CINXE.COM

<!doctype html> <html lang="en-AU" prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns#" class="site"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, shrink-to-fit=no"> <link rel="icon" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/ret_img/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/favicon.svg?v=a905cf20" data-spai-egr="1" sizes="any" type="image/svg+xml" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/apple-touch-icon.png?v=0025be9a" data-spai-egr="1" /> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="48x48" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/favicon-48x48.png?v=17a9d6dc" data-spai-egr="1" /> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/favicon-32x32.png?v=af68c5be" data-spai-egr="1" /> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/favicon-16x16.png?v=b5cd24fd" data-spai-egr="1" /> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/ret_img/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/images/safari-pinned-tab.svg?v=6575e507" data-spai-egr="1" color="#2f76bb" /> <script> var dataLayer = window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; </script> <script> dimensionsData = ({"user_id":null,"country":null}); dimensionsData.event = "user_details"; dataLayer.push(dimensionsData); </script>  <script> (function(w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({ 'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js' }); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.async = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); })(window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-5TDDMZV'); let dimensionsData; </script>  <script> dimensionsData = ({"post_type":"post","page_title":"By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy","page_location":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/","post_id":294346,"post_category":"australia|climate|earth|energise|energy|news|synergy|technology","post_primary_category":"synergy","revenue_type":"free","contributors":"Ellen Phiddian","publish_date":"2024-01-18","publish_time":"05:43","post_tags":"carbon-dioxide|climate-change|renewable-energy","scroll_page_view":"false","parent_title":"By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy","parent_location":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/"}); dimensionsData.event = "page_view"; dataLayer.push(dimensionsData); </script>  <title>Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know</title> <meta name="description" content="What's a tonne of CO2 in context, or a kilowatt-hour? We unpack all the climate and energy numbers you might be confused by."/> <meta name="robots" content="follow, index, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1, max-image-preview:large"/> <link rel="canonical" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_US" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know" /> <meta property="og:description" content="What's a tonne of CO2 in context, or a kilowatt-hour? We unpack all the climate and energy numbers you might be confused by." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Cosmos" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/CosmosMagazine/" /> <meta property="article:tag" content="carbon dioxide" /> <meta property="article:tag" content="Climate Change" /> <meta property="article:tag" content="Renewable energy" /> <meta property="article:section" content="Synergy" /> <meta property="og:updated_time" content="2024-02-05T14:59:58+10:30" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:secure_url" content="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="675" /> <meta property="og:image:alt" content="Climate Stripes 1850-2021" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2024-01-18T05:43:00+10:30" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2024-02-05T14:59:58+10:30" /> <meta property="og:video" content="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HakOmx8UoAM" /> <meta property="video:duration" content="123" /> <meta property="ya:ovs:upload_date" content="2022-05-02T23:22:01-07:00" /> <meta property="ya:ovs:allow_embed" content="true" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="What's a tonne of CO2 in context, or a kilowatt-hour? We unpack all the climate and energy numbers you might be confused by." /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@cosmosmagazine" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@cosmosmagazine" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:label1" content="Written by" /> <meta name="twitter:data1" content="Ellen Phiddian" /> <meta name="twitter:label2" content="Time to read" /> <meta name="twitter:data2" content="10 minutes" /> <script type="application/ld+json" class="rank-math-schema-pro">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#organization","name":"Cosmos Magazine","url":"https://cosmosmagazine.com","sameAs":["https://www.facebook.com/CosmosMagazine/","https://twitter.com/cosmosmagazine"],"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#logo","url":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/cosmos-logo.svg","contentUrl":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/cosmos-logo.svg","caption":"Cosmos Magazine","inLanguage":"en-AU","width":"1047","height":"172"}},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#website","url":"https://cosmosmagazine.com","name":"Cosmos Magazine","publisher":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#organization"},"inLanguage":"en-AU"},{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg","url":"/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg","width":"1200","height":"675","caption":"Climate Stripes 1850-2021","inLanguage":"en-AU"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":"1","item":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com","name":"Cosmos"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":"2","item":{"@id":"/synergy/","name":"Synergy"}},{"@type":"ListItem","position":"3","item":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/","name":"By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy"}}]},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#webpage","url":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/","name":"Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know","datePublished":"2024-01-18T05:43:00+10:30","dateModified":"2024-02-05T14:59:58+10:30","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg"},"inLanguage":"en-AU","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#breadcrumb"}},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/author/ellen-phiddian/","name":"Ellen Phiddian","url":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/author/ellen-phiddian/","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/07e090106befe2d08eda23fa02420be6?s=96&d=mm&r=g","url":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/07e090106befe2d08eda23fa02420be6?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Ellen Phiddian","inLanguage":"en-AU"},"worksFor":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#organization"}},{"headline":"Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know","description":"What's a tonne of CO2 in context, or a kilowatt-hour? We unpack all the climate and energy numbers you might be confused by.","datePublished":"2024-01-18T05:43:00+10:30","dateModified":"2024-02-05T14:59:58+10:30","image":{"@id":"/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg"},"author":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/author/ellen-phiddian/","name":"Ellen Phiddian"},"@type":"NewsArticle","copyrightYear":"2024","name":"Unpacking the climate and energy numbers you need to know","articleSection":"Australia, Climate, Earth, Energise, Energy, News, Synergy, Technology","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#schema-7225401","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#webpage"},"publisher":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#organization"},"inLanguage":"en-AU","mainEntityOfPage":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#webpage"}},{"@type":"VideoObject","name":"Cosmos Shorts: What\u2019s the difference between 1.5 and 2 degrees of warming?","description":"The goal of the Paris Agreement is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. What\u2019s the ...","uploadDate":"2022-05-02T23:22:01-07:00","thumbnailUrl":"/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/climate-stripes-2021.jpg","embedUrl":"https://www.youtube.com/embed/HakOmx8UoAM","duration":"PT2M3S","width":"1280","height":"720","isFamilyFriendly":"True","@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#schema-7225402","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#webpage"},"publisher":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/#organization"},"inLanguage":"en-AU","mainEntityOfPage":{"@id":"https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/#webpage"}}]}</script>  <script> function paywall_impression_dataLayer() { dataLayer.push({ 'event': 'paywall_impression', 'paywall_name': '', 'page_location': 'https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/' }); } if (window.location.pathname == '/restricted-content/') { paywall_impression_dataLayer(); } </script>  <noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5TDDMZV" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>  <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/cache/minify/5e94f.css?x75256" media="all" /> <style id='safe-svg-svg-icon-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .safe-svg-cover{text-align:center}.safe-svg-cover .safe-svg-inside{display:inline-block;max-width:100%}.safe-svg-cover svg{height:100%;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;width:100%} </style> <style id='rank-math-toc-block-style-inline-css' type='text/css'> .wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol{counter-reset:item}.wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol li{display:block}.wp-block-rank-math-toc-block nav ol li:before{content:counters(item, ".") ". ";counter-increment:item} </style> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> body{--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--color--brand-primary: #2f76bb;--wp--preset--color--rackley: #5B92AB;--wp--preset--color--queen-blue: #406E8E;--wp--preset--color--police-blue: #22476B;--wp--preset--color--oxford-blue: #0C2746;--wp--preset--color--light-grey: #e5e5e5;--wp--preset--color--my-cosmos-very-light: #f3f9f9;--wp--preset--color--my-cosmos-light: #00a8a8;--wp--preset--color--my-cosmos-dark: #008294;--wp--preset--color--greenlight-green: #36B34A;--wp--preset--color--greenlight-light-green: #8dc63f;--wp--preset--color--greenlight-dark-green: #0d6c28;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flow > .alignleft{float: left;margin-inline-start: 0;margin-inline-end: 2em;}body .is-layout-flow > .alignright{float: right;margin-inline-start: 2em;margin-inline-end: 0;}body .is-layout-flow > .aligncenter{margin-left: auto !important;margin-right: auto !important;}body .is-layout-constrained > .alignleft{float: left;margin-inline-start: 0;margin-inline-end: 2em;}body .is-layout-constrained > .alignright{float: right;margin-inline-start: 2em;margin-inline-end: 0;}body .is-layout-constrained > .aligncenter{margin-left: auto !important;margin-right: auto !important;}body .is-layout-constrained > :where(:not(.alignleft):not(.alignright):not(.alignfull)){max-width: var(--wp--style--global--content-size);margin-left: auto !important;margin-right: auto !important;}body .is-layout-constrained > .alignwide{max-width: var(--wp--style--global--wide-size);}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}body .is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}body .is-layout-flex > *{margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}body .is-layout-grid > *{margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} .wp-block-navigation a:where(:not(.wp-element-button)){color: inherit;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} .wp-block-pullquote{font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <style id='woocommerce-inline-inline-css' type='text/css'> .woocommerce form .form-row .required { visibility: visible; } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/cache/minify/20adf.css?x75256" media="all" /> <script src="/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?x75256&ver=3.7.0"></script><script defer src="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/cache/minify/63b1f.js?x75256"></script> <noscript><style>.woocommerce-product-gallery{ opacity: 1 !important; }</style></noscript> <meta name="onesignal" content="wordpress-plugin"/> <script> window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || []; OneSignal.push( function() { OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_UPDATER_PATH = 'OneSignalSDKUpdaterWorker.js'; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PATH = 'OneSignalSDKWorker.js'; OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PARAM = { scope: '/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/push/onesignal/' }; OneSignal.setDefaultNotificationUrl("https://cosmosmagazine.com"); var oneSignal_options = {}; window._oneSignalInitOptions = oneSignal_options; oneSignal_options['wordpress'] = true; oneSignal_options['appId'] = '320b1551-21ef-49e1-b09c-5a188d0478da'; oneSignal_options['allowLocalhostAsSecureOrigin'] = true; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification'] = { }; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['title'] = ""; oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['message'] = ""; oneSignal_options['path'] = "https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/"; oneSignal_options['safari_web_id'] = "web.onesignal.auto.4345f3b9-0648-4376-838e-008c1d802430"; oneSignal_options['promptOptions'] = { }; oneSignal_options['promptOptions']['actionMessage'] = "Get an update of science stories with push notifications. You can unsubscribe at any time."; oneSignal_options['notifyButton'] = { }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['enable'] = true; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['position'] = 'bottom-left'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['theme'] = 'default'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['size'] = 'medium'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['displayPredicate'] = function() { return OneSignal.isPushNotificationsEnabled() .then(function(isPushEnabled) { return !isPushEnabled; }); }; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['showCredit'] = false; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['text'] = {}; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors'] = {}; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors']['circle.background'] = '#2f76bb'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors']['circle.foreground'] = 'white'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors']['pulse.color'] = '#2f76bb'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors']['dialog.button.background'] = '#2f76bb'; oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['colors']['dialog.button.background.active'] = '#2f76bb'; OneSignal.init(window._oneSignalInitOptions); OneSignal.showSlidedownPrompt(); }); function documentInitOneSignal() { var oneSignal_elements = document.getElementsByClassName("OneSignal-prompt"); var oneSignalLinkClickHandler = function(event) { OneSignal.push(['registerForPushNotifications']); event.preventDefault(); }; for(var i = 0; i < oneSignal_elements.length; i++) oneSignal_elements[i].addEventListener('click', oneSignalLinkClickHandler, false); } if (document.readyState === 'complete') { documentInitOneSignal(); } else { window.addEventListener("load", function(event){ documentInitOneSignal(); }); } </script> <script type="text/javascript" id="spai_js" data-cfasync="false"> document.documentElement.className += " spai_has_js"; (function(w, d){ var b = d.getElementsByTagName('head')[0]; var s = d.createElement("script"); var v = ("IntersectionObserver" in w) ? "" : "-compat"; s.async = true; // This includes the script as async. s.src = "https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/assets/js/bundles/spai-lib-bg" + v + ".1.1.min.js?v=3.8.0"; w.spaiDomain = "cdn.shortpixel.ai"; w.spaiData = { version: "3.8.0", key: "spai", quality: "lossy", convert: "auto", lqip: false, rootMargin: "500px", crop: true, sizeBreakpoints: {"on":false,"base":50,"rate":10}, backgroundsMaxWidth: 1920, resizeStyleBackgrounds: true, nativeLazyLoad: false, safeLazyBackgrounds: true, asyncInitialParsing: true, debug: false, doSelectors: [{"selectors":"img","type":"attr","targetAttr":"src","attrType":"url","lazy":true,"resize":true},{"selectors":"[data-spai-bg-on]","type":"attr","targetAttr":"style","attrType":"style"},{"selectors":"style","type":"inner","attrType":"style"}], exclusions: {"selectors":{".cta-and-payment-methods img":{"lazy":1,"cdn":1,"resize":0,"lqip":0,"crop":-1},"img.zoomImg":{"lazy":1,"cdn":1,"resize":0,"lqip":0,"crop":-1}},"urls":[]}, sizeFromImageSuffix: true }; b.appendChild(s); }(window, document)); </script> <style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css"> /*.home-banner { background-image: url("data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxIDEiIHdpZHRoPSIxIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjEiIGRhdGEtdT0iaHR0cHMlM0ElMkYlMkZjb3Ntb3NtYWdhemluZS5jb20lMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjElMkYwOSUyRkZvc3NpbF9OaWxwZW5hLmpwZyIgZGF0YS13PSIxIiBkYXRhLWg9IjEiIGRhdGEtYmlwPSIiPjwvc3ZnPg=="); }*/ .cross-sells { display:none; } .woocommerce .cart-collaterals .cart_totals, .woocommerce-page .cart-collaterals .cart_totals { float: left; } section.article-container.cart-page .woocommerce .wc-proceed-to-checkout { text-align: left; } section.article-container.cart-page .woocommerce .give_wc_donation_section_td { display: none; } p.mailchimp-newsletter { display:none; } p.add-latest-issue { display:none; } .is-provider-crowdsignal amp-iframe { display: none; } body:not(.amp-mode-touch) .hide-if-not-amp { display: none; } #place_order:hover { background: unset; } </style> <script async src="https://t.atmng.io/consent/stub.js"></script> <script async src="https://t.atmng.io/qvty/WiEbuew5P.prod.js"></script>  <script> var adUnits = adUnits || []; adUnits = adUnits.concat([{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i0p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i1p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i2p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i3p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i4p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i5p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i6p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i7p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i8p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i9p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2ca',auW:'0',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',postId:294346,targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2ca-i10p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2cc',auW:'300',auH:'250',mediaType:'desktop',refresh:{delay:30,count:5,event:'onViewable'},targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2cc-i0p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc737',auW:'320',auH:'50',mediaType:'mobile',refresh:{delay:30,count:5,event:'onViewable'},targetId:'adn-00000000001fc737-i0p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'000000000023d099',auW:'970',auH:'90',mediaType:'desktop',refresh:{delay:30,count:5,event:'onViewable'},targetId:'adn-000000000023d099-i0p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'000000000023d09a',auW:'300',auH:'250',mediaType:'mobile',refresh:{delay:30,count:5,event:'onViewable'},targetId:'adn-000000000023d09a-i0p0',requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}},{auId:'00000000001fc2bd',auW:'970',auH:'90',mediaType:'desktop',targetId:'adn-00000000001fc2bd-i0p0',refresh:{delay:30,count:5,event:'onViewable'},requestParams:{proximity:800,load:'lazyRequest'}}]); </script> <script> let adUnitsServed = []; let adUnitDivParentClassArray = []; var adUnits = adUnits || []; requestThirdPartyAds = (adUnits, adUnitsPrevious) => { let adUnitsFiltered = adUnits.filter(function(adUnit) { if (!adUnit.mediaType || adUnit.mediaType === 'all') { return true; } if (isMobileDevice()) { return adUnit.mediaType !== 'desktop'; } else { return adUnit.mediaType !== 'mobile'; } }); if (JSON.stringify(adUnitsFiltered) === JSON.stringify(adUnitsServed)) { return adUnitsFiltered; } adUnitsFiltered = adUnitsFiltered.filter(function(adUnit) { return !adUnitsServed.some(function(adUnitServed) { return JSON.stringify(adUnit) === JSON.stringify(adUnitServed) }); }); if (adUnitsFiltered.length === 0) { return adUnitsFiltered; } let adUnitsToRequest = []; adUnitsToRequest = JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(adUnitsFiltered)); adUnitsToRequest.forEach(function(adUnitToRequest) { delete adUnitToRequest.mediaType; }); window.adn = window.adn || {}; adn.calls = adn.calls || []; adn.calls.push(function() { adn.requestAds({ adUnits: adUnitsToRequest }); }); if (window.location.hostname !== 'cosmosmagazine.com') { console.log('Ad units requested: ', adUnitsFiltered); if (isMobileDevice()) { console.log("Mobile device detected."); } else { console.log("Desktop device detected."); } } adUnitsServed = adUnitsServed.concat(adUnitsFiltered); return adUnitsServed; }; function isMobileDevice() { let userAgent = navigator.userAgent || navigator.vendor || window.opera; let windowWidth = window.innerWidth; if (windowWidth > 1100) { return false; } if (/windows phone/i.test(userAgent)) { return true; } if (/android/i.test(userAgent)) { return true; } if (/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(userAgent) && !window.MSStream) { return true; } if (windowWidth < 1100) { return true; } return false; } adUnitsServed = requestThirdPartyAds(adUnits, adUnitsServed); </script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://use.typekit.net" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://chimpstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://connect.facebook.net" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://vars.hotjar.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://script.hotjar.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://static.hotjar.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.adnuntius.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://t.atmng.io" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.onesignal.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.google-analytics.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://s3.amazonaws.com" crossorigin> <script> // console log the user's IP address for debugging purposes console.log('User IP Address: 8.222.208.146'); console.log('User has IP Access: '); console.log('User has Access (IP or subscription): '); </script> <link href="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai" rel="preconnect" crossorigin><style id="spai_bg_lazr">html.spai_has_js [data-spai-bg-on]:not([data-spai-bg-prepared]){background-image: none !important;}</style></head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-294346 single-format-standard wp-custom-logo theme-cosmos/resources woocommerce-no-js climate-energy-numbers synergy australia climate earth energise energy news technology non-member app-data index-data singular-data single-data single-post-data single-post-climate-energy-numbers-data"> <div id="wrapper" class="wrap container" role="document"> <header class="banner Fixed">  <div class="advert full-width-advert ad-page-top ad-desktop auh-90"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2bd-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <div class="container"> <div class="header-upper"> <div class="header-menu-wrapper"> <ul class="cols-all-gap"> <li class="col login"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/account/">LOG IN</a> </li> <li class="col signup"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/subscribe-now" class="signup-header">SIGN UP</a> </li> <li class="col search" id="magnifying-glass__icon"> <a class="open-search-form" href="#search-form" aria-label="Article Search Icon Link"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="white" stroke-width="4" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"> <circle cx="11" cy="11" r="8"></circle> <line x1="21" y1="21" x2="16.65" y2="16.65" stroke-width="5"></line> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="col menu-cart"> <a aria-label="Cart link Icon" class="menu-cart-icon" href='https://cosmosmagazine.com/checkout/' > <svg width="100%" height="100%" viewBox="0 0 34 28" version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xml:space="preserve" xmlns:serif="http://www.serif.com/" style="fill-rule:evenodd;clip-rule:evenodd;stroke-linejoin:round;stroke-miterlimit:2;"> <g> <path d="M23.951,22.432C23.951,22.871 23.589,23.227 23.143,23.227C22.703,23.23 22.339,22.872 22.335,22.432L22.335,15.75C22.335,15.31 22.697,14.954 23.143,14.954C23.589,14.954 23.951,15.31 23.951,15.75L23.951,22.432ZM17.808,22.432C17.808,22.871 17.446,23.227 17,23.227C16.56,23.23 16.196,22.872 16.192,22.432L16.192,15.75C16.192,15.31 16.554,14.954 17,14.954C17.446,14.954 17.808,15.31 17.808,15.75L17.808,22.432ZM11.665,22.432C11.665,22.871 11.303,23.227 10.857,23.227C10.417,23.23 10.053,22.872 10.049,22.432L10.049,15.75C10.049,15.31 10.411,14.954 10.857,14.954C11.303,14.954 11.665,15.31 11.665,15.75L11.665,22.432ZM17,2.557L22.744,10.181L11.256,10.181L17,2.557ZM32.32,10.181L25.159,10.181L17.786,0.394L17.78,0.386L17.773,0.38C17.755,0.357 17.737,0.334 17.717,0.313L17.687,0.28L17.65,0.247C17.629,0.229 17.608,0.211 17.586,0.195L17.576,0.187C17.502,0.133 17.42,0.09 17.334,0.059L17.322,0.054C17.295,0.045 17.268,0.037 17.24,0.03L17.232,0.027C17.208,0.021 17.184,0.017 17.159,0.013L17.14,0.01L17.081,0.004L17.047,0L16.952,0C16.944,0 16.937,0.002 16.929,0.003C16.905,0.004 16.882,0.007 16.858,0.01L16.853,0.01C16.698,0.034 16.55,0.094 16.423,0.187L16.415,0.193C16.392,0.21 16.37,0.228 16.349,0.247C16.337,0.257 16.326,0.269 16.314,0.281C16.304,0.291 16.292,0.301 16.282,0.313C16.262,0.334 16.244,0.357 16.226,0.38L16.22,0.386L16.214,0.394L8.841,10.181L1.681,10.181C0.497,10.181 -0.315,11.354 0.118,12.438L3.773,26.045C4.149,27.211 5.244,28.005 6.47,28L27.53,28C28.767,28 29.86,27.208 30.227,26.045L33.882,12.438C34.315,11.354 33.502,10.181 32.32,10.181Z" /> </g> </svg> </a> </li> </ul> <div class="search-form-modal"> <div class="search-close"></div> <div class="search-container"> <div class="search-form__ui"> <div class="search-form__input-wrapper" id="searchInput"></div> <button class="search-form__button">SEARCH</button> </div> <div class="search-form__results" id="headerSearchHits"></div> <div class="search-form__view-more"> <span>View More Results</span> </div> </div> </div> <script> document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { let searchViewMore = document.querySelector('.search-form__view-more'); let seachInput = document.getElementById('searchInput'); // If algoliasearch is not defined. This is the case when the Algolia scripts are not loaded. (e.g. on single post pages for page speed optimisation). if (typeof algoliasearch === 'undefined') { // Add an input field to the search form seachInput.innerHTML = ` <div class="ais-SearchBox"><form action="" role="search" class="ais-SearchBox-form" novalidate=""> <input class="ais-SearchBox-input" type="search" placeholder="Search The Archives" autocomplete="off" autocorrect="off" autocapitalize="off" spellcheck="false" maxlength="512"> </form></div>`; searchViewMore.style.display = 'none'; } document.querySelectorAll('.search-form__button, .search-form__view-more').forEach( function(triggerEl) { triggerEl.addEventListener('click', function() { let searchQuery = triggerEl.parentNode.querySelector( 'input').value; document.location.href = '/search?query=' + searchQuery; }); }); document.querySelectorAll('.ais-SearchBox-input').forEach(function(inputEl) { inputEl.addEventListener('keydown', function(ev) { if (ev.key === 'Enter') { ev.preventDefault(); let searchQuery = ev.currentTarget.value; document.location.href = '/search?query=' + searchQuery; } }); }); }); </script> </div> </div> <div class="primary-menu-wrapper"> <div class="hamburger hamburger--collapse" type="button" aria-label="Mobile Menu" role="button" tabindex="1" onClick="document.getElementById('primary-menu').classList.toggle('active');" on="tap:primary-menu.toggleClass(class=active)"> </div> <a class="brand" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCA4MzkgMTUxIiB3aWR0aD0iODM5IiBoZWlnaHQ9IjE1MSIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRkNvc21vc19sb2dvX3doaXRlLnN2ZyIgZGF0YS13PSI4MzkiIGRhdGEtaD0iMTUxIiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=" data-spai="1" alt="Cosmos" width="200" height="50"><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/ret_img/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Cosmos_logo_white.svg" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Cosmos" width="200" height="50"></noscript> </a> <div class="nav-wrapper"> <nav id="primary-menu" class="nav-primary"> <div class="primary-menu__background" onClick="document.getElementById('primary-menu').classList.toggle('active');" on="tap:primary-menu.toggleClass(class=active)"> </div> <div class="mobile-menu-actions"> <div class="mobile-search-toggle" onclick="(function() { document.getElementById('primary-menu').classList.remove('active'); document.getElementById('mobile-search').classList.add('active'); document.getElementById('mobile-search-input').focus(); })()" on="tap:primary-menu.toggleClass(class=active, force=false),mobile-search.toggleClass(class=active, force=true),mobile-search-input.focus"> SEARCH</div> <div class="mobile-account-button"> <a href="/account"> LOG IN </a> </div> </div> <ul id="menu-main-menu" class="nav"><li id="menu-item-1329" class="space-border menu-item menu-space"><a href="/space/">Space</a></li> <li id="menu-item-27168" class="current-post-ancestor current-post-parent technology-border menu-item menu-tech"><a href="/technology/">Tech</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1321" class="nature-border menu-item menu-nature"><a href="/nature/">Nature</a></li> <li id="menu-item-33108" class="current-post-ancestor current-post-parent earth-border menu-item menu-earth"><a href="/earth/">Earth</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1302" class="history-border menu-item menu-history"><a href="/history/">History</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1325" class="people-border menu-item menu-people"><a href="/people/">People</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1313" class="health-border menu-item menu-health"><a href="/health/">Health</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1335" class="science-border menu-item menu-core-sciences"><a href="/science/">Core Sciences</a></li> <li id="menu-item-311423" class="menu-item menu-newsletters"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/newsletter/">Newsletters</a></li> <li id="menu-item-311215" class="menu-item menu-subscribe-now"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/subscribe-now/">Subscribe Now</a></li> </ul> </nav> <div class="secondary-menu-wrapper "> <nav id="secondary-menu"> <ul> </ul> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="secondary-menu-wrapper duplicate-secondary-nav"> <nav id="secondary-menu"> <ul> </ul> </nav> </div> <div id="mobile-search" class="mobile-search"> <form class="mobile-search__form" action="/search/" method="GET"> <input id="mobile-search-input" class="mobile-search__input" name="query" placeholder="Search..." aria-label="Search Input" /> <button class="mobile-search__button" aria-label="Search Button" title="Search" role="button"> <svg width="28" height="28" viewBox="0 0 28 28"> <path fill-rule="nonzero" d="M12 0c6.627417 0 12 5.372583 12 12 0 3.2085154-1.2592234 6.1229233-3.3104309 8.2759846.0054641.0049849.0115296.0109006.0175377.0169086l5.6568542 5.6568543c.3905243.3905243.3905243 1.0236892 0 1.4142135-.3905243.3905243-1.0236892.3905243-1.4142135 0l-5.6568543-5.6568542c-.0339069-.0339069-.0648699-.069643-.0928889-.1068905C17.1949096 23.1071552 14.7017223 24 12 24 5.372583 24 0 18.627417 0 12S5.372583 0 12 0zm0 2C6.4771525 2 2 6.4771525 2 12s4.4771525 10 10 10 10-4.4771525 10-10S17.5228475 2 12 2z"> </path> </svg> </button> </form> </div> <div class="content"> <main class="main rows-gap margin-top-1 margin-bottom-1"> <nav aria-label="breadcrumbs" class="rank-math-breadcrumb"><p><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com">Cosmos</a><span class="separator"> » </span><a href="/synergy/">Synergy</a></p></nav> <section class="article-container cols-4 md-cols-1 cols-gap-1 padding-bottom-4"> <article class="col col-span-3 post-294346 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-synergy category-australia category-climate category-earth category-energise category-energy category-news category-technology tag-carbon-dioxide tag-climate-change tag-renewable-energy"> <header class="rows rows-gap"> <h1 class="entry-title row">By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy</h1> <div class="row primary-image has-featured-image " data-featured-image="climate-stripes-2021.jpg"> </div> </header> <div class="entry-content cols-6 md-cols-1 cols-gap-1 margin-top-1"> <div class="content-left-sidebar cols-1 col"> <section class="contributors md-cols-1 rows-gap"> <div class="row post-date"> <span class="published-date">January 18, 2024</span> </div> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/ellen-phiddian/" class="author row md-hide"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCA0NTAgNDM2IiB3aWR0aD0iNDUwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjQzNiIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjElMkYwMiUyRkVsbGVuLXNtYWxsLmpwZyIgZGF0YS13PSI0NTAiIGRhdGEtaD0iNDM2IiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=" data-spai="1" alt="Ellen Phiddian" width="200" /><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Ellen-small.jpg" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Ellen Phiddian" width="200" /></noscript> <div class="bio"> <h3>Ellen Phiddian</h3> <p>Cosmos science journalist</p> </div> </a> <div id="author-name" class="hide"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/ellen-phiddian/" class="bio"> By Ellen Phiddian </a> </div> <div class="favourite__wrapper row cols"> <button class="showDialog simplefavorite-button" aria-label="Favourite button"> </button> </div> </section> </div> <div class="primary-content cols-1 col-span-5 col"> <div class="flexible-content "> <div class="copy"> <div style="background-color: #d4fcea; padding: 20px;"><p align="center" style="font-style: italic; family: Arial">In our new <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/tag/synergy">Synergy</a> column, Cosmos writers explore how we’re dealing with the urgent issues of climate change.</p></div> <p class="has-drop-cap"><strong>According to the World Meteorological Organisation, 2023 was <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/2023-was-a-record-hot-year-scientists-expect-more-of-the-same-in-2024/" target="_blank" data-type="link" data-id="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/2023-was-a-record-hot-year-scientists-expect-more-of-the-same-in-2024/" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.45°C hotter</a> than preindustrial levels. It’s a number that’s been plastered across headlines for a week – but what does it actually mean?</strong></p> <p>When studying science, I was trained to love numbers and to treat them as more objective and reliable than words. Numbers, I was told, don’t lie.</p> <p>But stripped of context, numbers aren’t useful. How often do we hear claims like,<em> ‘Our company has stopped 100 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub> from getting into the atmosphere’?</em></p> <p>Is that a lot of carbon dioxide? How much CO<sub>2</sub> was being emitted in the first place?</p> <p>What about energy? How big does renewable infrastructure need to be to replace fossil fuels? And why do batteries <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/news/battery-farms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">always seem to have</a> two numbers next to them to indicate size – like <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/flow-battery-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100 MW/400 MWh</a>?</p> <p>What <em>is</em> a megawatt or a megawatt-hour, anyway?</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>To make it easier to understand all the climate news you’re reading, I’ve compiled a user’s guide to the numbers of climate and energy, what each one means and how each measure stacks up – what’s a lot, what’s not very much, where it might be used dishonestly.</p> <p>So, put on your 1kW kettle and burn a couple of joules pouring yourself a cup of tea, here are the climate numbers you need to know.</p> <p><strong><span style="text-decoration: underline;">Jump to:</span></strong></p> <ul> <li><a href="#_Degrees_above_pre-industrial">Degrees above preindustrial levels</a></li> <li><a href="#_The_rising_tide:">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="#_What’s_a_watt?">Energy: Watts, joules and kilowatt-hours</a></li> <li><a href="#_Tonnes_and_tonnes">Tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="#_Comparing_apples_with">Measuring other greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="#_Counting_carbon_in">Parts per million</a></li> </ul> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_Degrees_above_pre-industrial"></a>Degrees above pre-industrial levels</h2> <p>Global temperature rise is measured in °C above “preindustrial” levels – the temperature the Earth was before the industrial revolution started around 1750. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) uses the years 1850-1900 – a period before the vast majority of human-emitted greenhouse gases entered the atmosphere – as its baseline.</p> <p>Now, changing the temperature a couple of degrees doesn’t sound like much – you’d be unlikely to notice the difference between a 23°C or 25°C room, right?</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i1p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>But we’re talking about an <em>average</em> across the <em>whole</em> planet, not a single room – a temperature rise <em>everywhere</em> is a lot of heat.</p> <div class="wp-block-image"> <figure class="aligncenter size-medium"><img decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" width="498" height="600" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMDgwIDEzMDAiIHdpZHRoPSIxMDgwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjEzMDAiIGRhdGEtdT0iJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDI0JTJGMDElMkZXYXJtaW5nLWJ5LWRlZ3JlZXMxLnBuZyIgZGF0YS13PSIxMDgwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjEzMDAiIGRhdGEtYmlwPSIiPjwvc3ZnPg==" data-spai="1" alt="Graphic that reads: warming by degrees, the key climate targets. 4. 4°c worst case ipcc projections. 2. 5°c climate action tracker's prediction for 2100. 2°c the upper target of the paris climate agreement. 1. 5°c the lower target of the paris climate agreement. 1. 4°c how much hotter australia is than pre industrial levels on average. 1. 1°c the current global average of warming above pre industrial levels." class="wp-image-294367" style="object-fit:cover" srcset=" " sizes="(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 1"><noscript data-spai="1"><img decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" width="498" height="600" src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1-498x600.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Graphic that reads: warming by degrees, the key climate targets. 4. 4°c worst case ipcc projections. 2. 5°c climate action tracker's prediction for 2100. 2°c the upper target of the paris climate agreement. 1. 5°c the lower target of the paris climate agreement. 1. 4°c how much hotter australia is than pre industrial levels on average. 1. 1°c the current global average of warming above pre industrial levels." class="wp-image-294367" style="object-fit:cover" srcset="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1-498x600.png 498w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1-768x924.png 768w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1-300x361.png 300w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1-600x722.png 600w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Warming-by-degrees1.png 1080w" sizes="(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 1"></noscript></figure></div> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting this warming in context</h3> <ul> <li>The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement</a> aims to keep climate change to “well below” a <strong>2°C</strong> global average temperature increase above preindustrial levels, and ideally below <strong>1.5°C</strong>.</li> <li>Earth is currently about <strong>1.2°C</strong> above preindustrial levels on average. Australia has warmed even faster and is about <strong>1.4°C</strong> above preindustrial levels.</li> <li>The <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/">worst-case IPPC scenario</a>, where carbon emissions rise steadily over the next century with little reduction effort, predicts warming of about <strong>4.4°C</strong> by the end of the century.</li> </ul> <p>This is not necessarily the most likely scenario. <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/no-change-to-warming-as-fossil-fuel-endgame-brings-focus-onto-false-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Action Tracker</a> predicts <strong>2.5°C</strong> of warming by the end of the century, based on current country targets and actions.</p> <p>And although 2023 was the <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/2023-was-a-record-hot-year-scientists-expect-more-of-the-same-in-2024/">hottest year on record</a> at <strong>1.45°C</strong> above preindustrial levels, this is just one year, and not the total average long-term temperature rise.</p> <figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper"> <div class="embed-wrapper"><div class="inner"><iframe title="Cosmos Shorts: What’s the difference between 1.5 and 2 degrees of warming?" width="500" height="281" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HakOmx8UoAM?feature=oembed" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowfullscreen></iframe></div></div> </div></figure> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_The_rising_tide:"></a>The rising tide: how much sea level rise can we really expect?</h2> <p>Global warming causes sea level rise in two main ways.</p> <p>First, melting ice on landmasses, especially <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/glacier-antarctica-sea-level/">Antarctica</a> and <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/sea-levels-are-rising-faster-driven-by-greenland-melt/">Greenland</a>, adds water to the oceans.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i2p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>Second, water expands as it warms – meaning the same amount of liquid takes up more space.</p> <p>These rising sea levels will put more people at threat of flooding and inundation – Pacific nations are already being forced to <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/ipcc-sixth-assessment-report-the-frightening-future-of-sea-level-rise-in-australasia/">relocate low-lying communities</a>.</p> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting sea level rise in context</h3> <ul> <li>From 1901 to 2018, global sea levels rose by <strong>20cm</strong>.</li> <li>Future sea level rise depends on emissions. The IPCC <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predicts</a> <strong>28-55cm</strong> to the end of the century in a ‘very low’ emissions scenario, and <strong>98-188cm</strong> of sea level rise in a ‘very high’ emissions scenario. The real result will likely be somewhere between these extremes.</li> </ul> <p>A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23810-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2020 study</a> found that 267 million people currently live in areas that would be inundated by <strong>100cm</strong> of sea level rise. This population is expected to grow to 410 million by the end of the century. In 2021, a report in <em>Environmental Research Letters</em> forecast <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/so-long-sydney-opera-house-bye-bye-buckingham-palace/">what that rise would look like in three different cities</a>.</p> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_What’s_a_watt?"></a>What’s a watt? Making sense of Watts, kilowatts, kilowatt-hours, megawatts…</h2> <p>Australia produces – and uses – heaps of energy.</p> <p>In 2022, <a href="https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-fuel-mix" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">32% of that energy</a> came from renewable sources that don’t release greenhouse gases. But that proportion hides a complicated mesh of everything from huge power stations to rooftop solar panels and home batteries. So how is it all measured?</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i3p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>Let’s start simply.</p> <p>Scientists usually measure energy in <strong>joules</strong>. However, most of the time, you’ll see <strong>watts</strong> used by industry and government to describe how much electricity their products and services generate or consume.</p> <p>A watt is a measure of <em>power, </em>which is energy over a certain amount of time – one joule of energy per second, to be precise.</p> <p>A kilowatt (kW) is 1000 watts and a megawatt (MW) is 1000 kW: it goes up in increments of 1,000.</p> <figure class="wp-block-table is-style-stripes has-small-font-size"><table class="has-police-blue-color has-text-color"><thead><tr><th>Watt<br />(W)</th><th>Kilowatt<br />(KW)</th><th>Megawatt<br />(MW)</th><th>Gigawatt<br />(GW)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>1 watt</strong></td><td><strong>1,000 watts</strong></td><td><strong>1 million watts</strong></td><td><strong>1 billion watts</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Low wattage <br />lightbulb</td><td>1 electric kettle</td><td>Power output<br />of a sports car</td><td>Nuclear <br />power station</td></tr></tbody></table></figure> <p>We see these ratings applied to products we buy, right through to major infrastructure projects.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i4p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>Say a large-scale battery is rated at 100MW. That means it’s capable of pumping 100 megajoules into the system over a second.</p> <p>If you have a 40-watt light bulb, that means it needs 40 joules each second to glow.</p> <div class="in-content-area related-box-wrapper content-third content-right margin-bottom-1"> <div class="gradient-title">Read More</div> <ul class="related-box article-listing"> <li class="cols"> <div class="article article-post my-cosmos"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/ipcc-sixth-assessment-report-the-frightening-future-of-sea-level-rise-in-australasia/" class="thumbnail ar-16-9" aria-label="Article link"> <span data-spai-bg-on="1" class="image" style="background-image: url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxNDQwIDgxMCIgd2lkdGg9IjE0NDAiIGhlaWdodD0iODEwIiBkYXRhLXU9Imh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGY29zbW9zbWFnYXppbmUuY29tJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDIxJTJGMDglMkZHZXR0eUltYWdlcy0xMTkzMzEzMjQ4X0lQQ0NsZWFkLTE0NDB4ODEwLmpwZyIgZGF0YS13PSIxNDQwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjgxMCIgZGF0YS1iaXA9IiI+PC9zdmc+)"></span> </a> <div class="article-content has-my-cosmos-very-light-background-color"> <a href="/earth/climate/"> <span class="category earth-color"> Climate </span> </a> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/ipcc-sixth-assessment-report-the-frightening-future-of-sea-level-rise-in-australasia/"> <h3>Here today, gone tomorrow: the IPCC’s new report predicts the sea-level rise flooding our backyard</h3> </a> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> <p>But what if we want to know how much energy is used, in total? Some organisations use joules, but it’s more common to see another unit: <strong>watt-hours (Wh)</strong>.</p> <a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/OP59" class="newsletter-cta" data-device="mobile"> <img decoding="async" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAzMDAgMjUwIiB3aWR0aD0iMzAwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRldlZWtseS1DYXRjaHVwLTMwMHgyNTAtMS5wbmciIGRhdGEtdz0iMzAwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS1iaXA9IiI+PC9zdmc+" data-spai="1" alt="Newsletter" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 2"><noscript data-spai="1"><img decoding="async" src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Weekly-Catchup-300x250-1.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Newsletter" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 2"></noscript> </a> <p>The output of a power plant, or the energy your house consumes, is often measured using <strong>kilowatt hours (kWh)</strong> – the amount of energy a kilowatt of power generates over an hour.</p> <p>Since a kilowatt is 1000 joules per second, and there are 3600 seconds in an hour, a kilowatt hour is 3.6 million joules.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i5p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>You’d expend a joule of energy lifting an apple over your head. Imagine doing that 3.6 million times – that’s 1 kWh.</p> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting these measures of energy in context</h3> <ul> <li>According to the Clean Energy Regulator, Australia’s two largest power stations Loy Yang and Bayswater – which both burn coal – each produced <a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/NGER/Pages/Published%20information/Data%20highlights/2021-22-factsheets/Australia%E2%80%99s-largest-electricity-generators-2021-22.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roughly 15 terawatt-hours</a> (<strong>15 billion kWh</strong>) of energy in FY2021-22.</li> </ul> <figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" width="1200" height="675" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMjAwIDY3NSIgd2lkdGg9IjEyMDAiIGhlaWdodD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLXU9IiUyRndwLWNvbnRlbnQlMkZ1cGxvYWRzJTJGMjAyNCUyRjAxJTJGbG95LXlhbmcucG5nIiBkYXRhLXc9IjEyMDAiIGRhdGEtaD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=" data-spai="1" alt="Loy yang" class="wp-image-294403" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 3"><noscript data-spai="1"><img decoding="async" width="1200" height="675" src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/loy-yang.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Loy yang" class="wp-image-294403" srcset="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/loy-yang.png 1200w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/loy-yang-600x338.png 600w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/loy-yang-768x432.png 768w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/loy-yang-300x169.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 3"></noscript><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Loy Yang power station Credit: Marcus Wong CC BY-SA 3.0</figcaption></figure> <ul> <li>The largest operating battery in Australia, the <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/renewable-energy/batteries-energy-storage-projects/victorian-big-battery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Victorian Big Battery</a>, is a 300 MW (<strong>300,000 kW</strong>) power battery with 450 MWh (<strong>450,000 kWh</strong>) of storage. There are <a href="https://www.energyco.nsw.gov.au/projects/waratah-super-battery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plans</a> <a href="https://www.synergy.net.au/Our-energy/Projects/Big-Battery-Project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the</a> <a href="https://www.equis.com.au/renewable-energy-hub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">works</a> for gigawatt (<strong>million kW</strong>)-scale batteries around the country.</li> <li>Australia as a whole used <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/energy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1,667 TWh</a> (<strong>1.67 trillion kWh</strong>) of energy in 2022. The world <a href="https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-energy-substitution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">used 179,000 TWh</a> (<strong>179 trillion kWh</strong>).</li> <li>All rooftop solar in Australia generated <a href="https://www.energy.gov.au/publications/australian-energy-statistics-table-o-electricity-generation-fuel-type-2021-22-and-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">22 TWh</a> (<strong>22 billion kWh</strong>) of energy in 2021-2022.</li> </ul> <div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/16480577"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div> <ul> <li>Australian households <em>used</em> <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/energy/energy-account-australia/latest-release" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">254 terawatt-hours</a> (<strong>254 billion kWh)</strong>, in 2021-22.</li> <li>According to the <a href="https://www.aer.gov.au/documents/annual-retail-market-report-2022-23-30-november-2023-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Energy Regulator</a>, the average customer in the eastern states’ <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/energy/explainer-what-is-the-grid/">energy grid</a> used about <strong>5,500 kWh</strong> in 2022-23.</li> <li>Home batteries in Australia vary in size from roughly <strong>5 kWh to 20 kWh</strong>. The Tesla Powerwall is <strong>13.5 kWh</strong>, with <strong>5-7 kW</strong> power.</li> </ul> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_Tonnes_and_tonnes"></a>Tonnes and tonnes and tonnes of carbon dioxide</h2> <p>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) is not the only human-produced gas that’s warming our atmosphere, but it’s by far the most common. When people talk about emissions, they usually use CO<sub>2</sub> as their yardstick.</p> <p>We measure CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by weight: metric tonnes, each of which is 1,000 kilograms.</p> <figure class="wp-block-table is-style-stripes has-small-font-size"><table class="has-police-blue-color has-text-color"><thead><tr><th>Tonne<br />(t)</th><th>Kilotonne<br />(Kt)</th><th>Megatonne<br />(Mt)</th><th>Gigatonne<br />(Gt)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>1 tonne</strong></td><td><strong>1,000 tonnes</strong></td><td><strong>1 million tonnes</strong></td><td><strong>1 billion tonnes</strong></td></tr></tbody></table></figure> <p>It’s worth noting that companies count emissions in <em><a href="https://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/NGER/About-the-National-Greenhouse-and-Energy-Reporting-scheme/Greenhouse-gases-and-energy" target="_blank" rel="noopener">scopes</a>,</em> which reflect different levels of responsibility for the emissions. If a business says they’ve cut, say, 80% of their carbon emissions, it’s always worth asking which scope they’re counting with – because they may not actually have cut 80% of the emissions they cause.</p> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting carbon numbers in context</h3> <p>Humans have pumped a huge amount of carbon into the atmosphere since the wheels of industry started to turn:</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i6p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <ul> <li>Collectively, humans are currently emitting about <strong>40 billion tonnes</strong> (40 Gt) of carbon dioxide each year, <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">according to</a> the IPCC.</li> <li>Since 1850, humans have emitted <strong>2.4 trillion tonnes</strong> (2,400 Gt) of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.</li> <li>As of 2019, a typical Australian car emits <a href="https://www.greenvehicleguide.gov.au/pages/UnderstandingEmissions/VehicleEmissions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">181g</a> of CO<sub>2</sub> per kilometre travelled. An average Australian car travelled 11,100km in 2019-20, which is worth about <strong>2t of CO<sub>2</sub></strong>.</li> <li>The average Australian’s activities <a href="https://globalcarbonatlas.org/emissions/carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emit</a> <strong>15t</strong> of CO<sub>2</sub> each year.</li> <li>In 2022, Australia <a href="https://globalcarbonatlas.org/emissions/carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emitted</a> <strong>392 million tonnes</strong> (392 megatonnes) of CO<sub>2</sub>. Since European settlement, Australia has emitted <strong>19 billion tonnes</strong> (19 gigatonnes) of CO<sub>2</sub>.</li> </ul> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_Comparing_apples_with"></a>Comparing apples with apples: CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent</h2> <p>CO<sub>2</sub> is not the <em>only</em> greenhouse gas and different greenhouse gases warm the atmosphere in different amounts.</p> <p>Methane, for instance, warms the atmosphere significantly more than carbon dioxide but it also tends to stay in the atmosphere for a shorter amount of time. After roughly <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2022/methane-and-climate-change" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">12 years</a>, it has typically reacted with other gases and turned into CO<sub>2</sub>, while CO<sub>2 </sub>itself stays stable for hundreds of years.</p> <p>So, it’s not accurate to compare something that’s emitting 50 tonnes of methane to something that’s emitting 50 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>. While they’re both emitting the same amount of gas, they’re causing different levels of warming.</p> <p>Enter CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent. This is the method we use to compare the influence of different gases.</p> <p>Since time matters too, we tend to measure CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent over a century – enabling us to compare apples with apples.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i7p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>Over those 100 years, methane is 28 times more potent than CO<sub>2</sub>. So a tonne of methane emissions is 28 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent.</p> <div class="flourish-embed flourish-bubble-chart" data-src="visualisation/16480230"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div> <div class="flourish-embed flourish-bubble-chart" data-src="visualisation/16481146"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div> <p>The US Environment Protection Agency has a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas-equivalencies-calculator" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calculator</a> for other greenhouse gas equivalencies.</p> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent in context</h3> <ul> <li>According to the IPCC’s most recent <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a>, the world at large emitted <strong>59 billion tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent</strong> in 2019, 40bn tonnes of which was actually CO<sub>2</sub>.</li> <li>According to its <a href="https://greenhouseaccounts.climatechange.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement accounts</a>, Australia emitted <strong>465 million tonnes</strong> (0.465gt) of CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent in 2021.</li> </ul> <div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/16480119"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color"><a id="_Counting_carbon_in"></a>Counting carbon in the sky: Parts per million (ppm)</h2> <p>Carbon dioxide that reaches the sky is described in terms of concentration rather than total weight.</p> <p>Parts per million (<strong>ppm</strong>) is a way of describing concentration. In climate science, it’s most frequently used to measure carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i8p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <p>A concentration of 400 parts per million CO<sub>2</sub> means that for every million molecules in the air, 400 of them are CO<sub>2</sub> molecules. It’s the same as saying the air is 0.04% CO<sub>2</sub>.</p> <p>For other greenhouse gases with lower concentrations, parts per billion or parts per trillion (<strong>ppb</strong> or <strong>ppt</strong>) is used.</p> <p>You might think that 400 parts in a million is a very low concentration – and it is. But low concentrations of dangerous substances can still have huge influences.</p> <p>An Agatha Christie villain would only need to spike their victim’s tea with about six sand grains worth of <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/57249.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strychnine</a> to finish them off.  And you can smell chlorine gas in an area if it’s at a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136961/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concentration of just 0.1ppm</a>. It’s enough to be fatal if it reaches concentrations of 400ppm – good thing CO<sub>2</sub> isn’t <em>that</em> toxic.</p> <p>But 400ppm is still enough for carbon to trap heat and warm the atmosphere.</p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i9p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <h3 class="wp-block-heading has-police-blue-color has-text-color">Putting ppm in context</h3> <ul> <li>In 2022, atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations were <strong>417ppm</strong> <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on average</a>. During the 2010s, it grew at a rate of <strong>2.4ppm</strong> <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide" target="_blank" rel="noopener">each </a><a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">year</a>.</li> <li>From 1850-1900, the concentrations were about <strong>290ppm</strong>.</li> <li>By 1980, they had <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/global.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">made it to</a> nearly <strong>340ppm</strong>.</li> <li>In May 2023, CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations were <strong>424ppm</strong> at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, breaking a <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/feed/broken-record-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide-levels-jump-again" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new record</a>. (CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations fluctuate annually – so while they rise steadily year-on-year, they also tend to peak in May each year.)</li> </ul> <div class="flourish-embed flourish-scatter" data-src="visualisation/16479674"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div> <h2 class="wp-block-heading has-oxford-blue-color has-text-color">So now you know</h2> <p>I want people to be able to understand what these climate numbers mean, to be able to contextualise them when they read a climate claim or an energy rating in the wild.</p> <p>But I want to hear from you if you think there was something I missed, or something else you want explained. Climate science and the energy transition are numbers games – but they’re also things that people want, and need, to know more about.</p> <p>So share this guide with friends, if you think it will help – and let us know if there are more values you want us to explain. Send your suggestions to <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#5e373038311e3d312d33312d333f393f2437303b703d3133"><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="caa3a4aca58aa9a5b9a7a5b9a7abadabb0a3a4afe4a9a5a7">[email protected]</span></a>.</p> <p>(Oh, and for clarity, the numbers I used mostly come from the Working Group I section of the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>’s sixth assessment report – when I’ve used another source, I linked to it).</p> <p><em>Correction, 30 January: An earlier version of this article featured incorrect kW measurements for some of the batteries mentioned in the ‘Putting these measures of energy in context’ section. We have updated this section with the correct values. </em></p> <div class="advert ad-in-content ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2ca-i10p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; padding: 20px;"><a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/JP4g"><p align="center"><img decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-198773" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCA2MDAgMTU0IiB3aWR0aD0iNjAwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjE1NCIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjIlMkYwNyUyRm5ld3NsZXR0ZXItMDJlbmVyZ2lzZS1oZWFkZXIuanBnIiBkYXRhLXc9IjYwMCIgZGF0YS1oPSIxNTQiIGRhdGEtYmlwPSIiPjwvc3ZnPg==" data-spai="1" alt="Subscribe to energise from riaus" width="600" height="154" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 4"><noscript data-spai="1"><img decoding="async" class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-198773" src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/newsletter-02energise-header.jpg" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Subscribe to energise from riaus" width="600" height="154" srcset="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/newsletter-02energise-header.jpg 600w, https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/newsletter-02energise-header-300x77.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" title="by the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy 4"></noscript></p></a><p style="font-style: italic;">Are you interested in the energy industry and the technology and scientific developments that power it? Then our email newsletter <b>Energise</b> is for you. <a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/JP4g">Click here to become a subscriber</a>.</p></div>  <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" width='1' height='1' style="opacity:0; height:1px!important; width:1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" aria-label="Syndication Tracker" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=294346&title=By+the+numbers%3A+the+measures+of+climate%2C+energy+and+policy" loading="lazy">  <div class="share-syndicate-wrapper margin-top-1"> <div id="cosmos-link-back">  <p>Originally published by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" style="font-style:italic;">Cosmos</a> as <a title="By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/" id="cosmos-post-url">By the numbers: the measures of climate, energy and policy</a></p>  </div> <div class="article-sharing"> <ul class="cols"> <li> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fcosmosmagazine.com%2Fsynergy%2Fclimate-energy-numbers%2F" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" title="Share on Facebook" onclick="window.open('https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fcosmosmagazine.com%2Fsynergy%2Fclimate-energy-numbers%2F'); return false;" class="primary-svg-fill-hover"> <svg width="30" height="30"> <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" stroke="#FFF" stroke-width="2"/> <path fill="#FFF" fill-rule="nonzero" d="M18 12.55075h-2.565572V10.5195c0-.6230625.594107-.7675625.8713992-.7675625h1.657358V7.01075L16.063679 7c-2.5916132 0-3.1831276 2.0439375-3.1831276 3.3545v2.1963125H11V15.375h1.8805514V23h2.5538766v-7.625h2.1694815L18 12.55075z"/> </g> </svg> </a> </li> <li><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=https%3A%2F%2Fcosmosmagazine.com%2Fsynergy%2Fclimate-energy-numbers%2F&title=By%20the%20numbers:%20the%20measures%20of%20climate,%20energy%20and%20policy&via=CosmosMagazine&hashtags=science" target="_blank" rel="nofollow" title="Tweet" onclick="window.open('https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=https%3A%2F%2Fcosmosmagazine.com%2Fsynergy%2Fclimate-energy-numbers%2F&title=By%20the%20numbers:%20the%20measures%20of%20climate,%20energy%20and%20policy&via=CosmosMagazine&hashtags=science'); return false;" class="primary-svg-fill-hover"> <svg width="30" height="30" viewBox="0 0 30 30" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" fill="none" stroke="white" stroke-width="2" /> <path transform="matrix(0.011189,0,0,0.011189,8.28657,8)" d="M714.163 519.284L1160.89 0H1055.03L667.137 450.887L357.328 0H0L468.492 681.821L0 1226.37H105.866L515.491 750.218L842.672 1226.37H1200L714.137 519.284H714.163ZM569.165 687.828L521.697 619.934L144.011 79.6944H306.615L611.412 515.685L658.88 583.579L1055.08 1150.3H892.476L569.165 687.854V687.828Z" fill="white" /> </g> </svg> </a> </li> </ul> </div></div> </div> <div class="post-content-section"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> <aside class="col"> <div class="aside-content"> <div>  <div class="advert aside-ad ad-desktop auh-250"><div id="adn-00000000001fc2cc-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div> </div> <div class="newsletter-sidebar margin-top-1"> <a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/OP59" class="newsletter-cta" data-device="desktop"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAzMDAgMjUwIiB3aWR0aD0iMzAwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRldlZWtseS1DYXRjaHVwLTMwMHgyNTAtMS5wbmciIGRhdGEtdz0iMzAwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS1iaXA9IiI+PC9zdmc+" data-spai="1" alt="Newsletter"><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Weekly-Catchup-300x250-1.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Newsletter"></noscript> </a> </div> <div class="read-more-wrapper sidebar-wrapper margin-top-1 margin-bottom-1"> <div class="cols-1"> <h4 class="gradient-title margin-top-0 margin-bottom-1">You Might Like</h4> </div> <ul class="article-listing read-more-articles slider slide-last-20 cols-1 md-cols-1 rows-gap-1-dotted rows-list"> <li class="row read-more-articles__list"> <div class="article article-post"> <a class="thumbnail ar-16-9 md-ar-1-1" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/body-and-mind/climate-change-is-driving-the-rise-in-dengue-cases/" aria-label="Article link"> <span data-spai-bg-on="1" class="image" style="background-image: url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMjAwIDY3NSIgd2lkdGg9IjEyMDAiIGhlaWdodD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLXU9Imh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGY29zbW9zbWFnYXppbmUuY29tJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDI0JTJGMTElMkZHZXR0eUltYWdlcy02MTc3MTUyNjJfMTIwMC5qcGciIGRhdGEtdz0iMTIwMCIgZGF0YS1oPSI2NzUiIGRhdGEtYmlwPSIiPjwvc3ZnPg==);background-position: 50% 50%" data-position-x="50" data-position-y="50" data-image-width="1200" data-image-height="675"> </span> </a> <div class="article-content padding-1"> <div class="cols-8"> <a class="primary-category cols-1 col-span-7 category health-color" href="/health/body-and-mind/"> Body and Mind </a> <div class="favourite__wrapper row cols"> <button class="showDialog simplefavorite-button" aria-label="Favourite button"> </button> </div> </div> <a class="title" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/health/body-and-mind/climate-change-is-driving-the-rise-in-dengue-cases/" aria-label="Article link"> <h2 class=" ">Climate change is driving the rise in dengue cases</h2> </a> </div> </div> </li> <li class="row read-more-articles__list"> <div class="article article-post"> <a class="thumbnail ar-16-9 md-ar-1-1" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/marine-life/summer-2024-impact-great-barrier-reef/" aria-label="Article link"> <span data-spai-bg-on="1" class="image" style="background-image: url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMjAwIDY3NSIgd2lkdGg9IjEyMDAiIGhlaWdodD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLXU9Imh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGY29zbW9zbWFnYXppbmUuY29tJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDI0JTJGMTElMkZBSU1TMDAwMDA1MjE3XzEyMDAuanBnIiBkYXRhLXc9IjEyMDAiIGRhdGEtaD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=);background-position: 50% 50%" data-position-x="50" data-position-y="50" data-image-width="1200" data-image-height="675"> </span> </a> <div class="article-content padding-1"> <div class="cols-8"> <a class="primary-category cols-1 col-span-7 category nature-color" href="/health/body-and-mind/"> Body and Mind </a> <div class="favourite__wrapper row cols"> <button class="showDialog simplefavorite-button" aria-label="Favourite button"> </button> </div> </div> <a class="title" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/marine-life/summer-2024-impact-great-barrier-reef/" aria-label="Article link"> <h2 class=" ">First “concerning” signs of summer 2024’s impact on Great Barrier Reef</h2> </a> </div> </div> </li> <li class="row read-more-articles__list"> <div class="article article-post"> <a class="thumbnail ar-16-9 md-ar-1-1" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/mangroves-maldives-sea-level-rise/" aria-label="Article link"> <span data-spai-bg-on="1" class="image" style="background-image: url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMjAwIDY3NSIgd2lkdGg9IjEyMDAiIGhlaWdodD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLXU9Imh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGY29zbW9zbWFnYXppbmUuY29tJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDI0JTJGMTElMkZNYW5ncm92ZS1kaWViYWNrLWluLXRoZS1NYWxkaXZlcy0xXzEyMDAuanBnIiBkYXRhLXc9IjEyMDAiIGRhdGEtaD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=);background-position: 50% 50%" data-position-x="50" data-position-y="50" data-image-width="1200" data-image-height="675"> </span> </a> <div class="article-content padding-1"> <div class="cols-8"> <a class="primary-category cols-1 col-span-7 category earth-color" href="/health/body-and-mind/"> Body and Mind </a> <div class="favourite__wrapper row cols"> <button class="showDialog simplefavorite-button" aria-label="Favourite button"> </button> </div> </div> <a class="title" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/mangroves-maldives-sea-level-rise/" aria-label="Article link"> <h2 class=" ">Mangroves ‘drowning’ in Maldives due to sea level rise</h2> </a> </div> </div> </li> <li class="row read-more-articles__list"> <div class="article article-post"> <a class="thumbnail ar-16-9 md-ar-1-1" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/latest-report-fossil-fuel-co2-emissions-reach-record-high-again-in-2024/" aria-label="Article link"> <span data-spai-bg-on="1" class="image" style="background-image: url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAxMjAwIDY3NSIgd2lkdGg9IjEyMDAiIGhlaWdodD0iNjc1IiBkYXRhLXU9Imh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGY29zbW9zbWFnYXppbmUuY29tJTJGd3AtY29udGVudCUyRnVwbG9hZHMlMkYyMDI0JTJGMTElMkZQaWN0dXJlMS5wbmciIGRhdGEtdz0iMTIwMCIgZGF0YS1oPSI2NzUiIGRhdGEtYmlwPSIiPjwvc3ZnPg==);background-position: 50% 50%" data-position-x="50" data-position-y="50" data-image-width="1200" data-image-height="675"> </span> </a> <div class="article-content padding-1"> <div class="cols-8"> <a class="primary-category cols-1 col-span-7 category earth-color" href="/health/body-and-mind/"> Body and Mind </a> <div class="favourite__wrapper row cols"> <button class="showDialog simplefavorite-button" aria-label="Favourite button"> </button> </div> </div> <a class="title" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/latest-report-fossil-fuel-co2-emissions-reach-record-high-again-in-2024/" aria-label="Article link"> <h2 class=" ">Latest report: fossil fuel CO2 emissions reach record high again in 2024</h2> </a> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </aside> </section>  <div class="advert ad-bottom-sticky-mobile ad-mobile auh-50"><div id="adn-00000000001fc737-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <div class="advert ad-post-bottom padding-bottom-4 ad-desktop auh-90"><div id="adn-000000000023d099-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div>  <div class="advert ad-post-bottom padding-bottom-4 ad-mobile auh-250"><div id="adn-000000000023d09a-i0p0" style="display: none"></div></div> <div class="single-post-loadmore-wrap entry-content"> <div id="single-post-load-more-content" class="single-post-loadmore"> </div> <div class="load-more-trigger"> <div id="single-post-load-more-btn" data-page="0" data-single-post-id="294346" class="button-tertiary" data-max-pages="5"> <span id="single-loading-text" class="mt-1 hidden text-sm">Loading next article...</span> </div> </div> </div> </main> </div> <dialog class="favourite__dialog" id="favouriteDialog"> <div class="favourite__dialog__body"> <p>Please login to favourite this article.</p> </div> <div class="favourite__dialog__footer"> <button class="button closeDialog">Close</button> <button class="button loginUrl">Login</button> </div> </dialog><footer class="footer"> <div class="inner-container"> <div class="footer-branding cols-1"> <a class="brand" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCA4MzkgMTUxIiB3aWR0aD0iODM5IiBoZWlnaHQ9IjE1MSIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRkNvc21vc19sb2dvX3doaXRlLnN2ZyIgZGF0YS13PSI4MzkiIGRhdGEtaD0iMTUxIiBkYXRhLWJpcD0iIj48L3N2Zz4=" data-spai="1" alt="Cosmos" width="300"><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/ret_img/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Cosmos_logo_white.svg" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Cosmos" width="300"></noscript> </a> </div> <div class="content cols-4 md-cols-2 sm-cols-1"> <div class="item menu"> <ul id="menu-footer-menu" class="nav"><li id="menu-item-313731" class="menu-item menu-subscribe-now"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/subscribe-now/">Subscribe Now</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1345" class="menu-item menu-about-us"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/about-us/">About Us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1346" class="menu-item menu-faq"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/faq/">FAQ</a></li> <li id="menu-item-1357" class="menu-item menu-terms-of-use"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/terms/">Terms of use</a></li> <li id="menu-item-257148" class="menu-item menu-schools"><a href="https://education.cosmosmagazine.com">Schools</a></li> <li id="menu-item-100218" class="menu-item menu-contact-us"><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contact-us/">Contact us</a></li> <li id="menu-item-239226" class="menu-item menu-privacy-policy"><a rel="privacy-policy" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/privacy/">Privacy Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="item about"> <p class="about">'Cosmos' and 'The Science of Everything' are registered trademarks in Australia and owned by CSIRO. </p> </div> <div class="item contact"> <p>T: 1300 719623 (Australia)<br /> E: <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#6f060109002f0c001c02001c410c1c061d00410e1a"><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="6e070008012e0d011d03011d400d1d071c01400f1b">[email protected]</span></a></p> <p>Address:</p> <p>Cosmos,</p> <p>CSIRO Publishing,</p> <p>PO Box 10041,</p> <p>Adelaide SA 5001</p> <p>Australia</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> </div> <div class="item newsletter"> <a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/OP59" class="newsletter-cta" data-device="desktop"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAzMDAgMjUwIiB3aWR0aD0iMzAwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRldlZWtseS1DYXRjaHVwLTMwMHgyNTAtMS5wbmciIGRhdGEtdz0iMzAwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS1iaXA9IiI+PC9zdmc+" data-spai="1" alt="Newsletter"><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Weekly-Catchup-300x250-1.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Newsletter"></noscript> </a><a href="https://link.cosmosmagazine.com/OP59" class="newsletter-cta" data-device="mobile"> <img src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHZpZXdCb3g9IjAgMCAzMDAgMjUwIiB3aWR0aD0iMzAwIiBoZWlnaHQ9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS11PSIlMkZ3cC1jb250ZW50JTJGdXBsb2FkcyUyRjIwMjQlMkYwMyUyRldlZWtseS1DYXRjaHVwLTMwMHgyNTAtMS5wbmciIGRhdGEtdz0iMzAwIiBkYXRhLWg9IjI1MCIgZGF0YS1iaXA9IiI+PC9zdmc+" data-spai="1" alt="Newsletter"><noscript data-spai="1"><img src="https://cdn.shortpixel.ai/spai/q_lossy+ret_img+to_auto/cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Weekly-Catchup-300x250-1.png" data-spai-egr="1" alt="Newsletter"></noscript> </a> <ul class="social"> <li><a href="https://www.facebook.com/CosmosMagazine/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos Facebook"><svg width="30" height="30"> <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" stroke="#FFF" stroke-width="2"/> <path fill="#FFF" fill-rule="nonzero" d="M18 12.55075h-2.565572V10.5195c0-.6230625.594107-.7675625.8713992-.7675625h1.657358V7.01075L16.063679 7c-2.5916132 0-3.1831276 2.0439375-3.1831276 3.3545v2.1963125H11V15.375h1.8805514V23h2.5538766v-7.625h2.1694815L18 12.55075z"/> </g> </svg> </a></li> <li><a href="https://www.instagram.com/cosmosmagazine/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos Instagram"><svg width="30" height="30"> <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" stroke="#FFF" stroke-width="2"/> <path fill="#FFF" d="M20.6086957 19.533913c0 .5930435-.4817392 1.0730435-1.0730435 1.0730435H10.466087c-.59304352 0-1.07478265-.48-1.07478265-1.0730435V15H11.133913c0 .0034783-.0017391.0052174-.0017391.0086957 0 2.133913 1.7356522 3.8695652 3.8678261 3.8695652 2.133913 0 3.8695652-1.7356522 3.8695652-3.8695652 0-.0034783-.0017391-.0052174-.0017391-.0086957h1.7408696v4.533913zM15 12.44c1.4191304 0 2.5704348 1.1495652 2.5704348 2.5686957 0 1.4191304-1.1513044 2.5704347-2.5704348 2.5704347-1.4191304 0-2.5686957-1.1513043-2.5686957-2.5704347C12.4313043 13.5895652 13.5808696 12.44 15 12.44zm2.573913-.0852174h2.0139131v-2.013913H17.573913v2.013913zM19.5356522 8H10.466087C9.10956522 8 8 9.10956522 8 10.4643478v9.0695652C8 20.8904348 9.10956522 22 10.466087 22h9.0695652C20.8904348 22 22 20.8904348 22 19.533913v-9.0695652C22 9.10956522 20.8904348 8 19.5356522 8z"/> </g> </svg> </a></li> <li><a href="https://twitter.com/CosmosMagazine" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos Twitter"><svg width="30" height="30" viewBox="0 0 30 30" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" fill="none" stroke="white" stroke-width="2" /> <path transform="matrix(0.011189,0,0,0.011189,8.28657,8)" d="M714.163 519.284L1160.89 0H1055.03L667.137 450.887L357.328 0H0L468.492 681.821L0 1226.37H105.866L515.491 750.218L842.672 1226.37H1200L714.137 519.284H714.163ZM569.165 687.828L521.697 619.934L144.011 79.6944H306.615L611.412 515.685L658.88 583.579L1055.08 1150.3H892.476L569.165 687.854V687.828Z" fill="white" /> </g> </svg> </a></li> <li><a href="https://flipboard.com/@CosmosMagazine" target="_blank" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos Flipboard"><svg width="30" height="30"> <g > <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" stroke="#FFF" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2px;"/> <path fill="#FFF" transform="matrix(0.0466667,0,0,0.0466667,3.33333,3.33333)" d="M400,200L300,200L300,300L200,300L200,400L100,400L100,100L400,100L400,200Z"/> </g> </svg> </a></li> <li><a href="https://www.buzzsprout.com/1667224" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos Buzzsprout"><svg width="30" height="30"> <g> <circle cx="15" cy="15" r="14" stroke="#FFF" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2px;"/> <path fill="#FFF" d="M17.354,12.171L18.656,12.171L18.656,13.243C18.653,14.978 17.384,16.416 15.711,16.751L15.711,21.722L14.314,21.722L14.314,16.766C12.599,16.463 11.287,15.007 11.285,13.243L11.285,12.171L12.524,12.171L12.524,11.433L17.354,11.433L17.354,12.171ZM9.497,20.189C11.167,21.86 14.058,21.679 14.058,21.679C14.058,21.679 14.238,18.79 12.567,17.119C10.896,15.448 8.006,15.628 8.006,15.628C8.006,15.628 7.826,18.518 9.497,20.189ZM20.503,20.189C18.832,21.86 15.942,21.679 15.942,21.679C15.942,21.679 15.762,18.79 17.433,17.119C19.104,15.448 21.994,15.628 21.994,15.628C21.994,15.628 22.174,18.518 20.503,20.189ZM12.524,12.854L11.97,12.854L11.97,13.243C11.972,14.614 12.97,15.779 14.314,16.07L14.314,15.349C13.283,15.085 12.524,14.182 12.524,13.109L12.524,12.854ZM17.354,12.854L17.354,13.109C17.354,14.13 16.666,14.997 15.711,15.307L15.711,16.051C17.012,15.73 17.969,14.585 17.971,13.243L17.971,12.854L17.354,12.854ZM17.355,10.319C17.355,9.039 16.273,8 14.939,8C13.606,8 12.524,9.039 12.524,10.319C12.524,11.435 12.524,10.935 12.524,11.157L17.355,11.157L17.355,10.319Z" style="fill-rule:nonzero;"/> </g> </svg> </a></li> <li><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="nofollow noopener" class="primary-svg-fill-hover" aria-label="Cosmos RSS feed"><svg width="30" height="30"> <defs/> <path fill="#FFF" fill-rule="nonzero" d="M15.0643691 0c8.2842713 0 15 6.71572875 15 15 0 8.2842712-6.7157287 15-15 15C6.7800979 30 .06436914 23.2842712.06436914 15c0-8.28427125 6.71572876-15 14.99999996-15zm0 2C7.8846674 2 2.06436914 7.82029825 2.06436914 15c0 7.1797017 5.82029826 13 12.99999996 13 7.1797018 0 13-5.8202983 13-13 0-7.17970175-5.8202982-13-13-13zM9.61448773 17.7505929c1.13224927 0 2.05011857.9178694 2.05011857 2.0501186s-.9178693 2.0501186-2.05011857 2.0501186c-1.13224923 0-2.05011859-.9178694-2.05011859-2.0501186s.91786936-2.0501186 2.05011859-2.0501186zm-2.05011859-5.4666412c5.18400766 0 9.41858876 4.1452018 9.56306776 9.2949295l.0038106.2719489h-2.7328081c0-3.6896155-2.939535-6.7050347-6.59949854-6.8290758l-.23457172-.0039695v-2.7338331zm0-4.7839517c7.80933326 0 14.18116996 6.2690823 14.34749786 14.0392347l.0033322.3115954h-2.732808c0-6.3080572-5.0522841-11.4563946-11.32319518-11.6133119l-.29482688-.0036851V7.5z"/> </svg></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </footer> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script> const paywallButton = document.querySelector('.wp-block-button__link'); function paywall_click_datalayer() { dataLayer.push({ 'event': 'paywall_click', 'paywall_name': '', 'page_location': 'https://cosmosmagazine.com/synergy/climate-energy-numbers/' }); } if (paywallButton) { paywallButton.addEventListener('click', function() { paywall_click_datalayer(); }); } </script> <script> let previousMobileDevice = isMobileDevice(); // Request ads on page resize window.addEventListener('resize', function() { clearTimeout(window.resizedFinished); window.resizedFinished = setTimeout(function() { if (previousMobileDevice === isMobileDevice()) { return; } adUnitsServed = []; previousMobileDevice = isMobileDevice(); adUnitsServed = requestThirdPartyAds(adUnits, adUnitsServed); }, 1000); }); /** Handle loadmore article */ const handleLoadmore = (mutationsList) => { for (let mutation of mutationsList) { if (mutation.type === 'childList') { for (let addedNode of mutation.addedNodes) { if (addedNode.nodeType === Node.ELEMENT_NODE && addedNode.matches('section.article-container')) { // Fixed the selector here clearTimeout(window.domHeightChangeFinished); window.domHeightChangeFinished = setTimeout(() => { // console.log('The specific <section> was added!'); adUnitsServed = requestThirdPartyAds(adUnits, adUnitsServed); }, 250); } } } } }; const loadmoreNode = document.getElementById('single-post-load-more-content'); if (loadmoreNode) { const observer = new MutationObserver(handleLoadmore); observer.observe(loadmoreNode, { childList: true, subtree: false // This is set false because we only want to observe direct children of the target node }); } /** END: Handle loadmore article */ // Prevents the page from jumping when the ad loads adUnitsServed.forEach(function(adUnit) { let adUnitDiv = document.getElementById(adUnit.targetId); let adUnitDivParentClass = adUnitDiv.parentNode.className; if (!adUnitDiv || adUnitDivParentClassArray.includes(adUnitDivParentClass)) { return; } adUnitDivParentClassArray.push(adUnitDivParentClass); let adUnitDivStyle = window.getComputedStyle(adUnitDiv); let adUnitDivHeight = parseInt(adUnit.auH) + parseInt(adUnitDivStyle.marginTop) + parseInt(adUnitDivStyle.marginBottom) + parseInt(adUnitDivStyle.paddingTop) + parseInt(adUnitDivStyle.paddingBottom); let style = document.createElement('style'); style.type = 'text/css'; style.innerHTML = '.' + adUnitDivParentClass.replace(/ /g, '.') + ' { min-height: ' + adUnitDivHeight + 'px; }'; document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(style); }); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> (function () { var c = document.body.className; c = c.replace(/woocommerce-no-js/, 'woocommerce-js'); document.body.className = c; })(); </script> <script type='text/javascript' id='metorik-js-js-extra'> /* <![CDATA[ */ var metorik_params = {"lifetime":"6","session":"30","ajaxurl":"https:\/\/cosmosmagazine.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","cart_tracking":"1","cart_items":"0","cart_checkout_button":"1","add_cart_popup_placement":"bottom","send_cart_events":"added_to_cart removed_from_cart updated_cart_totals updated_shipping_method applied_coupon removed_coupon updated_checkout","sbjs_domain":"","send_cart_fragments":"1"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script defer src="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/cache/minify/ddaa7.js?x75256"></script> <script type='text/javascript' id='sage/main.js-js-extra'> /* <![CDATA[ */ var mainScript = {"ajaxUrl":"https:\/\/cosmosmagazine.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","ajax_nonce":"0d9860deed","is_user_logged_in":""}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script src="/wp-content/themes/cosmos/dist/scripts/main.js?x75256&v=2bb182da"></script><script type='text/javascript' id='loadmore-js-extra'> /* <![CDATA[ */ var siteConfig = {"ajaxUrl":"https:\/\/cosmosmagazine.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","ajax_nonce":"1eb733812b"}; /* ]]> */ </script> <script defer src="https://cosmosmagazine.com/wp-content/cache/minify/fef85.js?x75256"></script> <script src="https://cdn.onesignal.com/sdks/OneSignalSDK.js?ver=6.3.5" async="async"></script> </div> </body> </html>