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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The airlift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_airlift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aircraft_and_crews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aircraft_and_crews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aircraft and crews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aircraft_and_crews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contributors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contributors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Contributors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contributors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1967–70 humanitarian relief effort in Africa</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starved_girl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/170px-Starved_girl.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/255px-Starved_girl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Starved_girl.jpg/340px-Starved_girl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>A girl during the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian-Biafran_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian-Biafran war">Nigerian-Biafran war</a> of the late 1960s. Pictures of the famine caused by Nigerian blockade garnered sympathy for the Biafrans worldwide.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Biafran Airlift</b> was an international <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">humanitarian relief</a> effort that transported food and medicine to <a href="/wiki/Biafra" title="Biafra">Biafra</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a>. It was the largest civilian <a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">airlift</a> and, after the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_airlift" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin airlift">Berlin airlift</a> of 1948–49, the largest non-combatant airlift of any kind ever carried out. The airlift was largely a series of joint efforts by Protestant and Catholic church groups, and other <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> (NGOs), operating civilian and military aircraft with volunteer (mostly) civilian crews and support personnel. Several national governments also supported the effort, mostly behind the scenes. This sustained joint effort, which lasted one and a half times as long as its Berlin predecessor, is estimated to have saved more than a million lives.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigerian</a> government and some Nigerian military leaders stated the threat of genocide was fabricated and was "misguided humanitarian rubbish." They additionally stated that mass starvation was an intended goal, saying "If the children must die first, then that is too bad, just too bad,"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "All is fair in war, and starvation is one of the weapons of war". There have been accusations that the airlift supplied weapons to Biafra, but these remain unsubstantiated. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg/300px-Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg/450px-Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg/600px-Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Location of Biafra</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1968, a year after the start of the Nigerian Civil War, large numbers of children were reportedly starving to death due to a blockade imposed by the Nigerian Federal Military Government (FMG) and military.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1969 it was reported that over 1,000 children per day were starving to death.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A FMG representative declared, "Starvation is a legitimate weapon of war, and we have every intention of using it."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the advent of global television reporting, for the first time, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, starvation, and the humanitarian response were seen by millions around the world, demanding that both the government and private sector joint efforts to save as many as possible from starving to death. </p><p>International reactions to the plight of the civilian population in the secessionist region was diverse. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and most national governments, expressing reluctance to become involved in what was officially considered an internal Nigerian affair, remained silent on the escalating humanitarian crisis. Secretary General of the United Nations, <a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a>, refused to support the airlift.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The position of the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_African_Unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization of African Unity">Organization of African Unity</a> was to not intervene in conflicts its members' deemed internal and to support the nation-state boundaries instituted during the colonial era.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruling <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, which together with the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> was supplying arms to the Nigerian military,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dismissed reports of famine as "enemy propaganda".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Curtis_(British_author)" title="Mark Curtis (British author)">Mark Curtis</a> writes that the UK also reportedly provided military assistance on the 'neutralisation of the rebel airstrips', with the understanding that their destruction would put them out of use for daylight humanitarian relief flights.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The church-funded groups and NGOs became the most outspoken of the international supporters of aid to Biafra. The Joint Church Airlift (JCA) provided relief aid as well as attempted to establish an air force for Biafra. The American NGO <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Relief_Services" title="Catholic Relief Services">Catholic Relief Services</a> (CRS) was the leader and organizer of the JCA operation and Edward Kinney the CRS executive was responsible for securing the fleet of large <a href="/wiki/Cargo_aircraft" title="Cargo aircraft">cargo aircraft</a> donated by the US government. On the ground CRS coordinated with the well positioned and established missionary priests and sisters particularly the Holy Spirit Fathers from Ireland to pull together the highly effective distribution and services on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to a ban by the Federal Military Government on aid flights into the region. The <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> (ICRC) accepted the FMG's ban and did not participate in any international publicity about Biafra, a position that was condemned by the more vocal and active NGOs providing aid and here we would highlight the effective voices of CRS and <a href="/wiki/Caritas_International" class="mw-redirect" title="Caritas International">Caritas International</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Kouchner" title="Bernard Kouchner">Bernard Kouchner</a>, a French doctor and one of the more outspoken critics, declared that this silence over Biafra made the ICRC's workers "accomplices in the systematic massacre of a population".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American president <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a> demanded his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">State Department</a> "get those <a href="/wiki/Nigger" title="Nigger">nigger</a> babies off my TV set".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US government largely prevailed upon by the large effective constituency and advocacy efforts of CRS began providing funding to relief efforts. By 1969 the US had sold eight <a href="/wiki/C-97_Stratofreighter" class="mw-redirect" title="C-97 Stratofreighter">C-97</a> military cargo aircraft to CRS for JCA and was reported to be providing 49% of all aid to the relief effort.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Canada, facing its own internal separatist threat in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_sovereignty_movement" title="Quebec sovereignty movement">Quebec sovereignty movement</a>, was reluctant to extend aid to an area trying to separate from a fellow <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of nations">Commonwealth</a> member, particularly in a region in which it had no prior experience. However, early assistance was provided with food, material and one military transport aircraft for several months. Financial assistance was also provided in the closing months of the airlift.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France responded by providing aid to Biafra: humanitarian aid through the French Red Cross and military aid quietly, if not officially.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the vast majority of governments remained uninvolved, assistance was demanded by people around the world. Approximately 30 non-governmental organizations responded.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_airlift">The airlift</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The airlift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar,_Nigeria,_probably_1968.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png/220px-Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png/330px-Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png/440px-Makeshift_airport_in_Calabar%2C_Nigeria%2C_probably_1968.png 2x" data-file-width="1017" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>A field that had been converted into a makeshift airport in Calabar, Nigeria, where relief efforts were aided by a helicopter team. These helicopters could move one ton of crated, dry fish quickly to refugee camps in the Nigerian-Biafran war zone.</figcaption></figure> <p>Relief aid into Biafra began arriving by land, sea, and air soon after the start of the Nigerian Civil War in 1967. Reports of widespread famine began emerging, many from NGOs participating in the relief aid efforts. Relief flights ramped up after Nigeria's land and sea blockade of Biafra became near-total in June 1968. These flights were mainly under the auspices of the ICRC, with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nordchurchaid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nordchurchaid (page does not exist)">Nordchurchaid</a> being a major donor/partner. Also on June 5, 1969,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an ICRC <a href="/wiki/DC-7" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-7">DC-7</a> aircraft was shot down by Nigerian forces (killing three relief workers); Nigeria demanded all relief flights be subject to their control; and the ICRC suspended their flights from Cotonou and Santa Isabelle. </p><p>A dispute arose between the NGOs and the ICRC over the latter's position to comply with Nigeria's demands for a ban on outside relief flights. The ICRC defended their position stating that "Article 23 of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949, intended for international armed conflict, stipulates that a belligerent State can satisfy itself that material assistance is neutral."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A leading critic of the ICRC's position declared that their silence over Biafra made its workers accomplices in the systematic massacre of a population.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png/220px-1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png/330px-1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png/440px-1968_11_Nigeria_CDC.png 2x" data-file-width="1007" data-file-height="669" /></a><figcaption>Salted dried codfish that was distributed to refugees of the Nigerian-Biafran war in the late 1960s. Such fish helped to supplement the protein deficient diets of the camp inhabitants who were suffering from protein malnutrition, which would eventually lead to <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">kwashiorkor</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 1968, Anthony Byrne, an Irish missionary who was active in Onitshsa before the war, began a relief effort based in the island of <a href="/wiki/Sao_Tome_and_Principe" class="mw-redirect" title="Sao Tome and Principe">Sao Tome</a> under the aegis of the Committee of International Church Relief Organizations. The committee included <a href="/wiki/Caritas_Internationalis" title="Caritas Internationalis">Caritas Internationalis</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Relief_Services" title="Catholic Relief Services">Catholic Relief Services</a>, and Nordchurchaid (a collective of <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> Protestant groups). Sao Tome was a Portuguese overseas department under the control of Governor Silva Sebastio, and had taken a neutral stance on the civil war and made its ports available to both belligerents, though the Nigerian federals made no use of them. Relief flights began in earnest in late April. By September the relief effort had several planes at its disposal and was sending an average of ten flights to Biafra each night. With the support of Sebastio, children with <a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">Kwashiorkor</a> were flown to the island for medical treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relief flights landed at <a href="/wiki/Uli,_Anambra" title="Uli, Anambra">Uli</a>, codenamed "Airstrip Annabelle", the only operational "airport" in Biafra. At the height of the airlift it became the second busiest airport in Africa after Johannesburg.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bush landing strip was a widened road and had no instruments or navigation gear. The flights originated primarily from: the island of Sao Tome; the island of Fernando Po (then a Spanish colony and now known as <a href="/wiki/Bioko" title="Bioko">Bioko, Republic of Equatorial Guinea</a>); and <a href="/wiki/Cotonou" title="Cotonou">Cotonou, Dahomey</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The humanitarian airlift was undertaken almost exclusively by civilian cargo aircraft and without any escorting military or defensive aircraft. Flights were also made from Libreville, Gabon by the French who were supplying both relief aid and military supplies. </p><p>The flights were undertaken under cover of darkness and without lights to avoid attacking Nigerian aircraft who maintained air superiority during the day, supported by Soviet fishing trawlers offshore monitoring the flights.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each aircraft made as many as four round-trips each night into Uli. The aircraft – nearly all of which were civilian and operated by civilian pilots – were based, fueled, repaired, and maintained at the supply end of the airlift, not in Biafra. Three were destroyed on the ground at Uli by Nigerian aircraft. Attacking aircraft were frequently nearby trying to catch the airlifters while landing or on the ground, forcing pilots to hover in darkness until an all-clear was sounded and runway lights could be activated barely long enough to enable a speedy landing. Separation between aircraft in the air was maintained by cockpit radio communication between pilots as there was no radar. Hostile aircraft were flown by mercenaries who taunted airlift pilots over the radio and used call signs such as "Genocide".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approaches were made low over the treetops and landing was made without runway lights. At times the brief illumination of the runway lights could provide sufficient bearing for the attacking aircraft. Once on the ground air and ground crew frequently had to evacuate the aircraft after landing and take cover from attacking aircraft in trenches alongside the runway. Radio broadcasts from Uli normally used code, such as "no landing lights" for "we are being bombed." </p><p>Almost all of the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up and maintained by the joint churches through contracted companies and volunteers on the ground. The largest aircraft, the C-97s, received major maintenance services performed by <a href="/wiki/Israel_Aircraft_Industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Aircraft Industries">Israel Aircraft Industries</a> volunteers working in Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1968 most of JCA's funding originated from the United States government and was funneled through JCA.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At its peak in 1969, the airlift delivered an average of 250 metric tons of food each night to the estimated 1.5 to 2 million people dependent on food relief supplies, most of which was brought in by the airlift.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1968, before the arrival of the C-97s from the US, (VERIFY) an estimated 15–20 flights each night were made into Biafra: 10–12 from Sao Tome (JCA, Canairelief, and others), 6–8 from Fernando Po (mostly ICRC), and 3–4 from Libreville, Gabon (mostly French). This quantity of food was less than 10% of the amount needed to feed the estimated 2 million starving citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total over 5,300 missions were flown by JCA using ten different carriers, lifting 60,000 tons of humanitarian aid.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cargo involved more than just food. Some pilots agreed to carry cargo that could be hazardous to the aircraft: fuel for cooking and ground transport (flammable), and salt (corrosive).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the return flights out of Uli, some flights carried materials for export sale. Others carried children, either orphans or in need of medical attention, said to be taken "far away in the sky".<sup id="cite_ref-:8_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This airlift was the first major civilian airlift in history, and perhaps the largest of any civilian relief effort of any kind. Of the major participants, only <a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a> had any prior experience with field operations; Biafra was their second.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pilots and some of the maintenance crews were perhaps the only trained persons involved. Most others were volunteers, performing tasks for which they had no little or no training or prior experience, from loading and unloading, warehouse, inventory, to aircraft maintenance and engine mechanics. The operating agencies were varied and often competing; many were also brand new to this type of effort. Organization and logistics were improved greatly through experience over months, with unloading times dropped from over 2 hours to 20 minutes per aircraft, often under attack or threat of attack.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aircraft_and_crews">Aircraft and crews</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aircraft and crews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_(_KC-97G_)_(8391083061).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg/220px-HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg/330px-HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg/440px-HB-ILY_Boeing_377_Stratocruiser_%28_KC-97G_%29_%288391083061%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boeing_C-97" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing C-97">Boeing C-97</a> in airlift markings, preserved at <a href="/wiki/Pima_Air_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pima Air Museum">Pima Air Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calabar_1968.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calabar_1968.png/220px-Calabar_1968.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calabar_1968.png/330px-Calabar_1968.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Calabar_1968.png/440px-Calabar_1968.png 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sikorsky_H-34" title="Sikorsky H-34">Sikorsky H-34</a>, which has landed at a makeshift airport in Calabar, Nigeria, is loaded with crates of dried fish, a staple food in that area, to be shipped to refugee camps during the Nigerian-Biafran war.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the aircraft were operated or contracted by "Joint Church Aid", often referred to as "Jesus Christ Airlines" from the initials JCA, flying primarily from Sao Tome and Cotonou. </p><p>These were operated or provided by: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balair" class="mw-redirect" title="Balair">Balair</a> (Swiss-based airline under charter) flew former <a href="/wiki/C-97_Stratofreighter" class="mw-redirect" title="C-97 Stratofreighter">C-97s</a> with volunteer American pilots and a <a href="/wiki/Transall_C.160" class="mw-redirect" title="Transall C.160">Transall C.160</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Canairelief - flew four purchased ex-<a href="/wiki/Nordair" title="Nordair">Nordair</a> <a href="/wiki/Super_Constellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Super Constellation">Super Constellations</a>.</li> <li>"Flight Test Research Inc." - Russell O'Quinn's company based in Long Beach, California, flew and with IAI maintained the four C-97G Stratofreighters sold by the U.S. government to "Joint Church Aid-USA" (one of them went into the night on May 8, lost in a crash landing in Biafra)</li> <li>"Flughjálp HF" - chartered by Nordchurchaid; based in Reykjavik, Iceland; established by <a href="/wiki/Loftleidir" class="mw-redirect" title="Loftleidir">Loftleidir</a>, also known as Icelandic Airlines.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Transavia" title="Transavia">Transavia</a> Operating under the name Transavia Holland NV" - provided five DC-6Bs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred._Olsen_Airtransport" title="Fred. Olsen Airtransport">Fred. Olsen Airtransport</a> was contracted and operated <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-6" title="Douglas DC-6">Douglas DC-6s</a>. One was bombed while unloading in Uli.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Independent contractors</li></ul> <p>The ICRC's operation flew primarily from Fermando Po. Flights were operated or provided by: </p> <ul><li>Canadian Armed Forces - <a href="/wiki/C-130_Hercules" class="mw-redirect" title="C-130 Hercules">C-130 Hercules</a> from Fernando Po on behalf of the ICRC.</li> <li>ICRC - 1967-1970</li> <li>Swedish & French Red Cross (C-130 Hercules)</li></ul> <p>Aircraft used were mostly aging multi-prop airliners such as <a href="/wiki/DC-7" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-7">DC-7s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-6" title="Douglas DC-6">DC-6s</a>, <a href="/wiki/DC-4" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-4">DC-4s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-3" title="Douglas DC-3">DC3s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avro_Anson" title="Avro Anson">Avro Ansons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Constellation" title="Lockheed Constellation">Lockheed Constellations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_L-1049_Super_Constellation" title="Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation">Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellations</a>. Aircraft registrations were removed from many aircraft due to the flights being declared illicit by the Federal Military Government and most of the international community. These were available at relatively low cost due to the rapidly increasing availability of the new generation of jet-powered passenger aircraft. Military transports such as second-hand US <a href="/wiki/Boeing_C-97_Stratofreighter" title="Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter">Boeing C-97 Stratofreighters</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/C-130" class="mw-redirect" title="C-130">C-130E Hercules</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces" title="Canadian Armed Forces">Canadian Armed Forces</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Transall C.160 provided by Germany were also loaned to the effort. </p><p>Airlift pilots came were from around the world: Australia, Canada, Germany, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the United States, and elsewhere. One notable pilot was <a href="/wiki/August_Harvey_Martin" title="August Harvey Martin">August Martin</a>, the first African American commercial airline pilot and a former <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Airman">Tuskegee Airman</a>, who was killed when his plane crashed during the airlift.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another was the Icelandic pilot <a href="/wiki/Tony_Jonsson" title="Tony Jonsson">Þorsteinn E. Jónsson</a>. </p><p>At least 29 pilots and crew from the relief agencies were killed by accidents or by Nigerian forces in 10 separate incidents during the airlift: 25 from JCA, 4 from Canairelief, and 3 from the ICRC.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributors">Contributors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contributors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Approximately 30 non-governmental organizations and several governments provided non-military direct and indirect aid through or in support of the Biafran Airlift. Major contributors of such items as food, medicine, transport aircraft, air and ground crew included: </p> <ul><li>American Jewish Emergency Effort for Biafran Relief</li> <li>Canada (financial, food, material, C-130 Hercules aircraft)</li> <li>Canairrelief (a NGO organized by the Presbyterian Church of Canada and Oxfam Canada. Over 10,000 tons were carried in 674 flights)<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritas_Internationalis" title="Caritas Internationalis">Caritas Internationalis</a></li> <li>Church World Service</li> <li>Das Diakonische Werk (a German church group provided flight operations)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>France</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (one C.160 aircraft)</li> <li>Holy Ghost Airline (run by the Irish Catholic <a href="/wiki/Holy_Ghost_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Ghost Fathers">Holy Ghost Fathers</a>, Africa Concern)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> - also acting as an umbrella group for multiple national Red Cross agencies</li> <li>Nordchurchaid (an ad hoc organization of Protestant churches from Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Israel_Aerospace_Industries" title="Israel Aerospace Industries">Israel Aerospace Industries</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxfam" title="Oxfam">Oxfam</a></li> <li>Portugal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_the_Children_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Save the Children Fund">Save the Children Fund</a></li> <li>Sweden (C-130 Hercules aircraft)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> (contributed four field service officers)</li> <li>United States (financial, food, material, and eight C-97 US Air National Guard transport aircraft)</li> <li>World Council of Churches</li></ul> <p>Others who contributed other non-humanitarian aid, such as military support and diplomatic recognition, are not included here. Countries and agencies who contributed solely or mostly through any of the above organizations are not listed separately. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nigerian government and some Nigerian military leaders stated the threat of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> was fabricated and was "misguided humanitarian rubbish." They also said that mass starvation was an intended goal, saying "If the children must die first, then that is too bad, just too bad,"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "All is fair in war, and starvation is one of the weapons of war."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a joint statement on August 16, 1968, the International Red Cross, UNICEF, World Council of Churches, and CARITAS stated: "The conflict which concerned not hundred of thousands but millions of people was the greatest emergency it had handled since the Second World War."<sup id="cite_ref-:8_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been accusations that the airlift supplied arms to Biafra, but these remain unsubstantiated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whether mass starvation was intended or not, it became a fact and a legacy of the Nigerian Civil War. So too is the airlift. The images of children with bellies bloated from malnutrition remain an international historical symbol of Biafra, and it was these effects on the civilian population that inspired the airlift and whom the airlift benefitted. "Americans may not know much about Biafra, but they know about the children."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that period, images of both the Biafran and the Vietnam wars were being broadcast daily around the world.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The airlift's very existence was a potent example of the power of public opinion and an inspired civilian populace. Subsequent <a href="/wiki/Famine_relief" title="Famine relief">famine relief</a> efforts in places such as Ethiopia, Somalia, or the former Yugoslavia by world governments were not met with the same response as with Biafra.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biafraland.com/Biafra_Air_Relief_by_Churches.htm"><i>Biafra Relief Heroes: remembering--in the words of those who were there...</i>, Voice of Biafra International</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biafraland.com/1968_Biafra%20_Report_By_American_Jewish_Congress.htm">Nigerian Colonel Atakunie, (London Economist, Aug. 24, 1968 as cited in the Village Voice Oct. 17, 1968; and San_Francisco_Chronicle, July 2) as cited in Village Voice Oct. 17, 1968. Cited in <i>The Tragedy of Biafra, A Report by the American Jewish Congress December 1968</i>, page 24</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Remembering+the+nightmare+of+Biafra%3A+E.H.+Johnson+was+at+the+centre...-a0122700689"><i>Remembering the Nightmare of Biafra</i>, The Free Library</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-04</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biafranet.com/biafrafiles/203NYTFilesonBiafra.html">New York Times, August 24, 1969</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-04</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2010/10/11/101011crat_atlarge_gourevitch">Philip Gourevitch, <i>Alms Dealers,</i> The New Yorker, October 11, 2010</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vanguardmagazine.ca/the-birth-of-canairelief/">Roy Thomas, <i>The Birth of CANAIRELIEF</i>, Vanguard Magazine, September 2006</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2016">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://salempress.com/store/samples/sixties_in_america/sixties_in_america_biafran_war.htm">Sixties in America</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208072014/http://salempress.com/store/samples/sixties_in_america/sixties_in_america_biafran_war.htm">Archived</a> February 8, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/30/newsid_3733000/3733321.stm">BBC, on this day in history, <i>1969: Nigeria bans Red Cross aid to Biafra</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/589221.stm">Secret papers reveal Biafra intrigue, BBC News, January 3, 2000</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://markcurtis.wordpress.com/2007/02/13/nigeriabiafra-1967-70/">Nigeria's War Over Biafra, 1967-70, Mark Curtis</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.concernusa.org/story/biafran-airlift/">"The amazing Biafran airlift — Heroics in the sky and on the ground"</a>. <i>Concern Worldwide</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Concern+Worldwide&rft.atitle=The+amazing+Biafran+airlift+%E2%80%94+Heroics+in+the+sky+and+on+the+ground&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.concernusa.org%2Fstory%2Fbiafran-airlift%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiafran+airlift" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faroutliers.wordpress.com/2006/08/23/biafra-and-the-birth-of-the-new-humanitarianism/">Biafra and the Birth of the new Humanitarianism</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-05</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fNIxZNPeQ3AC&pg=PA275&q=johnson%20%22nigger%20babies%20off%20my%20tv%22">Cohen & Tucker, page 275</a> Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biafranet.com/biafrafiles/203NYTFilesonBiafra.html">New York Times, July 21, 1969</a>. Retrieved 2012-01-04</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biafraland.com/1968_Biafra%20_Report_By_American_Jewish_Congress.htm">The Tragedy of Biafra: A Report by the American Jewish Congress, December 1968</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humansecuritygateway.com/documents/AD_HumanitarianAidandtheBiafraWar_LessonsnotLearned.pdf"><i>Humanitarian Aid and the Biafra War: Lessons not Learned</i>, Africa Development, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, 2009, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2009</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2016">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Godwin Alabi-Isama, The Tragedy of Victory, Ibadan, 2013. page 385-393</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/article/other/57jnav.htm">The International Committee of the Red Cross and humanitarian assistance - A policy analysis 31-10-1996</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/work/field/msfexperience.cfm">Doctors Without Borders, <i>THE MSF EXPERIENCE</i>, by Rony Brauman and Joelle Tanguy (1998)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130412063416/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/work/field/msfexperience.cfm">Archived</a> April 12, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel2006" class="citation web cs1">Joel (2006-08-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faroutliers.wordpress.com/2006/08/23/biafra-and-the-birth-of-the-new-humanitarianism/">"Biafra and the Birth of the 'New Humanitarianism'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Far Outliers</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Far+Outliers&rft.atitle=Biafra+and+the+Birth+of+the+%27New+Humanitarianism%27&rft.date=2006-08-24&rft.au=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffaroutliers.wordpress.com%2F2006%2F08%2F23%2Fbiafra-and-the-birth-of-the-new-humanitarianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiafran+airlift" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe1968" class="citation news cs1">Howe, Marvine (September 25, 1968). "Biafra Relief Operation Transforms Island of Sao Tome". <i>The New York Times</i>. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Biafra+Relief+Operation+Transforms+Island+of+Sao+Tome&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1968-09-25&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Marvine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiafran+airlift" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koren, page 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cuny/laptop/relief.html"><i>The Lost American</i>, Fred Cuny. Frontline, PBS</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journeytoforever.org/rrlib/biafra.html"><i>Biafra: A People Betrayed</i>, Kurt Vonnegut, 1979</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lookandlearn.com/blog/16060/the-biafran-airlift-by-ngos-faced-federal-mercenaries-in-the-skies/"><i>The Biafran airlift by NGOs faced federal mercenaries in the skies</i>, Look and Learn, December 1973</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://africanheraldexpress.com/blog7/2011/11/30/the-full-story-of-the-secret-biafra-air-rescue/">The Full Story of the Secret Biafra Air Rescue</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitedwithisrael.org/biafran-airlift-israels-secret-mission-to-save-lives/">Biafran Airlift: Israel's Secret Mission to Save Lives</a>. Retrieved 2013-11-24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friendsofnigeria.org/StoriesNPictures/Yellow%20Sun/YellowSun-Koren.htm">David L. Koren: <i>The World Is Deep</i>, Biafran Airlift, Friends of Nigeria.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131107033741/http://www.friendsofnigeria.org/StoriesNPictures/Yellow%20Sun/YellowSun-Koren.htm">Archived</a> November 7, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://markcurtis.wordpress.com/2007/02/13/nigeriabiafra-1967-70/">Nigeria's War Over Biafra, 1967-70, Mark Curtis</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Lawrence Kurtz, in Koren, pp 305-307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kwenu.com/biafra/Ibiam_Memo.htm"><i>BORN TO SERVE: The biography of Dr. Akanu Ibiam</i>, by D. C. Nwafor</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101126062600/http://kwenu.com/biafra/Ibiam_Memo.htm">Archived</a> 2010-11-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-05</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humansecuritygateway.com/documents/AD_HumanitarianAidandtheBiafraWar_LessonsnotLearned.pdf"><i>Humanitarian Aid and the Biafra War: Lessons not Learned</i>, Africa Development, Vol. XXXIV, No. 1, 2009, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2009</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2016">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_351.shtml"><i>Civil War in Nigeria (Biafra), 1967-70</i>. Tom Cooper Nov 13, 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundby1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sundby, Jon (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nb.no/nbsok/nb/0b250b143cdd6a7270418f7d06eb4d85"><i>A/S Fred. Olsens Flyselskap 60 år</i></a> (in Norwegian). Bærum: Fred. Olsens Flyveselskap. p. 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A%2FS+Fred.+Olsens+Flyselskap+60+%C3%A5r&rft.place=B%C3%A6rum&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Fred.+Olsens+Flyveselskap&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Sundby&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nb.no%2Fnbsok%2Fnb%2F0b250b143cdd6a7270418f7d06eb4d85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiafran+airlift" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avstop.com/history/blackairlines/augustmartin.htm"><i>One of the first Black Airline Pilots</i>, AvStop.com</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koren, David L. p.168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130219190140/http://www.macleans.ca/world/global/article.jsp?content=20080716_85112_85112">Sean Maloney, <i>Where's Biafra?</i>, Macleans Magazine, July 16, 2008</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-02</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friendsofnigeria.org/StoriesNPictures/Yellow%20Sun/YellowSun-Koren.htm">David L. Koren: <i>The World Is Deep</i>, Biafran Airlift, Friends of Nigeria.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131107033741/http://www.friendsofnigeria.org/StoriesNPictures/Yellow%20Sun/YellowSun-Koren.htm">Archived</a> November 7, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 2013-01-03</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitedwithisrael.org/biafran-airlift-israels-secret-mission-to-save-lives/">Biafran Airlift: Israel's Secret Mission to Save Lives</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-130hercules.net/acftdb/LPNs/LPN.php?lpn=4039">C130Hercules.net</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thenationonlineng.net/new/2012/10/23/">Attributed to Chief Awolowo and Chief Allison Ayida, in <i>There was a country: Blockade, starvation and a requiem for Biafra</i>, The Nation, October 23, 2012</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025232336/http://thenationonlineng.net/new/2012/10/23/">Archived</a> October 25, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-13</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cohen, Warren I. and Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf (editors): <i>Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World: American Foreign Policy 1963-1968</i>. Cambridge University Press 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-41428-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-41428-8">0-521-41428-8</a></li> <li>Koren, David L.: <i>Far Away in the Sky: A Memoir of the Biafran Airlift</i>. David L. Koren, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1467996149" title="Special:BookSources/1467996149">1467996149</a></li> <li>Schwab, Peter: <i>Biafra</i>, Facts on File (1971). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/087196192X" title="Special:BookSources/087196192X">087196192X</a></li> <li>Chinua Achebe: <i>There Was A Country: A Personal History of Biafra</i> (Penguin, New York, 2012). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-482-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-482-1">978-1-59420-482-1</a></li> <li>N.U. Akpan <i>The Struggle for Secession 1966-1970: A personal account of the Nigerian civil war</i> (Frank Kass and Co., London, 1972). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-2930-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-2930-8">0-7146-2930-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elechi_Amadi" title="Elechi Amadi">Elechi Amadi</a>: <i>Sunset in Biafra: A Civil War Diary</i> (Heinemann, <a href="/wiki/African_Writers_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="African Writers Series">African Writers Series</a>, London, 1973). ASIN B000NPB7EU</li> <li>Andrew Brewin and David MacDonald: <i>Canada and the Biafran Tragedy</i> (James Lewis & Samuel, Toronto, 1970). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0888620071" title="Special:BookSources/0888620071">0888620071</a></li> <li>Michael I. Draper: <i>Shadows: Airlift and Airwar in Biafra and Nigeria 1967-1970</i> (Hikoki Publications, London, 2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1902109633" title="Special:BookSources/978-1902109633">978-1902109633</a></li> <li>Frederick Forsyth: <i>The Making of an African Legend: The Biafra Story</i> (Penguin, London, 1969, republished 1977). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1902109635" title="Special:BookSources/1902109635">1902109635</a></li> <li>John de St. Jorre <i>The Nigerian Civil War</i> (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1972). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0340126400" title="Special:BookSources/978-0340126400">978-0340126400</a></li> <li><i>Biafra: Random Thoughts of C. Odumegwu Ojukwu, General of the People's Army</i> (Harper & Row, London, 1969). ASIN B0007G6D9E</li> <li>Bengt Sundkler, Christopher Steed: <i>A History of the Church in Africa</i>. Cambridge University Press (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052158342X" title="Special:BookSources/052158342X">052158342X</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biafran_airlift&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biafraland.com/1968_Biafra%20_Report_By_American_Jewish_Congress.htm">The Tragedy of Biafra: A Report by the American Jewish Congress, December 1968</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131107033741/http://www.friendsofnigeria.org/StoriesNPictures/Yellow%20Sun/YellowSun-Koren.htm">David L. Koren: <i>The World Is Deep</i>, Biafran Airlift, Friends of Nigeria.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/50/304/32-130-122C-84-acoa%20biafra%2011-1-68%20opt.pdf">ACOA Nigeria-Biafra Relief Memo #4, American Committee on Africa, November 1, 1968</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e5/c15646.htm"><i>Nigerian Civil War</i>, US Department of State Archives, Foreign Relations, 1969–1976, Volume E-5, Documents on Africa, 1969-1972</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biafra_topics" title="Template talk:Biafra topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biafra_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biafra topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biafra_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biafra" title="Biafra">Biafra</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1966_anti-Igbo_pogrom" title="1966 anti-Igbo pogrom">1966 anti-Igbo pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigeria-Biafra War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahiara_Declaration" title="Ahiara Declaration">Ahiara Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aburi_Accord" title="Aburi Accord">Aburi Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Benin_(1967)" title="Republic of Benin (1967)">Republic of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Biafra" title="Blockade of Biafra">Blockade of Biafra</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biafran airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogbunigwe" title="Ogbunigwe">Ogbunigwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Niger_Delta_conflict" title="2016 Niger Delta conflict">2016 Niger Delta conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Southeastern_Nigeria" title="Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria">Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Biafra_(1967%E2%80%931970).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roundel of the Biafran Air Force (1967–1970)"><img alt="Roundel of the Biafran Air Force (1967–1970)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg/80px-Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg/120px-Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg/160px-Roundel_of_Biafra_%281967%E2%80%931970%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="602" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enugu" title="Enugu">Enugu <span style="font-size:85%;">(first capital)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umuahia" title="Umuahia">Umuahia <span style="font-size:85%;">(second capital)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Region,_Nigeria" title="Eastern Region, Nigeria">Eastern Nigeria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chukwuemeka_Odumegwu_Ojukwu" title="Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu">Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Effiong" title="Philip Effiong">Philip Effiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biafran_armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Biafran armed forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Actualization_of_the_Sovereign_State_of_Biafra" title="Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra">Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_people" title="Efik people">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibibio_people" title="Ibibio people">Ibibio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annang_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Annang people">Annang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikwerre_people" title="Ikwerre people">Ikwerre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obolo_people" title="Obolo people">Andoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egbema_tribe" title="Egbema tribe">Egbema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biafran_pound" title="Biafran pound">Biafran pound <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Biafra" title="Flag of Biafra">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_the_Rising_Sun_(anthem)" title="Land of the Rising Sun (anthem)">"Land of the Rising Sun" <span style="font-size:85%;">(national anthem)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Biafra" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Biafra">Postage stamps and postal history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" 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