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<span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_preference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_preference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Risk preference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risk_preference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_desires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_desires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relation to desires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_desires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insolvency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insolvency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Insolvency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insolvency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D9%84" title="تفضيل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفضيل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefer%C3%A8ncia" title="Preferència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Preferència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference" title="Preference – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Preference" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A4ferenz" title="Präferenz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Präferenz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencia" title="Preferencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Preferencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence" title="Préférence – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Préférence" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%A0%ED%98%B8" title="선호 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="선호" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferensi" title="Preferensi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Preferensi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferenza" title="Preferenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Preferenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%A1_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA" title="יחס העדפות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יחס העדפות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Преференциялар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Преференциялар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencia" title="Preferencia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Preferencia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="प्राधान्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राधान्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferencja" title="Preferencja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Preferencja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefer%C3%AAncia" title="Preferência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Preferência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Преференција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Преференција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferenssi" title="Preferenssi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Preferenssi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferens" title="Preferens – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Preferens" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercih" title="Tercih – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tercih" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A5" title="פרעפערענץ – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פרעפערענץ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%81%8F%E5%A5%BD" title="偏好 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="偏好" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q908656#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the psychological term. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Preference_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Preference (disambiguation)">Preference (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>preference</b> is a technical term usually used in relation to choosing between <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alternative" class="extiw" title="wikt:alternative">alternatives</a>. For example, someone prefers A over B if they would rather choose A than B. Preferences are central to <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a> because of this relation to behavior. Some methods such as <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_Priority_Approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinal Priority Approach">Ordinal Priority Approach</a> use preference relation for decision-making. As connative states, they are closely related to <a href="/wiki/Desires" class="mw-redirect" title="Desires">desires</a>. The difference between the two is that desires are directed at one object while preferences concern a comparison between two alternatives, of which one is preferred to the other. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Insolvency" title="Insolvency">insolvency</a>, the term is used to determine which outstanding obligation the insolvent party has to settle first. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, preferences refer to an individual's attitude towards a set of objects, typically reflected in an explicit <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is also used to mean evaluative judgment in the sense of liking or disliking an object, as in Scherer (2005),<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is the most typical definition employed in psychology. It does not mean that a preference is necessarily stable over time. Preference can be notably modified by decision-making processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">choices</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even unconsciously.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, preference can be affected by a person's surroundings and upbringing in terms of geographical location, cultural background, religious beliefs, and education. These factors are found to affect preference as repeated exposure to a certain idea or concept correlates with a positive preference.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Preference_(economics)" title="Preference (economics)">Preference (economics)</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, <i>preference</i> refers to the set of assumptions related to ordering some alternatives, based on the degree of <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>, satisfaction, <a href="/wiki/Gratification" title="Gratification">gratification</a>, morality, enjoyment, or <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> they provide. The concept of preferences is used in post-<a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a> to provide observable evidence in relation to people's actions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These actions can be described by <a href="/wiki/Rational_Choice_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational Choice Theory">Rational Choice Theory</a>, where individuals make decisions based on rational preferences which are aligned with their self-interests in order to achieve an optimal outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consumer preference, or consumers' preference for particular brands over identical products and services, is an important notion in the psychological influence of consumption. Consumer preferences have three properties: completeness, transitivity and non-satiation. For a preference to be rational, it must satisfy the axioms of <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness (statistics)">Completeness (statistics)</a>. The first axiom of transitivity refers to consistency between preferences, such that if x is preferred to y and y is preferred to z, then x has to be preferred to z.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second axiom of completeness describes that a relationship must exist between two options, such that x must be preferred to y or y must be preferred to x, or is indifferent between them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if I prefer sugar to honey and honey to sweetener then I must prefer sugar to sweetener to satisfy transitivity and I must have a preference between the items to satisfy completeness. Under the axiom of completeness, an individual cannot lack a preference between any two options.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg/220px-279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg/330px-279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg/440px-279124338_2213_4894807220743277869_n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>An example of transitive and complete preferences.</figcaption></figure> <p>If preferences are both transitive and complete, the relationship between preference can be described by a <a href="/wiki/Utility_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility function">utility function</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because the axioms allow for preferences to be ordered into one equivalent ordering with no preference cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maximising utility does not imply maximise happiness, rather it is an optimisation of the available options based on an individual's preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis" title="Expected utility hypothesis">Expected Utility Theory (EUT)</a>, which was introduced by <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Morgenstern" title="Oskar Morgenstern">Oskar Morgenstern</a> in 1944, explains that so long as an agent's preferences over risky options follow a set of <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a>, then he is maximizing the expected value of a utility function.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In utility theory, preference relates to decision makers' attitudes towards rewards and hazards. The specific varieties are classified into three categories: 1) risk-averse, that is, equal gains and losses, with investors participating when the loss probability is less than 50%; 2) the risk-taking kind, which is the polar opposite of type 1); 3) Relatively risk-neutral, in the sense that the introduction of risk has no clear association with the decision maker's choice.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mathematical foundations of most common types of preferences — that are representable by quadratic or additive functions — laid down by <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Debreu" title="Gérard Debreu">Gérard Debreu</a><sup id="cite_ref-Debreu1952_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debreu1952-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Debreu1960_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debreu1960-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enabled <a href="/wiki/Andranik_Tangian" title="Andranik Tangian">Andranik Tangian</a> to develop methods for their elicitation. In particular, additive and quadratic preference functions in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}"></span> variables can be constructed from interviews, where questions are aimed at tracing totally <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}"></span> 2D-indifference curves in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n-1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n-1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fbd0b0f32b28f51962943ee9ede4fb34198a2521" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.398ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n-1}"></span> coordinate planes without referring to cardinal utility estimates.<sup id="cite_ref-Tangian2002_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tangian2002-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tangian2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tangian2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Empirical evidence has shown that the usage of rational preferences (and <a href="/wiki/Rational_Choice_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational Choice Theory">Rational Choice Theory</a>) does not always accurately predict human behaviour because it makes unrealistic assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to this, <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoclassical economists">neoclassical economists</a> argue that it provides a normative model for people to adjust and optimise their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural economics">Behavioural economics</a> describes an alternative approach to predicting human behaviour by using psychological theory which explores deviations from rational preferences and the standard economic model.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also recognises that rational preferences and choices are limited by <a href="/wiki/Heuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics">heuristics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biases" class="mw-redirect" title="Biases">biases</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heuristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics">Heuristics</a> are rules of thumb such as elimination by aspects which are used to make decisions rather than maximising the <a href="/wiki/Utility_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility function">utility function</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic <a href="/wiki/Biases" class="mw-redirect" title="Biases">biases</a> such as reference points and <a href="/wiki/Loss_aversion" title="Loss aversion">loss aversion</a> also violate the assumption of rational preferences by causing individuals to act irrationally.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individual preferences can be represented as an indifference curve given the underlying assumptions. Indifference curves graphically depict all product combinations that yield the same amount of usefulness. Indifference curves allow us to graphically define and rank all possible combinations of two commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The graph's three main points are: </p> <ol><li>If more is better, the indifference curve dips downward.</li> <li>Greater transitivity indicates that the indifference curves do not overlap.</li> <li>A propensity for diversity causes indifference curves to curve inward.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_preference">Risk preference</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Risk preference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Risk preference is defined as how much risk a person is prepared to accept based on the <a href="/wiki/Expected_utility_hypothesis" title="Expected utility hypothesis">expected utility</a> or pleasure of the outcome. </p><p>Risk tolerance is a critical component of personal financial planning, that is, risk preference. </p><p>In psychology, risk preference is occasionally characterised as the proclivity to engage in a behaviour or activity that is advantageous but may involve some potential loss, such as substance abuse or criminal action that may bring significant bodily and mental harm to the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In economics, risk preference refers to a proclivity to engage in behaviours or activities that entail greater variance returns, regardless of whether they be gains or losses, and are frequently associated with monetary rewards involving lotteries.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two different traditions of measuring preference for risk, the revealed and stated preference traditions, which coexist in psychology, and to some extent in economics as well.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Risk preference evaluated from stated preferences emerges as a concept with significant temporal stability, but revealed preference measures do not.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_desires">Relation to desires</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relation to desires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Preferences</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Desires" class="mw-redirect" title="Desires">desires</a></i> are two closely related notions: they are both conative states that determine our behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Schulz_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulz-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between the two is that desires are directed at one object while preferences concern a comparison between two alternatives, of which one is preferred to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Pettit_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettit-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schulz_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulz-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus on preferences instead of desires is very common in the field of <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a>. It has been argued that desire is the more fundamental notion and that preferences are to be defined in terms of desires.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pettit_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pettit-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schulz_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulz-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this to work, desire has to be understood as involving a degree or intensity. Given this assumption, a preference can be defined as a comparison of two desires.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That Nadia prefers tea over coffee, for example, just means that her desire for tea is stronger than her desire for coffee. One argument for this approach is due to considerations of parsimony: a great number of preferences can be derived from a very small number of desires.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schulz_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulz-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One objection to this theory is that our introspective access is much more immediate in cases of preferences than in cases of desires. So it is usually much easier for us to know which of two options we prefer than to know the degree with which we desire a particular object. This consideration has been used to suggest that maybe preference, and not desire, is the more fundamental notion.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Insolvency">Insolvency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Insolvency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Insolvency" title="Insolvency">Insolvency</a>, the term can be used to describe when a company pays a specific creditor or group of creditors. From doing this, that creditor(s) is made better off, than other creditors. After paying the 'preferred creditor', the company seeks to go into formal insolvency like an administration or liquidation. There must be a desire to make the creditor better off, for them to be a preference. If the preference is proven, legal action can occur. It is a wrongful act of trading. Disqualification is a risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Steven_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steven-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preference arises within the context of the principle maintaining that one of the main objectives in the winding up of an insolvent company is to ensure the equal treatment of creditors.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rules on preferences allow paying up their creditors as insolvency looms, but that it must prove that the transaction is a result of ordinary commercial considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, under the English <a href="/wiki/Insolvency_Act_1986" title="Insolvency Act 1986">Insolvency Act 1986</a>, if a creditor was proven to have forced the company to pay, the resulting payment would not be considered a preference since it would not constitute unfairness.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the decision to give a preference, rather than the giving of the preference pursuant to that decision, which must be influenced by the desire to produce the effect of the preference. For these purposes, therefore, the relevant time is the date of the decision, not the date of giving the preference.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">Motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinal_Priority_Approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinal Priority Approach">Ordinal Priority Approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference-based_planning" title="Preference-based planning">Preference-based planning</a> (in artificial intelligence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_revelation" title="Preference revelation">Preference revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pairwise_comparison_(psychology)" title="Pairwise comparison (psychology)">Pairwise comparison</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lichtenstein, S.; & Slovic, P. (2006). <i>The construction of preference</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Desire&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Pettit&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rep.routledge.com%2Farticles%2Fthematic%2Fdesire%2Fv-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schroeder-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder2020" class="citation web cs1">Schroeder, Tim (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/desire/">"Desire"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Desire&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdesire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steven-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Steven_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven" class="citation web cs1">Steven, Keith. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.companyrescue.co.uk/guides-knowledge/guides/what-is-a-preference-under-the-insolvency-act-1986-3748/">"What Is A Preference Under The Insolvency Act 1986"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Preference+Under+The+Insolvency+Act+1986&rft.aulast=Steven&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.companyrescue.co.uk%2Fguides-knowledge%2Fguides%2Fwhat-is-a-preference-under-the-insolvency-act-1986-3748%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannigan2015" class="citation book cs1">Hannigan, Brenda (2015). <i>Company Law, Fourth Edition</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198722861" title="Special:BookSources/9780198722861"><bdi>9780198722861</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Company+Law%2C+Fourth+Edition&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=368&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780198722861&rft.aulast=Hannigan&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGulliferPayne2015" class="citation book cs1">Gullifer, Louise; <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Payne" title="Jennifer Payne">Payne, Jennifer</a> (2015). <i>Corporate Finance Law: Principles and Policy, Second Edition</i>. Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782259602" title="Special:BookSources/9781782259602"><bdi>9781782259602</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corporate+Finance+Law%3A+Principles+and+Policy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781782259602&rft.aulast=Gullifer&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft.au=Payne%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen" class="citation web cs1">Green, Elliot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oliverelliot.co.uk/success-stories/liquidator-elliot-green-wins-preference-claim-green-v-ireland/">"Green v Ireland [2011] EWHC 1305 (Ch)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 1,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Green+v+Ireland+%5B2011%5D+EWHC+1305+%28Ch%29&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oliverelliot.co.uk%2Fsuccess-stories%2Fliquidator-elliot-green-wins-preference-claim-green-v-ireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APreference" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preference&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Preferences (Philosophy)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1075083/">FAST</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4121501-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Preferences (Philosophy)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh97005465">United States</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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