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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Stoic_school_on_Rhodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The Stoic school on Rhodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Stoic_school_on_Rhodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partial_scope_of_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partial_scope_of_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Partial scope of writings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partial_scope_of_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy_and_meteorology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy_and_meteorology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Astronomy and meteorology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy_and_meteorology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography,_ethnology,_and_geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography,_ethnology,_and_geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Geography, ethnology, and geology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography,_ethnology,_and_geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earth's_circumference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth's_circumference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Earth's circumference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth's_circumference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>History and tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reputation_and_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reputation_and_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reputation and influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reputation_and_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions_and_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions_and_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Editions and translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions_and_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Posidonius</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="بوسيدونيوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بوسيدونيوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidoni" title="Posidoni – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Posidoni" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Посидоний – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Посидоний" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidoni" title="Posidoni – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Posidoni" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseid%C3%B3nios" title="Poseidónios – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Poseidónios" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonius" title="Poseidonius – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Poseidonius" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ποσειδώνιος ο Ρόδιος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ποσειδώνιος ο Ρόδιος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonio" title="Posidonio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Posidonio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonio" title="Posidonio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Posidonio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پوسیدونیوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پوسیدونیوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonios" title="Posidonios – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Posidonios" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posad%C3%B3nias" title="Posadónias – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Posadónias" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonio" title="Posidonio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Posidonio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%84%B8%EC%9D%B4%EB%8F%84%EB%8B%88%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4" title="포세이도니오스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포세이도니오스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Պոսիդոնիոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոսիդոնիոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8" title="पोसिडोनियस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पोसिडोनियस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posejdonije" title="Posejdonije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Posejdonije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3seid%C3%B3n%C3%ADos" title="Póseidóníos – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Póseidóníos" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonio" title="Posidonio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Posidonio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1" title="פוסידוניוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוסידוניוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Посидоний – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Посидоний" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius_Apameus" title="Posidonius Apameus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Posidonius Apameus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonijas" title="Poseidonijas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Poseidonijas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodoszi_Poszeid%C3%B3niosz" title="Rodoszi Poszeidóniosz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rodoszi Poszeidóniosz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98" title="Посидониј – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Посидониј" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4sid%C3%B4ni%C3%B4sy" title="Pôsidôniôsy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Pôsidôniôsy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="بوسيدونيوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بوسيدونيوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Posidonius" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%82%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%89%E3%83%8B%E3%82%AA%E3%82%B9" title="ポセイドニオス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポセイドニオス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidoniy" title="Posidoniy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Posidoniy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseid%C3%B2ni" title="Poseidòni – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Poseidòni" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posejdonios_z_Rodos" title="Posejdonios z Rodos – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Posejdonios z Rodos" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posid%C3%B3nio" title="Posidónio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Posidónio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Посидоний – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Посидоний" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseid%C3%B3nios_z_Apameie" title="Poseidónios z Apameie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Poseidónios z Apameie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posidonij" title="Posidonij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Posidonij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Посејдоније – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Посејдоније" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posejdonije" title="Posejdonije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Posejdonije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidonios" title="Poseidonios – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Poseidonios" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Greek Stoic philosopher (c.135 – c.51 BC)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people with the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Posidonius_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Posidonius (disambiguation)">Posidonius (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Posidonius</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Posidonio,_replica_augustea_(23_ac.-14_dc_ca)_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG/220px-Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="402" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG/330px-Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG/440px-Posidonio%2C_replica_augustea_%2823_ac.-14_dc_ca%29_da_originale_del_100-50_ac._ca._6142.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1336" data-file-height="2444" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Bust of Posidonius from the <a href="/wiki/Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Naples National Archaeological Museum">Naples National Archaeological Museum</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 135 BC</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apamea (Syria)">Apamea</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 51 BC</span> (aged 83–84)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Astronomy, geography, history, mathematics, meteorology, philosophy, physics</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Posidonius</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248666159">.mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}}</style><span class="tfd tfd-dated tfd-tiny"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2024_November_12#Template:Lang-grc-gre" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2024 November 12">‹See Tfd›</a></span><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ποσειδώνιος">Ποσειδώνιος</a></span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Poseidṓnios</i></span>, "of <a href="/wiki/Poseidon" title="Poseidon">Poseidon</a>") "of Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 135</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 51 BC</span>), was a <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrologer" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrologer">astrologer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, and teacher native to <a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apamea (Syria)">Apamea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MagillAves1998_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MagillAves1998-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sarton_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarton-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was considered the most learned man of his time and, possibly, of the entire <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic school</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a period learning <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic philosophy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, he spent many years in travel and scientific researches in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liguria" title="Liguria">Liguria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and on the eastern shores of the Adriatic. He settled as a teacher at <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> where his fame attracted numerous scholars. Next to <a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a> he did most, by writings and personal lectures, to spread <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> to the Roman world, and he became well known to many leading men, including <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. </p><p>His works are now lost, but they proved a mine of information to later writers. The titles and subjects of more than twenty of them are known. In common with other Stoics of the middle period, he displayed syncretic tendencies, following not just the earlier Stoics, but making use of the works of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> as well as a <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, he took genuine interest in natural science, geography, natural history, <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">astronomy</a>. He sought to determine the distance and magnitude of the Sun, to calculate the diameter of the Earth and the influence of the Moon on the tides. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Posidonius, nicknamed "the Athlete" (Ἀθλητής),<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was born around 135 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was born into a <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apamea (Syria)">Apamea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> city on the river <a href="/wiki/Orontes_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Orontes river">Orontes</a> in northern Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb7_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As historian Philip Freeman puts it: "Posidonius was Greek to the core".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Posidonius expressed no love for his native city, Apamea, in his writings and he mocked its inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a young man he moved to <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and studied under <a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a>, the leading Stoic philosopher of the age, and the last undisputed head (<a href="/wiki/Scholarch" title="Scholarch">scholarch</a>) of the Stoic school in Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Panaetius died in 110 BC, Posidonius would have been around 25 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than remain in Athens, he instead settled in <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, and gained citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb7_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Rhodes, Posidonius maintained his own school which would become the leading institution of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travels">Travels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Travels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around the 90s BC Posidonius embarked on a series of voyages around the Mediterranean gathering scientific data and observing the customs and people of the places he visited.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He traveled in Greece, <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, Italy, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liguria" title="Liguria">Liguria</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and on the eastern shores of the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, on the Atlantic coast at Gades (the modern <a href="/wiki/Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadiz">Cadiz</a>), Posidonius could observe tides much higher than in his native Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote that daily tides are related to the Moon's orbit, while tidal heights vary with the cycles of the Moon, and he hypothesized about yearly tidal cycles synchronized with the equinoxes and solstices.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc13_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc13-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, he studied the <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He left descriptions of customs such as nailing skulls to doorways as trophies, which he witnessed,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and vivid legends told to him by the Celts, such as a story that in the past, men were paid to allow their throats to be slit for public amusement.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But he noted that the Celts honored the <a href="/wiki/Druids" class="mw-redirect" title="Druids">Druids</a>, whom Posidonius saw as philosophers, and concluded that, even among the barbaric, "pride and passion give way to wisdom, and Ares stands in awe of the Muses." Posidonius wrote a geographic treatise on the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celts</a> which has since been lost, but which is referred to extensively (both directly and otherwise) in the works of <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus of Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Germania_(book)" title="Germania (book)">Germania</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_offices">Political offices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Political offices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, Posidonius actively took part in political life, and he attained high office when he was appointed as one of the <a href="/wiki/Prytaneis" title="Prytaneis">Prytaneis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the most important political office in Rhodes, combining presidential and executive functions, of which there were five (or possibly six) men holding the office for a six-month period.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb22_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb22-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was chosen for at least one embassy to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 87/86, during the <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sullan</a> era.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the purpose of the embassy is unknown, this was at the time of the <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a> when Roman rule over the Greek cities was being challenged by <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> of Pontus and the political situation was delicate.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb23_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb23-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Stoic_school_on_Rhodes">The Stoic school on Rhodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Stoic school on Rhodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under Posidonius, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> eclipsed <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> to become the new centre for Stoic philosophy in the 1st century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley27_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process may have already have begun under <a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a>, who was a native of Rhodes, and may have fostered a school there.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley26_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley26-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ian Kidd remarks that Rhodes "was attractive, not only as an independent city, commercially prosperous, go-ahead and with easy links of movement in all directions, but because it was welcoming to intellectuals, for it already had a strong reputation particularly for scientific research from men like <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although little is known of the organization of his school, it is clear that Posidonius had a steady stream of Greek and Roman students, as demonstrated by the eminent Romans who visited it.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> sat in on a lecture in 66 and did so again in 62 on return from campaigning in the East.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc4_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this latter occasion the subject of the lecture was "There is no good but moral good".<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc5_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Posidonius was probably in his seventies at this time and was suffering from <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a>. He illustrated the theme of his lecture by pointing to his painful leg and declaring "It is no good, pain; bothersome you may be, but you will never persuade me that you are an evil."<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc5_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> was in his late twenties, he attended a course of Posidonius' lectures, and later invited Posidonius to write a monograph on Cicero's own consulship (Posidonius politely refused).<sup id="cite_ref-kiddc5_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddc5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his later writings Cicero repeatedly refers to Posidonius as "my teacher" and "my dear friend".<sup id="cite_ref-graver215_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver215-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Posidonius died in his eighties in 51 BC; his grandson, <a href="/wiki/Jason_of_Nysa" title="Jason of Nysa">Jason of Nysa</a>, succeeded him as head of the school on <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley27_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Partial_scope_of_writings">Partial scope of writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Partial scope of writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Posidonius was celebrated as a <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> throughout the Graeco-Roman world because he came near to mastering all the knowledge of his time, similar to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>. He attempted to create a unified system for understanding the human intellect and the universe which would provide an explanation of and a guide for human behavior. </p><p>Posidonius wrote on physics (including <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>), <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>, geology and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, ethics, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, mathematics, history, <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tactic_(method)" title="Tactic (method)">tactics</a>. His studies were major investigations into their subjects, although not without errors. </p><p>None of his works survives intact. All that have been found are fragments, although the titles and subjects of many of his books are known.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writers such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> provide most of the information about his life and works. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Posidonius, philosophy was the dominant master art and all the individual sciences were subordinate to philosophy, which alone could explain the cosmos. All his works, from scientific to historical, were inseparably philosophical. </p><p>He accepted the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> categorization of philosophy into physics (natural philosophy, including metaphysics and theology), logic (including dialectic), and ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-diog1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diog1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three categories for him were, in Stoic fashion, inseparable and interdependent parts of an organic, natural whole. He compared them to a living being, with physics the flesh and blood, logic the bones and tendons holding the organism together, and finally ethics—the most important part—corresponding to the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-diog1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diog1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although a firm Stoic, Posidonius was syncretic like Panaetius and other Stoics of the middle period.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley22_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley22-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He followed not only the earlier Stoics, but made use of the writings of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley22_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley22-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Posidonius studied Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>, and seems to have written a commentary on it emphasizing its <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a> features.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley21_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley21-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a creative philosopher, Posidonius would however be expected to create innovations within the tradition of the philosophical school to which he belonged.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars11_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars11-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Sedley" title="David Sedley">David Sedley</a> remarks:<sup id="cite_ref-sedley24_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley24-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>On the vast majority of philosophical issues, what we know of both Panaetius and Posidonius places them firmly within the main current of Stoic debate. Their innovatively hospitable attitude to Plato and Aristotle enables them to enrich and, to a limited extent, reorientate their inherited Stoicism, but, for all that, they remain palpably Stoics, working within the established tradition.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethics, Posidonius taught, is about practice not just theory.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb69_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves knowledge of both the human and the divine, and a knowledge of the universe to which human reason is related.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb69_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was once the general view that Posidonius departed from the monistic psychology of the earlier Stoics.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> had written a work called <i><a href="/wiki/On_Passions" title="On Passions">On Passions</a></i> in which he affirmed that reason and emotion were not separate and distinct faculties, and that <a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">destructive passions</a> were instead rational impulses which were out-of-control. According to the testimony of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (an adherent of Plato), Posidonius wrote his own <i>On Passions</i> in which he instead adopted Plato's tripartition of the soul which taught that in addition to the rational faculties, the human soul had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires for power, possessions, etc.) and desiderative (desires for sex and food).<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Galen's testimony is still accepted by some, more recent scholarship argues that Galen may have exaggerated Posidonius' views for polemical effect, and that Posidonius may have been trying to clarify and expand on Chrysippus rather than oppose him.<sup id="cite_ref-sellars10_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-graver216_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver216-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other writers who knew the ethical works of Posidonius, including Cicero and <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, grouped Chrysippus and Posidonius together and saw no opposition between them.<sup id="cite_ref-kiddb69_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiddb69-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-graver216_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-graver216-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophical grand vision of Posidonius was that the universe itself was interconnected as an organic whole, providential and organised in all respects, from the development of the physical world to the behaviour of living creatures.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Panaetius had doubted both the reality of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> and the Stoic doctrine of the future conflagration (<a href="/wiki/Ekpyrosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekpyrosis">ekpyrosis</a>), but Posidonius wrote in favour of these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-sedley24_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sedley24-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a Stoic, Posidonius was an advocate of cosmic "sympathy" (συμπάθεια, <i>sympatheia</i>)—the organic interrelation of all appearances in the world, from the sky to the Earth, as part of a rational design uniting humanity and all things in the universe. He believed valid predictions could be made from signs in nature—whether through astrology or prophetic dreams—as a kind of scientific prediction.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Posidonius was one of the first to attempt to prove <a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">Euclid's fifth postulate of geometry</a>. He suggested changing the definition of parallel straight lines to an equivalent statement that would allow him to prove the fifth postulate. From there, Euclidean geometry could be restructured, placing the fifth postulate among the theorems instead.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to his writings on geometry, Posidonius was credited for creating some mathematical definitions, or for articulating views on technical terms, for example 'theorem' and 'problem'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy_and_meteorology">Astronomy and meteorology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Astronomy and meteorology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some fragments of his writings on astronomy survive through the treatise by <a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a>, <i>On the Circular Motions of the Celestial Bodies</i>, the first chapter of the second book appearing to have been mostly copied from Posidonius. </p><p>Posidonius advanced the theory that the Sun emanated a vital force that permeated the world. </p><p>He attempted to measure the distance and size of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. In about 90 BC, Posidonius estimated the distance from the Earth to the Sun (see <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical unit</a>) to be 9,893 times the Earth's radius. This was still too small by half. In measuring the size of the Sun, however, he reached a figure larger and more accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers and <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Posidonius also calculated the size and distance of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. </p><p>Posidonius constructed an <a href="/wiki/Orrery" title="Orrery">orrery</a>, possibly similar to the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>. Posidonius's orrery, according to <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, exhibited the diurnal motions of the Sun, Moon, and the five known planets.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Posidonius in his writings on meteorology followed Aristotle. He theorized on the causes of clouds, mist, wind, and rain as well as frost, hail, lightning, and rainbows. He also estimated that the boundary between the clouds and the heavens lies about 40 stadia above the Earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography,_ethnology,_and_geology"><span id="Geography.2C_ethnology.2C_and_geology"></span>Geography, ethnology, and geology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Geography, ethnology, and geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sphendon%C3%A9,_hoc_est,_Funda_Posidonii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg/450px-Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg/675px-Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg/900px-Sphendon%C3%A9%2C_hoc_est%2C_Funda_Posidonii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2310" data-file-height="1701" /></a><figcaption>World map according to ideas by Posidonius (150–130 BC), drawn in 1628 by cartographers <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Bertius" title="Petrus Bertius">Petrus Bertius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melchior_Tavernier" title="Melchior Tavernier">Melchior Tavernier</a>. Many of the details could not have been known to Posidonius; rather, Bertius and Tavernier show Posidonius's ideas about the positions of the continents.</figcaption></figure> <p>Posidonius's fame beyond specialized philosophical circles had begun, at the latest, in the eighties with the publication of the work "<i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="About_the_ocean_and_the_adjacent_areas"></span><span class="vanchor-text">About the ocean and the adjacent areas</span></span></i>". This work was not only an overall representation of geographical questions according to current scientific knowledge, but it served to popularize his theories about the internal connections of the world, to show how all the forces had an effect on each other and how the interconnectedness applied also to human life, to the political just as to the personal spheres. </p><p>In this work, Posidonius detailed his theory of the effect on a people's character by the climate, which included his representation of the "geography of the races". This theory was not solely scientific, but also had political implications—his Roman readers were informed that the climatic central position of Italy was an essential condition of the Roman destiny to dominate the world. As a Stoic, he did not, however, make a fundamental distinction between the civilized Romans as masters of the world and the less civilized peoples. Posidonius's writings on the Jews were probably the source of <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>'s account of the siege of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and possibly also for <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>'s.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Posidonius's arguments are contested by <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Apion" title="Against Apion">Against Apion</a></i>. </p><p>Like <a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a>, Posidonius believed the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a> is caused by the Moon. Posidonius was, however, wrong about the cause. Thinking that the Moon was a mixture of air and fire, he attributed the cause of the tides to the heat of the Moon, hot enough to cause the water to swell but not hot enough to evaporate it. </p><p>He recorded observations on both earthquakes and volcanoes, including accounts of the eruptions of the volcanoes in the <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Earth's_circumference"><span id="Earth.27s_circumference"></span>Earth's circumference</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Earth's circumference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Circumference_of_the_Earth"></span><span class="anchor" id="Calculation_of_Earth's_circumference"></span><span class="anchor" id="Arc_measurement"></span> Posidonius calculated the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_circumference" title="Earth's circumference">Earth's circumference</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Arc_measurement" title="Arc measurement">arc measurement</a> method, by reference to the position of the star <a href="/wiki/Canopus_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canopus (star)">Canopus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Torge_Müller_2012_p._5_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torge_Müller_2012_p._5-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As explained by Cleomedes, Posidonius observed Canopus on but never above the horizon at Rhodes, while at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> he saw it ascend as far as 7½ degrees above the horizon (the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_arc" title="Meridian arc">meridian arc</a> between the latitude of the two locales is actually 5 degrees 14 minutes). Since he thought Rhodes was 5,000 <a href="/wiki/Stadion_(unit_of_length)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadion (unit of length)">stadia</a> due north of Alexandria, and the difference in the star's elevation indicated the distance between the two locales was 1/48 of the circle, he multiplied 5,000 stadia by 48 to arrive at a figure of 240,000 stadia for the circumference of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-fragment_202_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fragment_202-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His estimate of the latitude difference of these two points, 360 degrees/48=7.5 degrees, is rather erroneous. (The modern value is approximately 5 degrees.) In addition, they are not quite on the same meridian as they were assumed to be. The longitude difference of the points, slightly less than 2 degrees, is not negligible compared with the latitude difference. </p><p>Translating stadia into modern units of distance can be problematic, but it is generally thought that the stadium used by Posidonius was almost exactly 1/10 of a modern statute mile. Thus Posidonius's measure of 240,000 stadia translates to 24,000 mi (39,000 km) compared to the actual circumference of 24,901 mi (40,074 km).<sup id="cite_ref-fragment_202_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fragment_202-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg/250px-Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg/375px-Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg/500px-Posidonius_earth_circumference.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>Posidonius's method for calculating the circumference of the Earth, relied on the <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_coordinate_system" title="Horizontal coordinate system">altitude</a> of the star <a href="/wiki/Canopus" title="Canopus">Canopus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Posidonius was informed in his approach to finding the Earth's circumference by <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a>, who a century earlier arrived at a figure of 252,000 stadia; both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> noted that the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria is 3,750 stadia, and reported Posidonius's estimate of the Earth's circumference to be 180,000 stadia or 18,000 mi (29,000 km).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> mentions Posidonius among his sources and without naming him reported his method for estimating the Earth's circumference. He noted, however, that <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> had added some 26,000 stadia to Eratosthenes's estimate. The smaller value offered by Strabo and the different lengths of Greek and Roman stadia have created a persistent confusion around Posidonius's result. <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> used Posidonius's lower value of 180,000 stades (about 33% too low) for the Earth's circumference in his <a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)"><i>Geography</i></a>. This was the number used by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> to underestimate the distance to India as 70,000 stades.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_tactics">History and tactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i>Histories</i>, Posidonius continued the <i>World History</i> of <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>. His history of the period 146–88 BC is said to have filled 52 volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <i>Histories</i> continue the account of the rise and expansion of Roman dominance, which he appears to have supported. Posidonius did not follow Polybius's more detached and factual style, for Posidonius saw events as caused by human psychology; while he understood human passions and follies, he did not pardon or excuse them in his historical writing, using his narrative skill in fact to enlist the readers' approval or condemnation. </p><p>For Posidonius "history" extended beyond the earth into the sky; humanity was not isolated each in its own political history, but was a part of the cosmos. His <i>Histories</i> were not, therefore, concerned with isolated political history of peoples and individuals, but they included discussions of all forces and factors (geographical factors, mineral resources, climate, nutrition), which let humans act and be a part of their environment. For example, Posidonius considered the climate of Arabia and the life-giving strength of the sun, tides (taken from his book on the oceans), and climatic theory to explain people's ethnic or national characters. </p><p>Of Posidonius's work on tactics, <i>The Art of War</i>, the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a> complained that it was written 'for experts', which suggests that Posidonius may have had first hand experience of military leadership or, perhaps, used knowledge he gained from his acquaintance with <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reputation_and_influence">Reputation and influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reputation and influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/220px-Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/330px-Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg/440px-Posidonius_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption>Posidonius, depicted as a medieval scholar in the <i><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Chronicle" title="Nuremberg Chronicle">Nuremberg Chronicle</a>.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In his own era, his writings on almost all the principal divisions of philosophy made Posidonius a renowned international figure throughout the Graeco-Roman world and he was widely cited by writers of his era, including <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (who called Posidonius "the most learned of all philosophers of my time"), Cleomedes, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (who used Posidonius as a source for his <i>Bibliotheca Historia</i> ["Historical Library"]), and others. Although his ornate and rhetorical style of writing passed out of fashion soon after his death, Posidonius was acclaimed during his life for his literary ability and as a stylist. </p><p>Posidonius was the major source of materials on the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and was profusely quoted by <a href="/wiki/Timagenes" title="Timagenes">Timagenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, the Sicilian Greek <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, and the Greek geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Posidonius appears to have moved with ease among the upper echelons of Roman society as an ambassador from Rhodes. He associated with some of the leading figures of late republican Rome, including Cicero and Pompey, both of whom visited him in Rhodes. In his twenties, Cicero attended his lectures (77 BC) and they continued to correspond. Cicero in his <i>De Finibus</i> closely followed Posidonius's presentation of Panaetius's ethical teachings. </p><p>Posidonius met Pompey when he was Rhodes's ambassador in Rome and Pompey visited him in Rhodes twice, once in 66 BC during his campaign against the pirates and again in 62 BC during his eastern campaigns, and asked Posidonius to write his biography. As a gesture of respect and great honor, Pompey lowered his <i><a href="/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a></i> before Posidonius's door. Other Romans who visited Posidonius in Rhodes were Velleius, Cotta, and <a href="/wiki/Lucilius" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucilius">Lucilius</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> was impressed by the sophistication of Posidonius's methods, which included correcting for the refraction of light passing through denser air near the horizon. Ptolemy's approval of Posidonius's result, rather than Eratosthenes's earlier and more correct figure, caused it to become the accepted value for the Earth's circumference for the next 1,500 years. </p><p>Posidonius fortified the Stoicism of the middle period with contemporary learning. Next to his teacher Panaetius, he did most, by writings and personal contacts, to spread Stoicism in the Roman world. A century later, Seneca referred to Posidonius as one of those who had made the largest contribution to philosophy. </p><p>His influence on Greek philosophical thinking lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, as is demonstrated by the large number of times he is cited as a source in the <i><a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a></i> (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia). </p><p>Wilhelm Capelle traced most of the doctrines of the popular philosophic treatise <i><a href="/wiki/De_Mundo" class="mw-redirect" title="De Mundo">De Mundo</a></i> to Posidonius.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, Posidonius seems to be recognized as having had an inquiring and wide-ranging mind, not entirely original, but with a breadth of view that connected, in accordance with his underlying Stoic philosophy, all things and their causes and all knowledge into an overarching, unified world view. </p><p>The crater <a href="/wiki/Posidonius_(crater)" title="Posidonius (crater)">Posidonius</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> is named after him. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_study#History" title="Twin study">Twin study</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God">The City of God</a></i> Book V, Chapter 2, "Posidonius the Stoic, who was much given to astrology"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" 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Cambridge University Press. p. 172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Posidonius&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=172&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MagillAves1998-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MagillAves1998_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagillAves1998" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wyKaVFZqbdUC"><i>Dictionary of World Biography</i></a>. 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"The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World". <i>Osiris</i>. <b>2</b>: 406–463 [430]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368462">10.1086/368462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143379839">143379839</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Osiris&rft.atitle=The+Unity+and+Diversity+of+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=406-463+430&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F368462&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143379839%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sarton&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd2016" class="citation web cs1">Kidd, I. G. (7 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-5275">"Posidonius (2), Stoic philosopher, c. 135–c. 51 BCE"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.5275">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5275</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199381135" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199381135"><bdi>978-0199381135</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.atitle=Posidonius+%282%29%2C+Stoic+philosopher%2C+c.+135%E2%80%93c.+51+BCE&rft.date=2016-03-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.5275&rft.isbn=978-0199381135&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=I.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-5275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd2005" class="citation cs2">Kidd, Ian Gray (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198606413.001.0001/acref-9780198606413-e-5275">"Posidonius"</a>, <i>The Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198606413.013.5275">10.1093/acref/9780198606413.013.5275</a> (inactive 1 November 2024), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198606413" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198606413"><bdi>978-0198606413</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Posidonius&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198606413.013.5275&rft.isbn=978-0198606413&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Ian+Gray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198606413.001.0001%2Facref-9780198606413-e-5275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Poseidonius">"Poseidonius | Greek philosopher"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Poseidonius+%7C+Greek+philosopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FPoseidonius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddb3-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kiddb3_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/2107">"SOL Search"</a>. <i>www.cs.uky.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cs.uky.edu&rft.atitle=SOL+Search&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.uky.edu%2F~raphael%2Fsol%2Fsol-entries%2Fpi%2F2107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sellars10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sellars10_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2006">Sellars 2006</a>, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurham2007" class="citation book cs1">Durham, Ian T. (2007). "Posidonius". In Tremble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas; Bracher, Katherine; Jarrell, Richard; Marché, Jordan D.; Ragep, F. Jamil (eds.). <i>Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 927. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0387304007" title="Special:BookSources/978-0387304007"><bdi>978-0387304007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Posidonius&rft.btitle=Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&rft.pages=927&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0387304007&rft.aulast=Durham&rft.aufirst=Ian+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2006" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Philip (2006). <i>The Philosopher and the Druids: A Journey Among the Ancient Celts</i>. Simon and Schuster. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0743289061" title="Special:BookSources/978-0743289061"><bdi>978-0743289061</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosopher+and+the+Druids%3A+A+Journey+Among+the+Ancient+Celts&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0743289061&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Apamea had a strong hellenic element of population including Macedonian colonists. ... Posidonius had a Greek name, wrote in Greek, had his higher education in Greece, and lived his whole adult life in Athens and Rhodes, where he clearly felt at home." – <a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddb7-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kiddb7_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddb7_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddc4-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc4_15-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1999">Kidd 1999</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, pp. 26–27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1946). "28". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQZ6Xk9VdtAC&q=Russell+history+of+western+philosophy"><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9915-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9915-9"><bdi>978-1-4165-9915-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=28&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-9915-9&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiQZ6Xk9VdtAC%26q%3DRussell%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bwestern%2Bphilosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddc13-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kiddc13_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1999">Kidd 1999</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posidonius, fragment 55 (quoted by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4D*.html#4.5">Strabo, Book 4</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posidonius, fragment 16 (quoted by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/athenaeus4.html#154">Athenaeus, Book 4</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddb22-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kiddb22_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddb23-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kiddb23_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sedley27-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sedley27_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sedley27_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sedley26-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sedley26_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddc5-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc5_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc5_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddc5_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1999">Kidd 1999</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-graver215-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-graver215_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraver2002">Graver 2002</a>, p. 215</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kidd, I. G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/052160/4419/toc/0521604419_toc.pdf">Posidonius: <i>The Translation of the Fragments</i>, Volume III</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diog1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diog1_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diog1_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, <i>The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/old/diogenes7b.html#39">7.39–40</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, <i>Against the Professors</i>, 7.19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sedley22-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sedley22_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sedley22_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sedley21-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sedley21_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sellars11-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sellars11_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSellars2006">Sellars 2006</a>, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sedley24-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sedley24_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sedley24_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSedley2003">Sedley 2003</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiddb69-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kiddb69_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddb69_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kiddb69_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1988">Kidd 1988</a>, p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-graver216-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-graver216_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-graver216_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraver2002">Graver 2002</a>, p. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd1999">Kidd 1999</a>, pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero. On Divination, i. 130; ii. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trudeau, Richard. <i>The Non-Euclidean Revolution</i>, Boston: Birkhauser, 1987, pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posidonius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/poseidonius.html#215.K">Fragment 215.K</a> from Cleomedes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14988"><i>De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods)</i></a>, ii-34, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafraiStern1988" class="citation cs2">Safrai, Shemuel; Stern, M. (1988), <i>The Jewish people in the first century: Historical Geography</i>, p. 1124, <q>Most scholars hold that Diodorus, from Book 33 of his work onwards, depended on Posidonius</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+people+in+the+first+century%3A+Historical+Geography&rft.pages=1124&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Safrai&rft.aufirst=Shemuel&rft.au=Stern%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gmirkin, Russell E. <i><a href="/wiki/Berossus" title="Berossus">Berossus</a> and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic histories</i>, 2006, p. 54. "Jewish misanthropy was also a feature in Posidonius's account of the Jews, though in a less extreme form. 126 Diodorus Siculus, Library 40.3.4b likely derived from Posidonius, whose history may have been consulted by <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bar-Kochva, Bezalel. <i>The Image of the Jews in Greek Literature: The Hellenistic Period</i>, 2009, p. 440. "Posidonius of apamea (d) The Anti-Jewish Libels and Accusations in Diodorus and Apion We have seen in chapters 11–12 that Posidonius used <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and Mosaic Judaism to portray his own religious, social, and political ideals."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torge_Müller_2012_p._5-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Torge_Müller_2012_p._5_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorgeMüller2012" class="citation book cs1">Torge, W.; Müller, J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RcfmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6"><i>Geodesy</i></a>. De Gruyter Textbook. De Gruyter. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110250008" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110250008"><bdi>978-3110250008</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geodesy&rft.series=De+Gruyter+Textbook&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3110250008&rft.aulast=Torge&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRcfmBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fragment_202-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fragment_202_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fragment_202_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Posidonius, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/poseidonius.html#202.K">fragment 202</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cleomedes (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975QJRAS..16..152F">in Fragment 202</a>) stated that if the distance is measured by some other number the result will be different, and using 3,750 instead of 5,000 produces this estimation: 3,750 x 48 = 180,000; see Fischer I., (1975), <i>Another Look at Eratosthenes' and Posidonius' Determinations of the Earth's Circumference</i>, Ql. J. of the Royal Astron. Soc., Vol. 16, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Freely" title="John Freely">John Freely</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MfhjAAAAQBAJ"><i>Before Galileo: The Birth of Modern Science in Medieval Europe</i></a> (2013), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1468308501" title="Special:BookSources/978-1468308501">978-1468308501</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/poseidonius.html#T1">"Poseidonius (Posidonius): translation of fragments"</a>. <i>www.attalus.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.attalus.org&rft.atitle=Poseidonius+%28Posidonius%29%3A+translation+of+fragments&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.attalus.org%2Ftranslate%2Fposeidonius.html%23T1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerresford_Ellis,_Peter1998" class="citation book cs1">Berresford Ellis, Peter (1998). <i><span></span></i>The Celts: A History<i><span></span></i>. Caroll & Graf. pp. 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0786712112" title="Special:BookSources/0786712112"><bdi>0786712112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celts%3A+A+History&rft.pages=49-50&rft.pub=Caroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0786712112&rft.au=Berresford+Ellis%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotleForster,_E._S._(Edward_Seymour)Dobson,_J._F._(John_Frederic)1914" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle; Forster, E. S. (Edward Seymour); Dobson, J. F. (John Frederic) (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/demundoarisrich"><i>De Mundo</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/demundoarisrich/page/preface">[1]</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Mundo&rft.pages=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdemundoarisrich%2Fpage%2Fpreface&rft.date=1914&rft.au=Aristotle&rft.au=Forster%2C+E.+S.+%28Edward+Seymour%29&rft.au=Dobson%2C+J.+F.+%28John+Frederic%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdemundoarisrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions_and_translations">Editions and translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Editions and translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiddEdelstein1972" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, I. G.; Edelstein, Ludwig (1972). <i>Posidonius. I. The Fragments</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521080460" title="Special:BookSources/0521080460"><bdi>0521080460</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Posidonius.+I.+The+Fragments&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0521080460&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=I.+G.&rft.au=Edelstein%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd1988" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, I. G. (1988). <i>Posidonius. II. The Commentary</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521200628" title="Special:BookSources/0521200628"><bdi>0521200628</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Posidonius.+II.+The+Commentary&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0521200628&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=I.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd1999" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, I. G. (1999). <i>Posidonius. III. The Translation of the Fragments</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521622581" title="Special:BookSources/0521622581"><bdi>0521622581</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Posidonius.+III.+The+Translation+of+the+Fragments&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0521622581&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=I.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Posidonius"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Posidonius">"Posidonius" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Posidonius&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=172&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwyn_Bevan" title="Edwyn Bevan">Bevan, Edwyn</a>. <i>Stoics and Skeptics</i>, 1913. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0890053642" title="Special:BookSources/0890053642">0890053642</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraver2002" class="citation book cs1">Graver, Margaret (2002). "Appendix D: Posidonius". <i>Cicero on the Emotions. Tusculan Disputations 3 and 4</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226305783" title="Special:BookSources/0226305783"><bdi>0226305783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+D%3A+Posidonius&rft.btitle=Cicero+on+the+Emotions.+Tusculan+Disputations+3+and+4&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0226305783&rft.aulast=Graver&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brian_Harley" title="John Brian Harley">Harley, J. B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/David_Woodward_(cartographer)" title="David Woodward (cartographer)">Woodward, David</a>. <i>The History of Cartography, Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean</i>, 1987, pp. 168–170. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226316335" title="Special:BookSources/0226316335">0226316335</a> (v. 1)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Juergen_Malitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juergen Malitz (page does not exist)">Juergen Malitz</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gnomon.ku-eichstaett.de/LAG/poseidonios.html">Poseidonios</a> from <i>Grosse Gestalten der griechischen Antike. 58 historische Portraits von Homer bis Kleopatra</i>. Hrsg. von Kai Brodersen. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. S. 426–432.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSedley2003" class="citation book cs1">Sedley, David (2003). "The School, from Zeno to Arius Didymus". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521779855" title="Special:BookSources/0521779855"><bdi>0521779855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+School%2C+from+Zeno+to+Arius+Didymus&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Stoics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0521779855&rft.aulast=Sedley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellars2006" class="citation book cs1">Sellars, John (2006). <i>Stoicism</i>. Acumen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844650521" title="Special:BookSources/978-1844650521"><bdi>978-1844650521</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoicism&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1844650521&rft.aulast=Sellars&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagillAves1998" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wyKaVFZqbdUC"><i>Dictionary of World Biography</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 904–910. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1579580407" title="Special:BookSources/978-1579580407"><bdi>978-1579580407</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+World+Biography&rft.pages=904-910&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1579580407&rft.aulast=Magill&rft.aufirst=Frank+Northen&rft.au=Aves%2C+Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwyKaVFZqbdUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Freeman, Phillip, <i>The Philosopher and the Druids: A Journey Among The Ancient Celts</i>, Simon and Schuster, 2006. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2023" class="citation book cs1">Hall, J.J. (2023). <i>The meteorology of Posidonius</i>. London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367023720" title="Special:BookSources/9780367023720"><bdi>9780367023720</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+meteorology+of+Posidonius&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780367023720&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolidayHanselman2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ryan_Holiday" title="Ryan Holiday">Holiday, Ryan</a>; Hanselman, Stephen (2020). "Posidonius the Genius". <i>Lives of the Stoics</i>. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. pp. 98–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0525541875" title="Special:BookSources/978-0525541875"><bdi>978-0525541875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Posidonius+the+Genius&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Stoics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=98-107&rft.pub=Portfolio%2FPenguin&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0525541875&rft.aulast=Holiday&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft.au=Hanselman%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APosidonius" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Irvine, William B. (2008) <i>A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy</i>, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195374612" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195374612">978-0195374612</a> – Discussion of his work and influence <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posidonius&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stoicism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" 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.mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stoicism" title="Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stoicism" title="Template talk:Stoicism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stoicism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stoicism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Babylon" title="Diogenes of Babylon">Diogenes of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_of_Tarsus" title="Antipater of Tarsus">Antipater of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Stoicism_terms" title="Glossary of Stoicism terms">Philosophical concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora">Adiaphora</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katalepsis" title="Katalepsis">Katalepsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diairesis" title="Diairesis">Diairesis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">Physis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">Pneuma</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">Apatheia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathekon" title="Kathekon">Kathekon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prohairesis" title="Prohairesis">Prohairesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sophos</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Passions" title="On Passions"><i>On Passions</i> (Chrysippus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxa_Stoicorum" title="Paradoxa Stoicorum">Paradoxa Stoicorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_Morales_ad_Lucilium" title="Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium"><i>Letters to Lucilius</i> (Seneca)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger#Essays" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca's Essays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca%27s_Consolations" title="Seneca's Consolations">Seneca's Consolations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Musonius_Rufus#Writings" title="Gaius Musonius Rufus"><i>Lectures</i> (Musonius Rufus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_of_Epictetus" title="Discourses of Epictetus">Discourses of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enchiridion_of_Epictetus" title="Enchiridion of Epictetus">Enchiridion of Epictetus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations" title="Meditations"><i>Meditations of Marcus Aurelius</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoicorum_Veterum_Fragmenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta">Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoa_Poikile" title="Stoa Poikile">Stoa Poikile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoic_Opposition" title="Stoic Opposition">Stoic Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neostoicism" title="Neostoicism">Neostoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aglaonice" title="Aglaonice">Aglaonice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_(astronomer)" title="Agrippa (astronomer)">Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Cyrrhus" title="Andronicus of Cyrrhus">Andronicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aratus" title="Aratus">Aratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristyllus" title="Aristyllus">Aristyllus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_of_Rhodes" title="Attalus of Rhodes">Attalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleostratus" title="Cleostratus">Cleostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euctemon" title="Euctemon">Euctemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hicetas" title="Hicetas">Hicetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meton_of_Athens" title="Meton of Athens">Meton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_the_Peripatetic" title="Sosigenes the Peripatetic">Sosigenes the Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocharis" title="Timocharis">Timocharis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest"><i>Almagest</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ptolemy)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catasterismi" title="Catasterismi"><i>Catasterismi</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Eratosthenes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)"><i>On Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hipparchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)"><i>On the Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristarchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens"><i>On the Heavens</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristotle)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Callippic_cycle" title="Callippic cycle">Callippic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">Circle of latitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Earth" title="Counter-Earth">Counter-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchic_cycle" title="Hipparchic cycle">Hipparchic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_and_superior_planets" title="Inferior and superior planets">Inferior and superior planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octaeteris" title="Octaeteris">Octaeteris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">Solstice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_mathematics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_mathematics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Ancient Greek mathematics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians">(timeline)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristaeus_the_Elder" title="Aristaeus the Elder">Aristaeus the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Heraclea" title="Bryson of Heraclea">Bryson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpus_of_Antioch" title="Carpus of Antioch">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_(mathematician)" title="Diocles (mathematician)">Diocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinostratus" title="Dinostratus">Dinostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus" title="Dionysodorus">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domninus_of_Larissa" title="Domninus of Larissa">Domninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutocius_of_Ascalon" title="Eutocius of Ascalon">Eutocius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_of_Larissa" title="Heliodorus of Larissa">Heliodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_(mathematician)" title="Leon (mathematician)">Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menaechmus" title="Menaechmus">Menaechmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_(grammarian)" title="Metrodorus (grammarian)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_(mathematician)" title="Nicomedes (mathematician)">Nicomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicoteles_of_Cyrene" title="Nicoteles of Cyrene">Nicoteles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_(geometer)" title="Perseus (geometer)">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philon" title="Philon">Philon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philonides_of_Laodicea" title="Philonides of Laodicea">Philonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenus_of_Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Serenus of Antinoöpolis">Serenus </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporus_of_Nicaea" title="Sporus of Nicaea">Sporus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(mathematician)" title="Theaetetus (mathematician)">Theaetetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Cyrene" title="Theodorus of Cyrene">Theodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymaridas" title="Thymaridas">Thymaridas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodorus_(mathematician)" title="Zenodorus (mathematician)">Zenodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica" title="Arithmetica">Arithmetica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga#Conics" title="Apollonius of Perga"><i>Conics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Apollonius)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catoptrics" title="Catoptrics">Catoptrics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_(Euclid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (Euclid)"><i>Data</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements"><i>Elements</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Measurement_of_a_Circle" title="Measurement of a Circle">Measurement of a Circle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Conoids_and_Spheroids" title="On Conoids and Spheroids">On Conoids and Spheroids</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)"><i>On the Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristarchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)"><i>On Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hipparchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane"><i>On the Moving Sphere</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Autolycus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics"><i>Optics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Spirals" title="On Spirals">On Spirals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sphere_and_Cylinder" title="On the Sphere and Cylinder">On the Sphere and Cylinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ostomachion" title="Ostomachion">Ostomachion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planisphaerium" title="Planisphaerium">Planisphaerium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius%27_Spherics" title="Theodosius' Spherics"><i>Spherics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Theodosius)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria"><i>Spherics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Menelaus)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola" class="mw-redirect" title="The Quadrature of the Parabola">The Quadrature of the Parabola</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner" title="The Sand Reckoner">The Sand Reckoner</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructible_number" title="Constructible number">Constructible numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_trisection" title="Angle trisection">Angle trisection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_the_cube" title="Doubling the cube">Doubling the cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squaring_the_circle" title="Squaring the circle">Squaring the circle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Apollonius" title="Problem of Apollonius">Problem of Apollonius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts<br />and definitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">Angle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_angle" title="Central angle">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle" title="Inscribed angle">Inscribed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_system" title="Axiomatic system">Axiomatic system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axiom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">Chord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circles_of_Apollonius" title="Circles of Apollonius">Circles of Apollonius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_circles" title="Apollonian circles">Apollonian circles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_gasket" title="Apollonian gasket">Apollonian gasket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumscribed_circle" title="Circumscribed circle">Circumscribed circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(mathematics)" title="Commensurability (mathematics)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equation" title="Diophantine equation">Diophantine equation</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_proportion_(mathematics)" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Doctrine of proportion (mathematics)">Doctrine of proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ratio" title="Golden ratio">Golden ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incircle_and_excircles_of_a_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Incircle and excircles of a triangle">Incircle and excircles of a triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">Method of exhaustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">Parallel postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lune_of_Hippocrates" title="Lune of Hippocrates">Lune of Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadratrix_of_Hippias" title="Quadratrix of Hippias">Quadratrix of Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_polygon" title="Regular polygon">Regular polygon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straightedge_and_compass_construction" title="Straightedge and compass construction">Straightedge and compass construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangle_center" title="Triangle center">Triangle center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclid's elements"><i>Elements</i></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_bisector_theorem" title="Angle bisector theorem">Angle bisector theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exterior_angle_theorem" title="Exterior angle theorem">Exterior angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_algorithm" title="Euclidean algorithm">Euclidean algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_theorem" title="Euclid's theorem">Euclid's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean_theorem" title="Geometric mean theorem">Geometric mean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_geometric_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek geometric algebra">Greek geometric algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinge_theorem" title="Hinge theorem">Hinge theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscribed angle theorem">Inscribed angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercept_theorem" title="Intercept theorem">Intercept theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_chords_theorem" title="Intersecting chords theorem">Intersecting chords theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_secants_theorem" title="Intersecting secants theorem">Intersecting secants theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_cosines" title="Law of cosines">Law of cosines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons_asinorum" title="Pons asinorum">Pons asinorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent-secant_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangent-secant theorem">Tangent-secant theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem" title="Thales's theorem">Thales's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theorem_of_the_gnomon" title="Theorem of the gnomon">Theorem of the gnomon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius%27s_theorem" title="Apollonius's theorem">Apollonius's theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus%27s_inequality" title="Aristarchus's inequality">Aristarchus's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbar_theorem" title="Crossbar theorem">Crossbar theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heron%27s_formula" title="Heron's formula">Heron's formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_number" title="Irrational number">Irrational numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_sines" title="Law of sines">Law of sines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus%27s_theorem" title="Menelaus's theorem">Menelaus's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus%27s_area_theorem" title="Pappus's area theorem">Pappus's area theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus_II.VIII" title="Diophantus II.VIII">Problem II.8 of <i>Arithmetica</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_inequality" title="Ptolemy's inequality">Ptolemy's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_table_of_chords" title="Ptolemy's table of chords">Ptolemy's table of chords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_theorem" title="Ptolemy's theorem">Ptolemy's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_Theodorus" title="Spiral of Theodorus">Spiral of Theodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Mouseion of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neusis_construction" title="Neusis construction">Neusis construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Greek_Mathematics" title="A History of Greek Mathematics">A History of Greek Mathematics</a></i> <ul><li>by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heath_(classicist)" title="Thomas Heath (classicist)">Thomas Heath</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">algebra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra" title="Timeline of algebra">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of arithmetic">arithmetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_numerals_and_arithmetic" title="Timeline of numerals and arithmetic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_calculus_and_mathematical_analysis" title="Timeline of calculus and mathematical analysis">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry" title="Timeline of geometry">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">logic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematical_logic" title="Timeline of mathematical logic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematics" title="Timeline of mathematics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of numbers">numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">prehistoric counting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">numeral systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_numeral_systems" title="List of numeral systems">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Arabian/Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mathematics" title="Japanese mathematics">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/16px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/24px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/32px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece portal</a></b> •  <b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000104084967">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/24644250">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/447158790753238852857">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/212529045">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/1815158070742908780008">4</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2265159477569327990002">5</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/25151776784918011936">6</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/55160307380157741862">7</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" 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href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/333779">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007266602805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058517507106706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/13979023">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02163265?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a 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