" title="Journal of the International Phonetic Association">Journal of the IPA (JIPA)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_forms_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Cursive forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_variants_of_IPA_letters" title="Case variants of IPA letters">Case variants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsolete_and_nonstandard_symbols_in_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet">Obsolete and nonstandard symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_conventions_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinological_extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet">Sinological extensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Orthography" title="World Orthography">World Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart_for_English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects">IPA chart for English dialects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Encodings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet">ASCII encodings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SAMPA" title="SAMPA">SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirshenbaum" title="Kirshenbaum">Kirshenbaum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TIPA_(software)" title="TIPA (software)">TIPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_symbols_in_Unicode" title="Phonetic symbols in Unicode">Phonetic symbols in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_number" title="IPA number">IPA number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Consonants" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonic_consonant" title="Pulmonic consonant">Pulmonic consonants</a> <table role="presentation" class="" style="margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable IPA-pulmonic-main" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-pulmonic-placearrow"><a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">Place</a> → </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">Dorsal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th scope="col" class="IPA-pulmonic-mannerarrow"><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner</a> ↓ </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant" title="Linguolabial consonant">Linguolabial</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal/epiglottal</a> </th> <th scope="col" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiceless bilabial nasal">m̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiceless labiodental nasal">ɱ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_nasal" title="Voiced labiodental nasal">ɱ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_nasal" title="Voiced linguolabial nasal">n̼</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_nasal" title="Voiceless alveolar nasal">n̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiceless retroflex nasal">ɳ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_nasal" title="Voiceless palatal nasal">ɲ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_nasal" title="Voiceless velar nasal">ŋ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_nasal" title="Voiceless uvular nasal">ɴ̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_nasal" title="Voiced uvular nasal">ɴ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiceless labiodental plosive">p̪</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_plosive" title="Voiced labiodental plosive">b̪</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiceless linguolabial plosive">t̼</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_plosive" title="Voiced linguolabial plosive">d̼</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_plosive" title="Voiced uvular plosive">ɢ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_plosive" title="Epiglottal plosive">ʡ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">Sibilant</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t̠ʃ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d̠ʒ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex affricate">tʂ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex affricate">dʐ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate">dʑ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant affricate </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiceless bilabial affricate">pɸ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_affricate" title="Voiced bilabial affricate">bβ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">p̪f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiced labiodental affricate">b̪v</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">t̪θ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate">d̪ð</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate">tɹ̝̊</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant affricate">dɹ̝</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">t̠ɹ̠̊˔</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant affricate">d̠ɹ̠˔</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal affricate">cç</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_affricate" title="Voiced palatal affricate">ɟʝ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_affricate" title="Voiceless velar affricate">kx</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_affricate" title="Voiced velar affricate">ɡɣ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_affricate" title="Voiceless uvular affricate">qχ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_affricate" title="Voiced uvular affricate">ɢʁ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiceless epiglottal affricate">ʡʜ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_affricate" title="Voiced epiglottal affricate">ʡʢ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_affricate" title="Voiceless glottal affricate">ʔh</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Sibilant <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Non-sibilant fricative </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiceless linguolabial fricative">θ̼</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_fricative" title="Voiced linguolabial fricative">ð̼</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative">θ̠</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-rightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative">ð̠</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-leftborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠̊˔</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative">ɹ̠˔</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ̊˔</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_non-sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced retroflex non-sibilant fricative">ɻ˔</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-nobottomborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_approximant" title="Voiced velar approximant">ɰ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-notopborder"><a href="/wiki/Creaky-voiced_glottal_approximant" title="Creaky-voiced glottal approximant">ʔ̞</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Tap/flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_flap" title="Voiced bilabial flap">ⱱ̟</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_flap" title="Voiced labiodental flap">ⱱ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_linguolabial_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced linguolabial tap">ɾ̼</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar tap">ɾ̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex flap">ɽ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_flap" title="Voiced retroflex flap">ɽ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_tap_and_flap" title="Voiced uvular tap and flap">ɢ̆</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_tap" title="Voiced epiglottal tap">ʡ̆</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_trill" title="Voiceless bilabial trill">ʙ̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_trill" title="Voiced bilabial trill">ʙ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill" title="Voiceless alveolar trill">r̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_trill" title="Voiceless retroflex trill">ɽ̊r̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_trill" title="Voiced retroflex trill">ɽr</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_trill" title="Voiceless uvular trill">ʀ̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiceless epiglottal trill">ʜ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_epiglottal_trill" title="Voiced epiglottal trill">ʢ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> affricate </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar lateral affricate">dɮ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral affricate">tꞎ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced retroflex lateral affricate">d𝼅</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless palatal lateral affricate">c𝼆</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced palatal lateral affricate">ɟʎ̝</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless velar lateral affricate">k𝼄</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiced velar lateral affricate">ɡʟ̝</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral fricative">ɮ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative">ꞎ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex lateral fricative">𝼅</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal lateral fricative">𝼆</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced palatal lateral fricative">ʎ̝</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiceless velar lateral fricative">𝼄</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_fricative" title="Voiced velar lateral fricative">ʟ̝</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral approximant </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">ɭ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced velar lateral approximant">ʟ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced uvular lateral approximant">ʟ̠</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral tap/flap </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral flap">ɺ̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral flap">ɺ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiceless retroflex lateral flap">𝼈̥</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiced retroflex lateral flap">𝼈</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_flap" title="Voiced palatal lateral flap">ʎ̆</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_lateral_tap" title="Voiced velar lateral tap">ʟ̆</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> Symbols to the right in a cell are <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>, to the left are <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. </td></tr></tbody></table><div class="nowrap"><div style="display: inline-block; margin-right: 2em;">Non-pulmonic consonants <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable nowrap IPA-common-table IPA-common-constable" style=""> <tbody><tr class="wrap wraplinks"> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant"><abbr title="Bilabial">BL</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant"><abbr title="Labiodental">LD</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant"><abbr title="Dental">D</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant"><abbr title="Alveolar">A</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant"><abbr title="Postalveolar">PA</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant"><abbr title="Retroflex">RF</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant"><abbr title="Palatal">P</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant"><abbr title="Velar">V</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant"><abbr title="Uvular">U</abbr></a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant"><abbr title="Epiglottal">EG</abbr></a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_stop" title="Bilabial ejective stop">pʼ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_stop" title="Retroflex ejective stop">ʈʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatal_ejective_stop" title="Palatal ejective stop">cʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_stop" title="Uvular ejective stop">qʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Epiglottal_ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglottal ejective">ʡʼ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_ejective_affricate" title="Labiodental ejective affricate">p̪fʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_affricate" title="Dental ejective affricate">t̪θʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Palato-alveolar ejective affricate">t̠ʃʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_affricate" title="Retroflex ejective affricate">tʂʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolo-palatal ejective affricate">tɕʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_affricate" title="Velar ejective affricate">kxʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_affricate" title="Uvular ejective affricate">qχʼ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_fricative" title="Bilabial ejective fricative">ɸʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_ejective_fricative" title="Labiodental ejective fricative">fʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Palato-alveolar ejective fricative">ʃʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_ejective_fricative" title="Retroflex ejective fricative">ʂʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative">ɕʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_fricative" title="Velar ejective fricative">xʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_fricative" title="Uvular ejective fricative">χʼ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> affricate </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">tɬʼ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatal_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Palatal lateral ejective affricate">c𝼆ʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Velar lateral ejective affricate">k𝼄ʼ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uvular_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Uvular lateral ejective affricate">q𝼄ʼ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Lateral fricative </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a> (top: velar; bottom: uvular) </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">Tenuis</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_bilabial_click" title="Tenuis bilabial click">kʘ qʘ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_dental_click" title="Tenuis dental click">kǀ qǀ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_click" title="Tenuis alveolar click">kǃ qǃ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_retroflex_click" title="Tenuis retroflex click">k𝼊 q𝼊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_palatal_click" title="Tenuis palatal click">kǂ qǂ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_click" title="Voiced bilabial click">ɡʘ ɢʘ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_click" title="Voiced dental click">ɡǀ ɢǀ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_click" title="Voiced alveolar click">ɡǃ ɢǃ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_click" title="Voiced retroflex click">ɡ𝼊 ɢ𝼊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_click" title="Voiced palatal click">ɡǂ ɢǂ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_click" title="Nasal click">Nasal</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial nasal click">ŋʘ ɴʘ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental nasal click">ŋǀ ɴǀ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal click">ŋǃ ɴǃ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex nasal click">ŋ𝼊 ɴ𝼊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palatal_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal nasal click">ŋǂ ɴǂ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"><a href="/wiki/Back-released_click" title="Back-released click">ʞ</a>   </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Tenuis <a href="/wiki/Lateral_click" title="Lateral click">lateral</a> </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenuis alveolar lateral click">kǁ qǁ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Voiced lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral click">ɡǁ ɢǁ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Nasal lateral </th> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_nasal_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar lateral nasal click">ŋǁ ɴǁ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-shaded"> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a> </th> <th scope="row">Voiced </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiced retroflex implosive">ᶑ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_implosive" title="Voiced palatal implosive">ʄ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_implosive" title="Voiced velar implosive">ɠ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_implosive" title="Voiced uvular implosive">ʛ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiceless bilabial implosive">ɓ̥</a> </td> <td> </td> <td class="IPA-common-norightborder"> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder IPA-common-norightborder"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_implosive" title="Voiceless alveolar implosive">ɗ̥</a> </td> <td class="IPA-common-noleftborder"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_implosive" title="Voiceless retroflex implosive">ᶑ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_implosive" title="Voiceless palatal implosive">ʄ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_implosive" title="Voiceless velar implosive">ɠ̊</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_implosive" title="Voiceless uvular implosive">ʛ̥</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> <a href="/wiki/IPA_consonant_chart_with_audio" title="IPA consonant chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_non-pulmonic_consonants" title="Template:IPA non-pulmonic consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div><div style="display: inline-block;"><a href="/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant" title="Co-articulated consonant">Co-articulated consonants</a> <table role="presentation" class="" style=""> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="nowrap IPA-coarticulated-main IPA-coarticulated-nocaption" style=""> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–alveolar nasal">n͡m</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93coronal_consonant" title="Labial–coronal consonant">Labial–alveolar</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced labial–retroflex nasal">ɳ͡m</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93retroflex_consonant" title="Labial–retroflex consonant">Labial–retroflex</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–velar nasal">ŋ͡m</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–velar</a></div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–alveolar plosive">t͡p</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93alveolar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–alveolar plosive">d͡b</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–retroflex plosive">ʈ͡p</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced labial–retroflex plosive">ɖ͡b</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–retroflex</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar plosive">k͡p</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–velar plosive">ɡ͡b</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular–epiglottal plosive">q͡ʡ</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_consonant" title="Uvular–epiglottal consonant">Uvular–epiglottal</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–uvular plosive">q͡p</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93uvular_consonant" title="Labial–uvular consonant">Labial–uvular</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximant</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–palatal fricative">ɥ̊</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93palatal_approximant" title="Voiced labial–palatal approximant">ɥ</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Labio-palatalization" title="Labio-palatalization">Labial–palatal</a></div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> </div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">ɧ</a></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Sj-sound" title="Sj-sound">Sj-sound</a> (variable)</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> approximant</div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc"><a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">Velarized</a> alveolar</div> </div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a></div> <div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar implosive">ɠ̊͜ɓ̥</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_implosive" title="Voiced labial–velar implosive">ɠ͡ɓ</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–velar</div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-sect"><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">Ejective</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"></div><div class="IPA-coarticulated-symbol"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93alveolar_ejective_stop" title="Labial–alveolar ejective stop">t͡pʼ</a></div> <div class="IPA-coarticulated-desc">Labial–alveolar</div> </div> </div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_co-articulated_consonants" title="Template:IPA co-articulated consonants">template</a></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Other" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Nasal labial–velar approximant">Nasal labial–velar approximant</a> [w̃]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_palatal_approximant" title="Nasal palatal approximant">Nasal palatal approximant</a> [j̃]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bidental_fricative" title="Voiceless bidental fricative">Voiceless bidental fricative</a> [h̪͆]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabially_post-trilled_dental_stop" title="Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop">Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop</a> [t̪ʙ̥]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_nasal_glottal_approximant" title="Voiceless nasal glottal approximant">Voiceless nasal glottal approximant</a> [h̃]</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Vowels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table role="presentation" class="" style="margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="nowrap IPA-vowels-main IPA-vowels-nocaption IPA-vowels-noaudio" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td class="IPA-vowels-image-cell"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/320px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/480px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg/640px-Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-22px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-1px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">ɯ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">Near-close</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(40px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">ʏ</a></div></div> </td> <td> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(-15px, -1px);"><div></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɘ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ɵ</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e̞</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Mid front rounded vowel">ø̞</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(32px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid back unrounded vowel">ɤ̞</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o̞</a></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(64px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(42px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central rounded vowel">ɞ</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="IPA-vowels-minorcaption"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(85px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(53px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></div></div> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(106px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Open_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open front rounded vowel">ɶ</a></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(63px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ä</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div></div></div> </td> <td><div class="IPA-vowels-container" style="transform: translate(21px, -1px);"><div><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></div> <div class="IPA-vowels-container-dot"><img alt="•" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/5px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Disc_Plain_black.svg/10px-Disc_Plain_black.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="IPA-common-notes"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA help</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/17px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/22px-Loudspeaker.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> <a href="/wiki/IPA_vowel_chart_with_audio" title="IPA vowel chart with audio">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart">full chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA_vowels" title="Template:IPA vowels">template</a></li></ul> </div> Legend: <a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded • rounded</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a 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Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 11.27% 396.420 4 Template:IPA_common"," 10.85% 381.700 133 Template:Sfnp"," 10.05% 353.678 59 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.80% 274.335 257 Template:IPA_link"," 6.51% 229.061 20 Template:Cite_book"," 5.94% 209.053 1 Template:IPA_pulmonic_consonants"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.292","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19930751,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbel1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbercrombie1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkamatsu1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkamatsu1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkamatsu2003–2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbright1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1900b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssociation_phonétique_internationale1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallHowardMiller2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreckwoldt1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatford1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatford1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsMees1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsMees2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEditors_of_American_Speech1939\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsling1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsling2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimson1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimson1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeitner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeselwood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1989b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersenPedersen1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesCamilli1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesDahl1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesWard1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenyon1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoerner1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöhlerLadefogedSnymanTraill1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefoged1987a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefoged1987b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefogedRoach1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLepsius1855\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClure1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolaidis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPassy1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers\u0026#039;_Association1887a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers\u0026#039;_Association1887b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers\u0026#039;_Association1888a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhonetic_Teachers\u0026#039;_Association1888b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweet1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrofimovJones1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitley2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"\\\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 22,\n [\"Angbr IPA\"] = 376,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 59,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 8,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Hairsp\"] = 3,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 24,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1069,\n [\"IPA navigation\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA notice\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"JSTOR\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 16,\n [\"MirrorH\"] = 2,\n [\"N/a\"] = 99,\n [\"Not a typo\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sc2\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 133,\n [\"Short description\"] 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