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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Thought collective</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thought_collective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conceptual_framework" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conceptual_framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conceptual framework</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conceptual_framework-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conceptual framework subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conceptual_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Cognitive field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Science field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protoscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protoscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Protoscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protoscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_stages_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_stages_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Developmental stages of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_stages_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_protoscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_protoscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Origin of protoscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_protoscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protoscience_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protoscience_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Protoscience examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Protoscience_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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</a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoci%C3%A8ncia" title="Protociència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protociència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protov%C4%9Bda" title="Protověda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Protověda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protowissenschaft" title="Protowissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Protowissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototeadus" title="Prototeadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prototeadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7" title="Πρωτοεπιστήμη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτοεπιστήμη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protociencia" title="Protociencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Protociencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prascienco" title="Prascienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Prascienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozientzia" title="Protozientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Protozientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Protoscience" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protociencia" title="Protociencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Protociencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protosains" title="Protosains – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Protosains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoscienza" title="Protoscienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Protoscienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protosains" title="Protosains – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Protosains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protowetenschap" title="Protowetenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Protowetenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%88%E3%82%B5%E3%82%A4%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9" title="プロトサイエンス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プロトサイエンス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protovitenskap" title="Protovitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Protovitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonauka" title="Protonauka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Protonauka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoci%C3%AAncia" title="Protociência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Protociência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto%C8%99tiin%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Protoștiință – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Protoștiință" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Протонаука – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Протонаука" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoshkenca" title="Protoshkenca – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Protoshkenca" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Протонаука – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Протонаука" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esitiede" title="Esitiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Esitiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protovetenskap" title="Protovetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Protovetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Research field with some scientific qualities</div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <b>protoscience</b> is a research field that has the characteristics of an undeveloped <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> that may ultimately develop into an established science. Philosophers use protoscience to understand the history of science and distinguish protoscience from science and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word roots <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proto-#Prefix" class="extiw" title="wikt:proto-">proto-</a></i> + <i><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a></i> indicate first science. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protoscience as a research field with the characteristics of an undeveloped science appeared in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1910_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1910-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 94">: 94 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHobhouse1915_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobhouse1915-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> In 1910, Jones described economics: </p> <dl><dd>I confess to a personal predilection for some term such as proto-science, pre-science, or nas-science, to give expression to what I conceive to be the true state of affairs, which I take to be this, that economics and kindred subjects are not sciences, but are on the way to become sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1910_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1910-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> later provided a more precise description, protoscience as a field that generates testable conclusions, faces "incessant criticism and continually strive for a fresh start", but currently, like <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, appears to have failed to progress in a way similar to the progress seen in the established sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 244">: 244 </span></sup> He applies protoscience to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">crafts</a> in the past that ultimately became established sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> Philosophers later developed more precise criteria to identify protoscience using the <em>cognitive field</em> concept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 202–203">: 202–203 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–90">: 89–90 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thought_collective">Thought collective</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Thought collective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thought_collective" title="Thought collective">Thought collective</a></div> <dl><dd><i>This material is from <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck#Thought_collective" title="Ludwik Fleck">Ludwik Fleck § Thought collective</a></i></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> later discovered that Fleck 1935 had voiced concepts that predated Kuhn's own work. That is, Fleck wrote that the development of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> in scientific research was an unattainable ideal as different researchers were locked into thought collectives (or thought-styles). This means "that a pure and direct observation cannot exist: in the act of perceiving objects the observer, i.e. the epistemological subject, is always influenced by the epoch and the environment to which he belongs, that is by what Fleck calls the thought style".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiwecka2011_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiwecka2011-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thought style throughout Fleck's work is closely associated with representational style. A "fact" was a relative value, expressed in the language or symbolism of the thought collective in which it belonged, and subject to the social and temporal structure of this collective. He argued, however, that within the active cultural style of a thought collective, knowledge claims or facts were constrained by passive elements arising from the observations and experience of the natural world. This passive resistance of natural experience represented within the stylized means of the thought collective could be verified by anyone adhering to the culture of the thought collective, and thus facts could be agreed upon within any particular thought style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck1979101–102_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979101–102-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus while a fact may be verifiable within its own collective, it may be unverifiable in others. He felt that the development of scientific facts and concepts was not unidirectional and does not consist of just accumulating new pieces of information, but at times required changing older concepts, methods of observations, and forms of representation. This changing of prior knowledge is difficult because a collective attains over time a specific way of investigating, bringing with it a blindness to alternative ways of observing and conceptualization. Change was especially possible when members of two thought collectives met and cooperated in observing, formulating hypothesis and ideas. He strongly advocated comparative epistemology. He also notes some features of the culture of modern natural sciences that recognize provisionality and evolution of knowledge along the value of pursuit of passive resistances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck1979118–120,_142–145_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979118–120,_142–145-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach anticipated later developments in <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a>, and especially the development of critical <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conceptual_framework">Conceptual framework</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conceptual framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_field">Cognitive field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cognitive field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers describe protoscience using the <em>cognitive field</em> concept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175, 202–03">: 175, 202–03 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 88">: 88 </span></sup> In every society, there are fields of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> (cognitive fields).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175">: 175 </span></sup> The cognitive field consists of a community of individuals within a society with a domain of inquiry, a philosophical worldview, logical/mathematical tools, specific background knowledge from neighboring fields, a set of problems investigated, accumulated knowledge from the community, aims and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 202–03">: 202–03 </span></sup> Cognitive fields are either <em>belief fields</em> or <em>research fields</em>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 202–03">: 202–03 </span></sup> A cognitive research field invariably changes over time due to research; research fields include natural sciences, applied sciences, mathematics, technology, medicine, jurisprudence, social sciences and the humanities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175">: 175 </span></sup> A belief field (faith field) is "a cognitive field which either does not change at all or changes due to factors other than research (such as economic interest, political or religious pressure, or brute violence)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175">: 175 </span></sup> Belief fields include political ideology, religion, pseudodoctrines and pseudoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_field">Science field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Science field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <em>science field</em> is a research field that satisfies 12 conditions: i) all components of the science field invariably change over time from research in the field, especially logical/mathematical tools and specific background/presuppositions from other fields, ii) the research community has special training, "hold strong information links", initiates or continues the "tradition of inquiry" iii) researchers have autonomy to pursue research and receive support from the host society, iv) the researchers worldview is the real world as contains "lawfully changing concrete" objects, an adequate view of the scientific method, a vision of organized science achieving truthfull descriptions and explanations, ethical principles for conducting research, and the free search for truthful, deep and systematic understanding, v) up-to-date logical/mathematical tools precisely determine and process information, vi) the domain of research are real objects/entities, vii) specific background knowledge is up-to-date, confirmed data, hypotheses and theories from relevant neighboring fields, viii) the set of problems investigated are from the domain of inquiry or within the research field, ix) the accumulated knowledge includes worldview-compatible, up-to-date testworthy/testable theories, hypotheses and data, and special knowledge previously accumlated in the research field, x) the aims are find and apply laws and theories in the domain of inquiry, systemize acquired knonwledge, generalized information into theories, and improve research methods, xi) appropriate scientific methods are "subject to test, correction and justification", xii) the research field is connected with a wider research field with similar capable researchers capable of "scientific inference, action and discussion", similar hosting society, a domain of inquiry containing the domain of inquiry of the narrower field, and shared worldview, logical/mathematical tools, background knowledge, accumulated knowledge, aims and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–90">: 89–90 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protoscience">Protoscience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Protoscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophers define protoscience as an undeveloped science field, undeveloped meaning an incomplete or approximate science field. <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a> defined a protoscience as a research field that approximately satisfies a similar set of the 12 science conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 202–03">: 202–03 </span></sup> A protoscience that is evolving to ultimately satisfy all 12 conditions is an <em>emerging</em> or <em>developing</em> science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 203">: 203 </span></sup> Bunge states, "The difference between protoscience and pseudoscience parallels that between error and deception."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 203">: 203 </span></sup> A protoscience may not survive or evolve to a science or <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 253">: 253 </span></sup> Kuhn was skeptical about any remedy that would reliably transform a protoscience to a science stating, "I claim no therapy to assist the transformation of a proto-science to a science, nor do I suppose anything of this sort is to be had."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 245">: 245 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Raimo_Tuomela" title="Raimo Tuomela">Raimo Tuomela</a> defined a protoscience as a research field that satisfies 9 of the 12 science conditions; a protoscience fails to satisfy the up-to-date conditions for logic/mathematical tools, specific background knowledge from neighboring fields, and accumulated knowledge (v, vii, ix), and there is reason to believe the protoscience will ultimately satisfy all 12 conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> Protosciences and belief fields are both non-science fields, but only a protoscience can become a science field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> Tuomela emphasizes that the cognitive field concept refers to "ideal types" and there may be some persons within a science field with non-scientific "attitudes, thinking and actions"; therefore, it may be better to apply scientific and non-scientific to "attitudes, thinking and actions" rather than directly to cognitive fields.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92">: 92 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developmental_stages_of_science">Developmental stages of science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Developmental stages of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bunge stated that protoscience may occur as the second stage of a five-stage process in the development of science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup> Each stage has a theoretical and empirical aspect:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li><em>Prescience</em> has unchecked speculation theory and unchecked data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup></li> <li><em>Protoscience</em> has hypotheses without theory accompanied by observation and occasional measurement, but no experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup></li> <li><em>Deuteroscience</em> has hypotheses formulated mathematically without theory accompanied by systematic measurement, and experiment on perceptible traits of perceptible objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup></li> <li><em>Tritoscience</em> has mathematical models accompanied by systematic measurements and experiments on perceptible and imperceptible traits of perceptible and imperceptible objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup></li> <li><em>Tetartoscience</em> has mathematical models and comprehensive theories accompanied by precise systematic measurements and experiments on perceptible and imperceptible traits of perceptible and imperceptible objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 160">: 160 </span></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_protoscience">Origin of protoscience</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Origin of protoscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protoscience may arise from the philosophical inquiry that anticipates science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> Philosophers anticipated the development of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (610–546 BC) viewed the earth as a non-moving free-floating cylinder in space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> The atomist doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> (460–370 BC) to <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (341–270 BC) was that objects were composed of non-visible small particles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> Anaximander had anticipated that humans may have developed from more primitive organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein’s</a> study of language preceded the linguistic studies of <a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a> describes how scientific theory arises from myths such as atomism and the corpuscular theory of light.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper2002_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper2002-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 347">: 347 </span></sup> Popper states that the Copernican system was "inspired by a Neo-Platonic worship of the light of the Sun who had to occupy the center because of his nobility", leading to "testable components" that ultimately became "fruitful and important."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper2002_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper2002-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 347">: 347 </span></sup> </p><p>Some scholars use the term <em>"primitive protoscience"</em> to describe ancient myths that help explain natural phenomena at a time prior to the development of the scientific method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2021_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2021-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protoscience_examples">Protoscience examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Protoscience examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_science">Physical science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physical science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ancient astronomical protoscience was recorded as astronomical images and records inscribed on stones, bones and cave walls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwens2014_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwens2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Luigi Ferdinando Marsili (1658–1730) contributed to protoscience <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a>, describing the ocean currents of the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">physical oceanography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> contributed by identifying the currents of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwens2014_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwens2014-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Philosophers consider <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> before <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> before <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a>, medicine before <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Virchow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Bernard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> before the mid-eighteenth century, and the study of <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogeny</a> before the mid-nineteenth century as protosciences that eventually became established science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 253">: 253 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 244">: 244 </span></sup></li> <li>Prior to 1905, leading scientists, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Ostwald</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Mach</a>, viewed atomic and molecular-kinetic theory as a protoscience, a theory indirectly supported by <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">statistical thermodynamics</a>; however, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein's</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin's</a> experimental verification led to widespread acceptance of atomic and molecular-kinetic theory as established science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 253">: 253 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewburghPeidleRueckner2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewburghPeidleRueckner2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The early stage of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Wegener's</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, was a protoscience until experimental research confirmed the theory many years later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 100">: 100 </span></sup> The initial widespread rejection of Wegener's theory is an example of the importance of not dismissing a protoscience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 100">: 100 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOreskesLe_Grand2001_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOreskesLe_Grand2001-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 7">: 7 </span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics state that <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> is a protoscience because some practices occur that prevent falsification of research hypotheses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeeneFerguson2017_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeeneFerguson2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> <em><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a></em> and <em>coaching psychology</em> are protosciences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESehon1997_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESehon1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrantCavanagh2007_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrantCavanagh2007-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of scientifically invalid <a href="/wiki/Biomarker_(medicine)" title="Biomarker (medicine)">biomarkers</a> to identify adverse outcomes is a protoscience practice in medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimesSchulzRaymond2010_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimesSchulzRaymond2010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process for reporting adverse medical events is a protoscience because it relies on uncorroborated data and unsystematic methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplanBarach2002_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplanBarach2002-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hatleback describes <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">cybersecurity</a> as a protoscience that lacks transparency in experimentation, scientific laws, and sound experimental design in some cases; however cybersecurity has the potential to become a science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatleback2018_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatleback2018-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodical_culturalism" title="Methodical culturalism">Methodical culturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsolete_scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsolete scientific theories">Obsolete scientific theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuomela1987-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuomela1987_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTuomela1987">Tuomela 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1910-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1910_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1910_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1910">Jones 1910</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobhouse1915-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHobhouse1915_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHobhouse1915">Hobhouse 1915</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhn1970_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuhn1970">Kuhn 1970</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge1983-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge1983_5-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunge1983">Bunge 1983</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiwecka2011-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiwecka2011_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiwecka2011">Siwecka 2011</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSiwecka2011 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979101–102-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck1979101–102_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck 1979</a>, pp. 101–102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleck1979118–120,_142–145-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleck1979118–120,_142–145_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFleck1979">Fleck 1979</a>, pp. 118–120, 142–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunge2010-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBunge2010_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunge2010">Bunge 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECosta2014-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosta2014_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCosta2014">Costa 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopper2002-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper2002_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopper2002_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPopper2002">Popper 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2021-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2021_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2021">Johnson 2021</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwens2014-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwens2014_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwens2014_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwens2014">Owens 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewburghPeidleRueckner2006-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewburghPeidleRueckner2006_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewburghPeidleRueckner2006">Newburgh, Peidle & Rueckner 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOreskesLe_Grand2001-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOreskesLe_Grand2001_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOreskesLe_Grand2001">Oreskes & Le Grand 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeeneFerguson2017-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeeneFerguson2017_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeeneFerguson2017">Heene & Ferguson 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESehon1997-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESehon1997_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSehon1997">Sehon 1997</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrantCavanagh2007-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrantCavanagh2007_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrantCavanagh2007">Grant & Cavanagh 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimesSchulzRaymond2010-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimesSchulzRaymond2010_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrimesSchulzRaymond2010">Grimes, Schulz & Raymond 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplanBarach2002-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaplanBarach2002_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaplanBarach2002">Kaplan & Barach 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatleback2018-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatleback2018_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatleback2018">Hatleback 2018</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBullivantRuse2021" class="citation book cs1">Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael (2021). <i>The Cambridge history of atheism</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-68899-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-68899-4"><bdi>978-1-108-68899-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+atheism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-68899-4&rft.aulast=Bullivant&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Ruse%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1983" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, Mario (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingwor0000bung"><i>Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World</i></a></span>. Treatise on Basic Philosophy. Vol. 6. Dordrecht: Reidel. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-015-6921-7">10.1007/978-94-015-6921-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-1634-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-277-1634-X"><bdi>90-277-1634-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9759870">9759870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+%26+Methodology+II%3A+Understanding+the+World&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Treatise+on+Basic+Philosophy&rft.pub=Reidel&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9759870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-015-6921-7&rft.isbn=90-277-1634-X&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingwor0000bung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge2010" class="citation book cs1">Bunge, Mario (2010). <i>Matter and Mind: a philosophical inquiry</i>. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. Vol. 287. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9225-0">10.1007/978-90-481-9225-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048192243" title="Special:BookSources/9789048192243"><bdi>9789048192243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+Mind%3A+a+philosophical+inquiry&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.series=Boston+studies+in+the+philosophy+of+science&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-9225-0&rft.isbn=9789048192243&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1984" class="citation magazine cs1">Bunge, Mario (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.centerforinquiry.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/29/1984/10/22165343/p38.pdf">"What is pseudoscience?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Skeptical Inquirer</i>. Vol. 9. pp. 36–46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=What+is+pseudoscience%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=36-46&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdn.centerforinquiry.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F29%2F1984%2F10%2F22165343%2Fp38.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosta2014" class="citation book cs1">Costa, Claudio F. (2014). <i>Lines of thought : rethinking philosophical assumptions</i>. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-5349-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-5349-1"><bdi>978-1-4438-5349-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lines+of+thought+%3A+rethinking+philosophical+assumptions&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-5349-1&rft.aulast=Costa&rft.aufirst=Claudio+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrantCavanagh2007" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Anthony M.; Cavanagh, Michael J. (2007). "Evidence-based coaching: Flourishing or languishing?". <i>Australian Psychologist</i>. <b>42</b> (4): 239–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00050060701648175">10.1080/00050060701648175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Evidence-based+coaching%3A+Flourishing+or+languishing%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=239-254&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00050060701648175&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Anthony+M.&rft.au=Cavanagh%2C+Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleck1935" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck, Ludwik</a> (1935). <i>Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache - Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv</i> (in German). Basel: Schwabe und Co., Verlagsbuchhandlung. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/257469753">257469753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Entstehung+und+Entwicklung+einer+wissenschaftlichen+Tatsache+-+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+die+Lehre+vom+Denkstil+und+Denkkollektiv&rft.place=Basel&rft.pub=Schwabe+und+Co.%2C+Verlagsbuchhandlung&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F257469753&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleck1979" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck, Ludwik</a> (1979), <i><a href="/wiki/Thought_collective#Genesis_and_Development_of_a_Scientific_Fact" title="Thought collective">Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact</a></i>, Univ. of Chicago, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1"><bdi>978-0-226-25325-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+a+Scientific+Fact&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-226-25325-1&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span>. (written in German, 1935, <i>Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv</i>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0KAGUpaUaGYC&q=Ludwik+Fleck">English translation by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Fred Bradley, 1979</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406020601/https://books.google.com/books?id=0KAGUpaUaGYC&q=Ludwik+Fleck">Archived</a> 2023-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. Foreword by Robert K. Merton</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimesSchulzRaymond2010" class="citation journal cs1">Grimes, David A.; Schulz, Kenneth F.; Raymond, Elizabeth G. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2009.12.054">"Surrogate end points in women's health research: science, protoscience, and pseudoscience"</a>. <i>Fertility and Sterility</i>. <b>93</b> (6): 1731–1734. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2009.12.054">10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.12.054</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20153470">20153470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fertility+and+Sterility&rft.atitle=Surrogate+end+points+in+women%27s+health+research%3A+science%2C+protoscience%2C+and+pseudoscience&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1731-1734&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2009.12.054&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20153470&rft.aulast=Grimes&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=Schulz%2C+Kenneth+F.&rft.au=Raymond%2C+Elizabeth+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.fertnstert.2009.12.054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatleback2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hatleback, Eric N (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1548512917737635">"The protoscience of cybersecurity"</a>. <i>The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 5–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1548512917737635">10.1177/1548512917737635</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:64688425">64688425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Defense+Modeling+and+Simulation%3A+Applications%2C+Methodology%2C+Technology&rft.atitle=The+protoscience+of+cybersecurity&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-12&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1548512917737635&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A64688425%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hatleback&rft.aufirst=Eric+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1548512917737635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobhouse1915" class="citation book cs1">Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawny (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s31YAAAAMAAJ&dq=proto-science+morals+in+evolution&pg=PA41"><i>Morals in Evolution: A Study in Comparative Ethics</i></a>. 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"Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience". In Pitt, Joseph C.; Pera, Marcello (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6"><i>Rational Changes in Science : Essays on Scientific Reasoning</i></a>. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. 98. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 83–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-009-3779-6">10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9400937802" title="Special:BookSources/978-9400937802"><bdi>978-9400937802</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science%2C+Protoscience%2C+and+Pseudoscience&rft.btitle=Rational+Changes+in+Science+%3A+Essays+on+Scientific+Reasoning&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Boston+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.pages=83-102&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-3779-6&rft.isbn=978-9400937802&rft.aulast=Tuomela&rft.aufirst=Raimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-3779-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper2002" class="citation book cs1">Popper, Karl R. (2002). <i>Conjectures and refutations : the growth of scientific knowledge</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28593-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28593-3"><bdi>0-415-28593-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+refutations+%3A+the+growth+of+scientific+knowledge&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-28593-3&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSehon1997" class="citation journal cs1">Sehon, Scott R. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20009903">"Natural-Kind Terms and the Status of Folk Psychology"</a>. <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>34</b> (3): 333–344. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0481">0003-0481</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20009903">20009903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Natural-Kind+Terms+and+the+Status+of+Folk+Psychology&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=333-344&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20009903%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0003-0481&rft.aulast=Sehon&rft.aufirst=Scott+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20009903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107043502/http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/moller.html">"Questions to help distinguish a pseudoscience from a protoscience"</a>. 7 January 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/moller.html">the original</a> on 2012-01-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Questions+to+help+distinguish+a+pseudoscience+from+a+protoscience&rft.date=2012-01-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phy.syr.edu%2Fcourses%2Fmodules%2FPSEUDO%2Fmoller.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProtoscience" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 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.plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/protoscience" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:protoscience">protoscience</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> 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science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&oldid=1222330815">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protoscience&oldid=1222330815</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">History of science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_method" title="Category:Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 5 May 2024, at 11:09<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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