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data-v-083a86ac data-v-082d4ac8 data-v-082d4ac8><span data-v-083a86ac><a href="/author/rene-roca/" title="Deutsch" lang="de-DE" class="language" data-v-083a86ac><span data-v-083a86ac>de</span></a><a href="/fr/author/rene-roca/" title="Français" lang="fr-FR" class="language" data-v-083a86ac><span data-v-083a86ac>fr</span></a><a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" title="English" lang="en-GB" class="language nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active active" data-v-083a86ac><span data-v-083a86ac>en</span></a></span></div> </nav>  <main data-fetch-key="data-v-ecdb438c:0" tabindex="-1" class="author-view" data-v-ecdb438c data-v-00263075><section class="snm-author-info" data-v-64f90143 data-v-ecdb438c><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-300x300.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-150x150.jpg 150w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-160x160.jpg 160w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca-320x320.jpg 320w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/reneroca.jpg 400w" alt="René Roca" class="image" data-v-64f90143> <h1 class="name" data-v-64f90143><span data-v-64f90143>René Roca</span></h1> <p class="description" data-v-64f90143>René Roca has a PhD in history and is a secondary school teacher and Director of the Research Institute for Direct Democracy <a class="link decoration" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://fidd.ch/">fidd.ch</a>.</p> <div class="info" data-v-64f90143> </div></section> <section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2024/09/direct-democracy-in-the-free-state-of-the-three-leagues/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Direct democracy in the Free State of the Three Leagues</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>19.09.2024</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Direct democracy was already practised in the area that is now Graubünden over 500 years ago.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/drei-bunde.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/drei-bunde-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="Three Leagues, one Free State. Graubünden’s past is more democratic than you might think. Illustration by Marco Heer" class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:62.6%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="350" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2023/06/the-confederations-policy-of-concordance/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>The Confederation's policy of concordance</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>02.06.2023</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>The Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-300x229.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1536x1173.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-450x344.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-750x573.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-900x687.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-600x458.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1500x1146.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1200x917.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/Politischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-300x229.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="Helvetia, enthroned in the centre, is crowned with a laurel wreath as she brandishes the new Federal Constitution. Instead of the usual allegories, she is flanked on both sides by citizens depicted in military uniform and in civilian dress, embodying the people as the supreme political authority." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2022/05/direct-democracy-in-switzerland/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Direct democracy in Switzerland</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>13.05.2022</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Of all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/on-vote-titel.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/on-vote-titel-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="On voting weekends, posters like this one summon voters to the ballot box." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:68%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="350" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2021/09/using-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Using the ‘magic formula’ to achieve concordance</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>15.09.2021</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century. </span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/extra-muros-2013-prangins-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="The Federal Council on the occasion of its “extra muros” meeting on April 24, 2013 together with the Vaudois government and the Nyon municipal council in the Château de Prangins." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="0" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2021/01/switzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Switzerland and the USA: sister republics</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>20.01.2021</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-450x338.jpg 450w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-750x563.jpg 750w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-900x675.jpg 900w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-600x450.jpg 600w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg 1600w" src="/app/uploads/titel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848." class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section><section data-aos="woosh" data-aos-delay="350" class="snm-post-teaser horizontal" data-v-d7720576 data-v-ecdb438c><h2 class="title" data-v-d7720576><a href="/en/2019/10/militia-system-in-switzerland/" data-v-d7720576><span data-v-d7720576>Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system</span> <svg fill="none" viewBox="0 0 24 24" preserveAspectRatio="xMidYMid meet" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-arrow-right" data-v-d7720576><path fill="#D44625" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.42 13H2v-2h16.42L14 6.374 15.312 5 22 12l-6.688 7L14 17.626 18.42 13z" clip-rule="evenodd" data-v-d7720576></path></svg></a></h2> <a href="/en/author/rene-roca/" aria-current="page" class="author nuxt-link-exact-active nuxt-link-active no-link" data-v-d7720576>René Roca</a> <span class="date" data-v-d7720576>18.10.2019</span> <span class="excerpt" data-v-d7720576>Even today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. But what does the term ‘militia’ actually mean? And how did this system come about?</span> <figure class="image-container" style="--aspect-ratio:(4/3);" data-v-d7720576><img srcset="https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/10/Miliz_Titel-300x157.jpg 300w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/10/Miliz_Titel-768x401.jpg 768w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/10/Miliz_Titel-1024x535.jpg 1024w, https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/app/uploads/2019/10/Miliz_Titel-1500x783.jpg 1500w" src="/app/uploads/2019/10/Miliz_Titel-300x157.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 399px) 400px, (max-width: 799px) 800px, 500px" alt="" class="image" style="--x:50%;--y:50%;" data-v-d7720576></figure> </section>  </main>   <footer data-aos="woosh" class="footer" data-v-2d105d9d data-v-00263075><div class="center" data-v-2d105d9d><address data-aos="woosh" class="address" data-v-2d105d9d><h5 class="address-title" data-v-2d105d9d>Address & contact</h5> <div data-v-2d105d9d>Swiss National Museum</div> <div data-v-2d105d9d>Landesmuseum Zürich<br /> Museumstrasse 2<br /> P.O. 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https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EDirect democracy in the Free State of the Three Leagues – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Direct democracy was already practised in the area that is now Graubünden over 500 years ago.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F09\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-the-free-state-of-the-three-leagues\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Direct democracy in the Free State of the Three Leagues\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Direct democracy was already practised in the area that is now Graubünden over 500 years ago.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F09\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-the-free-state-of-the-three-leagues\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - 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Graubünden’s past is more democratic than you might think. Illustration by Marco Heer\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";cF.lang=C;cF.translations={en:a$,de:142637,fr:153777};cF.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aH,blockData:{image:{id:cI,url:cJ,alt:aQ,title:aQ,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:j,y:cK},source:{title:a,url:a},srcset:cL,poster:cM,square:cN},video:h,videoMobile:h,title:ba,caption:aQ,lead:cO,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"What happened in the \u003Cem\u003EFree State of the Three Leagues\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, in other words what is now Graubünden, plus the Italian valley communities of Valtellina, Chiavenna and Bormio from the late Middle Ages, was unique in the Alpine region: the emergence of a complex, democratic structure. All important political decisions were ratified by the will of the people in the communes. The Free State was therefore an exception in Europe at the time and – like other cantons too – played an important part in the democratisation and development of direct democracy in Switzerland."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142658,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte.jpg",alt:bv,title:bv,height:1124,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:cP,url:cQ},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-300x281.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-450x422.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-750x703.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-900x843.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-600x562.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-300x281.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ffreistaat-der-drei-bunde-karte-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bv,source:{title:cP,url:cQ}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Pre-modern democracy in Graubünden",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The mountainous and upland landscape of the Free State was broken up by some 150 valleys, dividing the settlement areas into valley communities. This allowed regional traditions to develop from the Early Middle Ages, but medieval society was also shaped by outside influences. Because of the natural environment, the Free State was divided into quite small and localised areas, which meant that inhabitants had to solve problems autonomously in alliances with small village communities and communes. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003Ecooperatives\u003C\u002Fa\u003E were therefore of paramount importance, from the valley floors to the mountain pastures.\r\n\r\nCommon property (or \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F07\u002Frueti-and-schwand-indicate-historical-clear-felling-of-forests\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003EAllmend\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) was ubiquitous and ensured that mountains, forests, waterways and meadows remained the property of the communes. Village mayors usually supervised the maintenance of this common property, relying on a set of village by-laws, which could be individually defined by each neighbourhood or commune. Parishes were also established on this cooperative basis, which is why from the 14th century we can talk of an evolution from church subjects to parishioners. This tendency to develop autonomous parishes soon led to a curbing of the bishop’s powers. Over time, the parishes, which were organised by neighbourhood, gained more of a say and were involved in the election of priests."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142740,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden.jpg",alt:bw,title:bw,height:cR,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:cS},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-1173x1536.jpg 1173w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-344x450.jpg 344w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-573x750.jpg 573w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-687x900.jpg 687w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-458x600.jpg 458w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-1146x1500.jpg 1146w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-917x1200.jpg 917w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-229x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandschaft-graubunden-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bw,source:{title:s,url:cS}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"In general, it is clear that territorialisation in the Late Middle Ages was determined by communal movements, which in turn laid the foundation for political communes and subsequent democratisation. Against this backdrop, a key sociopolitical structural change took place in the 13th and 14th centuries: as the communes succeeded in securing more and more manorial rights, feudal rule over land and people diminished, and aristocratic territorial rulers increasingly had to cede power.\r\n\r\nNoble territorial rule was quickly replaced by new social and political ruling classes, and the grouping of autonomous judicial communities led to the creation of early political entities. Over time, the communes and judicial communities formed a system of alliances that was characterised by strong decentralisation. In the 14th and 15th centuries, three Leagues thus emerged, which were based on shared values such as independence and democratic structures, and which were not genealogically defined. In many cases, the local nobility was not completely driven out, joining forces instead with the free peasants and citizens to form alliances."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:143889,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis.jpg",alt:bx,title:bx,height:1562,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:cT},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-230x300.jpg 230w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-1180x1536.jpg 1180w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-346x450.jpg 346w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-576x750.jpg 576w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-691x900.jpg 691w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-461x600.jpg 461w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-1152x1500.jpg 1152w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-922x1200.jpg 922w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-230x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fulysses-von-salis-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bx,source:{title:s,url:cT}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"League of God’s House, Grey League, League of the Ten Jurisdictions",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"This is how the \u003Cem\u003EFree State of the Three Leagues\u003C\u002Fem\u003E came into being on the territory that is now Graubünden. The \u003Cem\u003ELeague of God’s House\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was founded in 1367 to resist the rising power of the sitting bishop and to stave off impending threats, such as the selling-off of basic rights to Austria. The cathedral chapter, valley communities, citizens of Chur and ministeriales therefore formed a sort of alliance of necessity and gained significant influence over the administration of the bishopric of Chur.\r\n\r\nThe League explicitly entailed the right for valley communities to have a say. These valley communities then emerged as ever clearer bearers of political power, increasingly undermining the power of the bishopric. The \u003Cem\u003EUpper or Grey League\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, formed in 1395 and re-organised in 1424, saw the abbot of Disentis, the baron of Rhäzüns and count of Sax-Misox join forces with the valley communes to safeguard peace, transport routes and therefore economic prosperity. The communes of the \u003Cem\u003EGrey League\u003C\u002Fem\u003E thus gained a significant say in decision-making over the three aforementioned senior figures.\r\n\r\nThe \u003Cem\u003ELeague of the Ten Jurisdictions\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, which was founded in 1436, was based on the alliance of ten judicial communities (i.e. communes that themselves are made up of several neighbourhoods\u002Fcommunes). The alliance brought together the Raetian territories belonging to the Toggenburg inheritance. The judicial communities pledged mutual assistance to better counter arbitrary treatment by the heirs."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142880,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde.jpg",alt:cU,title:cU,height:491,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-300x123.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-450x184.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-750x307.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-900x368.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-600x246.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-300x123.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-drei-bunde-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"The coats of arms of the three leagues (from left): the \u003Cem\u003EGrey League\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the \u003Cem\u003ELeague of God’s House\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and the \u003Cem\u003ELeague of the Ten Jurisdictions\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.",source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The Free State was therefore intrinsically a very loose state structure, and each of the three leagues, which, as mentioned, varied in its origin, language and religion, was just as loose a confederation as the Free State as a whole. In each of the three leagues, different families called the shots, which repeatedly led to a lack of concerted action, particularly during the \u003Cem\u003EBündner Wirren\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Revolt of the Leagues) in the 17th century. But like the rest of the Old Confederacy after the first Federal Charter of 1291, in the Free State, too, people always sought concordance and consensus. To this effect, obligations to assist were defined, and arbitration courts and charters were drawn up for military and defence purposes. This organisation can be described as pre-modern democracy. Although aristocratic leanings persisted within the Leagues, they did not result in the formation of clans or isolationism.\r\n\r\nTo strengthen cohesion in the Free State, so-called \u003Cem\u003EBundstage\u003C\u002Fem\u003E or community assemblies were introduced, which were similar to the Diet at federal level. From 1524 to 1797, the Free State was an associate member of the Confederacy and had a mercenary agreement with France. From 1512 to 1797, Valtellina and the counties of Chiavenna and Bormio also belonged to the Three Leagues as subject territories."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142669,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze.jpg",alt:cV,title:cV,height:624,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-300x156.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-450x234.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-750x390.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-900x468.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-600x312.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-300x156.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgrauer-bund-skizze-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"The oath of the \u003Cem\u003EGrey League\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Trun, where the barons of Rhäzüns called the shots. Sketch by Horace de Saussure, 1902.",source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Judicial communities and assemblies – Free State rather than feudalism",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The ‘judicial communities’ were sovereign state entities in the \u003Cem\u003EFree State of the Three Leagues\u003C\u002Fem\u003E from the 16th to 18th centuries. They emerged from the originally manorial judicial districts (lower jurisdiction). In specific terms, this meant that the rights of the feudal nobility and subsequently also the higher justice were handed over to the people as part of communalism; in other words, there was a reconstruction of feudal society from the bottom up.\r\n\r\nThe judicial communities themselves consisted of several neighbourhoods (vicinantia), which represented autonomous economic cooperatives and were often identical to parishes. The judicial communities generally convened as \u003Cem\u003ELandsgemeinde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (cantonal assemblies). The sheer scale of the Free State prevented a common cantonal assembly for all three Leagues. The institution of the \u003Cem\u003ELandsgemeinde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, which had existed since the 13th and 14th centuries in the original cantons of Zug, Glarus, and the two Appenzells, was taken as a model but adapted, although the principle was the same for the judicial communities: that a sovereign assembly of men eligible to vote would take part in all elections and make the important decisions. Legislation in the Free State was largely left to judicial communities. Every attempt to standardise civil and criminal law failed."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142925,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524.jpg",alt:by,title:by,height:1099,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:cW,url:cX},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-300x275.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-450x412.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-750x687.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-900x824.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-600x550.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-300x275.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundsbrief-von-1524-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:by,source:{title:cW,url:cX}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The modern separation of powers didn’t exist at this time. In the 16th century, the Free State comprised some 50 judicial communities, but this number fluctuated during the centuries when the Free State existed. If two or more judicial communities got into a dispute, they had to appeal to another uninvolved judicial community to act as arbitrator.\r\n\r\nThe loose alliance of the Free State as a whole had no joint authorities, no common judiciary and no joint treasury. Only war and peace, foreign policy, and the administration of subject territories were left to the \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the highest authority of the Free State. But the judicial communities always had a say on these matters through the referendum, so on the beginning and end of wars, on the drafting of men to patrol the borders, and on the number of troops to be mobilised. The judicial communities were also involved in the conclusion of treaties."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142913,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund.jpg",alt:cY,title:cY,height:o,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:cZ},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-450x450.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-750x750.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-900x900.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-160x160.jpg 160w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-600x600.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-320x320.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-640x640.jpg 640w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-300x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmunze-gotteshausbund-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:"No common treasury, no common currency. Taler coin from the \u003Cem\u003Eleague of God’s House\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, 16th century.",source:{title:s,url:cZ}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The term \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (assembly) only emerged in the early 16th century. On the one hand, there were Bundstage for the individual Leagues, and on the other, the general \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E for all three Leagues. Sovereignty was not vested in the people as such but in the judicial communities as a whole. Decisions were made by the majority of the commune votes. \u003Cem\u003EBundstage\u003C\u002Fem\u003E were held once or twice a year. The venues rotated between Ilanz, Chur and Davos as the principal towns of the Three Leagues.\r\n\r\nImportant decisions relating to the Free State were made in Ilanz between 1524 and 1526. On 4 April 1524, a \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E for all three Leagues passed the First Ilanz Article, in other words the first state law passed by all three Leagues. This continued the political disempowerment of the secular and clerical feudal lords and bolstered democratic structures. This development was emphasised even more radically through the Second Ilanz Article of 1526.\r\n\r\nThe enactment of the First Ilanz Article led the Three Leagues to issue the first joint Constitution in the form of the \u003Cem\u003EBundesbrief\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, or Federal Charter, at a \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E assembly in Ilanz on 23 September 1524 – 500 years ago. This year is the anniversary of that first Federal Charter. The purpose of the Federal Charter was to set out an oath that everyone had to swear by to preserve ‘peace, protection and order’ in the Free State. This also gave a significant boost to the process of internal cohesion and statehood as a sovereign, republican state. Through these radical interventions in the existing order, the Free State of the Three Leagues took on a form that endured until the Helvetic Republic of 1798 (and beyond that in a modified form until 1854).\r\n\r\n "}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The old referendum in Graubünden",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Every decision of the \u003Cem\u003EBundstag\u003C\u002Fem\u003E that went beyond the implementation of existing norms and directives in the communes, was subject to a federal, mandatory communal referendum, in which the individual constituent states (i.e. the judicial communities) were able to participate in the State’s opinion forming. As mentioned above, what counted was the votes of communes, not the votes of individuals. In principle, every male citizen over the age of 14 or 16 was eligible and able to vote. While there was no such thing as legal privileges for certain families, wealthy and respected families could exercise a certain degree of influence on elections. But this could not be described as aristocratisation or oligarchisation, like in other parts of the Confederacy.\r\n\r\nBesides important fundamental matters of state, the referendums also dealt with trivial issues. But the central point was that the Free State’s foreign policy was in principle the responsibility of the entire state, and was therefore subject to the participation of the judicial communities. Internal affairs of state, such as general legislation, were usually dealt with by the judicial communities themselves within the framework of a \u003Cem\u003ELandsgemeinde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (cantonal assembly), while the individual neighbourhoods conducted their business by means of community assemblies."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:142890,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden.jpg",alt:bz,title:bz,height:1147,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-300x287.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-450x430.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-750x717.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-900x860.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-600x574.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-300x287.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fwappen-graubunden-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bz,source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The votes in a communal referendum were not counted as such but were evaluated by a judicial community or council. The authority in charge of estimating the result was the \u003Cem\u003ELandammann\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (chief magistrate) for the individual judicial communities and by the chiefs of the Three Leagues for the Bundstag. Other people were sometimes also involved. The process of evaluating the votes, which was performed by the \u003Cem\u003Ethree chiefs\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was difficult as even the communal vote was often an ‘estimated majority’. A fundamental problem and additional peculiarity of this political process was the fact that when it came to the responses from the judicial communities, many didn’t just say yes or no, but penned opinions of varying lengths. It was possible to accept or reject a proposal with some reservations, for example by amending individual articles. There was an explicit right to amend the proposal, so in this sense the judicial communities already had a right of initiative of sorts. It was then ultimately up to the chiefs to sort through these diverse opinions and on this basis to determine the ‘will of the majority’. It was then the responsibility of the judicial communities to enforce the decisions, as the Free State had no way of doing so."}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The \u003Cem\u003Eold Graubünden referendum\u003C\u002Fem\u003E transferred joint responsibility for the common good to judicial communities and their populations. The extensive participation of the people in all public matters was a first-rate instrument of political education. On the whole, it is clear that decisions of great consequence and complexity were discussed at community meetings and cantonal assemblies. In this way, people acquired a basic knowledge of political and legal processes on the basis of shared values, despite gaps in their education. The responses received from the communes on the matters subjected to referendum show a surprising degree of civic maturity and sound judgement."}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Impetus for Switzerland’s direct democracy",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The \u003Cem\u003Eold Graubünden referendum\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was undoubtedly a precursor to the modern referendum in Switzerland. From 1830 it was repeatedly held up as an example and inspiration for direct democratic instruments at cantonal level. In this sense, we can argue that the canton of Graubünden was a ‘laboratory’ for promoting political participation and developing democracy in Switzerland from the Late Middle Ages and early modern era. The \u003Cem\u003Eold Graubünden referendum\u003C\u002Fem\u003E as a federal popular vote was therefore a central reference point and model for the constitution of the legal veto and the referendum in the 19th century, in other words Switzerland’s modern direct democracy.\r\n\r\nThe canton of Graubünden’s history shows how the principles of modern democracy emerged. The Helvetic Republic made the Free State into the canton of Raetia from 1799 to 1803, and subsequently into an equal canton of the Confederation, and one which brought a great understanding of democracy."}}];cF.snm_model={categories:[{parent:h,order:aI,id:t,name:aR,description:a,slug:aS,taxonomy:f,permalink:bb},{parent:h,order:Y,id:d,name:af,description:a,slug:ag,taxonomy:f,permalink:aj},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:h,order:at,id:b,name:au,description:a,slug:av,taxonomy:f,permalink:aD}],primaryCategory:e,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:c_,longitude:c$},id:a$,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"freistaat-der-drei-buende"},fr:{single:"la-republique-des-iii-ligues"}},slug:cG,title:ba,excerpt:cO,postType:w,permalink:cH,thumbnail:{id:cI,url:cJ,alt:aQ,title:aQ,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:j,y:cK},source:{title:a,url:a},srcset:cL,poster:cM,square:cN},date:1726732800,readableDate:"19.09.2024",modifiedDate:1726131477,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a};da.id=bc;da.date="2023-06-02T08:00:00";da.slug=db;da.type=w;da.link=dc;da.title={rendered:"The Confederation’s policy of concordance"};da.content={rendered:dd,protected:n};da.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EThe Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EThe Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};da.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EThe Confederation's policy of concordance – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"The Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The Confederation's policy of concordance\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2023-06-02T06:00:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2023-06-16T15:15:11+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1222\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\",\"name\":\"The Confederation's policy of concordance – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2023-06-02T06:00:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2023-06-16T15:15:11+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"The Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1222,\"caption\":\"Helvetia, enthroned in the centre, is crowned with a laurel wreath as she brandishes the new Federal Constitution. Instead of the usual allegories, she is flanked on both sides by citizens depicted in military uniform and in civilian dress, embodying the people as the supreme political authority.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";da.lang=C;da.translations={en:bc,de:120900,fr:121625};da.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aH,blockData:{image:{id:de,url:df,alt:bd,title:bd,height:dg,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dh,poster:di,square:dj},video:h,videoMobile:h,title:bA,caption:"Helvetia, enthroned in the centre, is crowned with a laurel wreath as she brandishes the new Federal Constitution. Instead of the usual allegories, she is flanked on both sides by citizens depicted in military uniform and in civilian dress, embodying the people as the supreme political authority.\r\n\r\n ",lead:dk,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"For Switzerland, the period from 1798 to 1848, i.e. from the Helvetic Republic to the emergence of the federal state, was marked by political upheavals, culminating in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F11\u002Fthe-thunder-of-cannon-at-fribourgs-gates\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003ESonderbund War\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E of 1847. Like the two opposing alliances of 1832 that preceded it – the \u003Cem\u003ESiebnerkonkordat\u003C\u002Fem\u003E grouping of liberal cantons and Sarnerbund union of conservative cantons ‒ the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, a defensive alliance formed in 1845, contravened the Federal Treaty of 1815. However, its foundation is understandable in light of the flagrant breaches of the law such as the dissolution of the monasteries in 1841 and the two occasions on which armed radicals marched on the city of Lucerne in 1844\u002F45, not to mention the Diet's failure to act.\r\n\r\n\u003Cem\u003EThe Sonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (and its stance on the Jesuit issue, for example) played into the hands of certain liberal-radicals who believed that Switzerland could not be transformed without recourse to violence. They therefore waged a propaganda campaign that pushed the conflict ever closer to civil war. For their part, the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E's supporters managed to isolate themselves by accentuating the conflict's confessional aspects to such an extent that the Protestant conservatives and others who had sympathised with the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E's political concerns now turned their backs on it or remained neutral."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:32509,url:dl,alt:dm,title:dm,height:1759,width:bB,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:dn},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg-768x540.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg-1024x720.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg-1500x1055.jpg 1500w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg-300x211.jpg",square:dl},size:L,caption:"The \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E War of 1847 was the last armed conflict on Swiss soil.",source:{title:s,url:dn}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E 's actions remained doomed to failure: the majority of inhabitants in the alliance's cantons were opposed to an offensive campaign being waged beyond cantonal borders, its military leadership was inadequate and there was a lack of coordinated agreement between its members. It is crucial to examine the events leading up to the Sonderbund, and not least the decisive role they played in the emergence of the later federal state. However, this aspect is not usually given sufficient weight. Swiss historian Oskar Vasella (1904–1966) explored the period in which the federal state was established in a number of publications, highlighting the role played by the Catholic conservatives. He contends that it is precisely when assessing Catholic conservatism that \"greater freedom in historical thinking\" is needed in order to gain a more truthful picture of the history leading up to the formation of the federal state.\r\n\r\nIn this respect, we will begin by looking at two important historical developments in Switzerland in greater detail: Switzerland's neutrality and the cooperative principle, both of which were constitutive elements of the policy of concordance. We will then consider the attempts to revise the Confederation's Federal Treaty during the Regeneration period, before finally discussing the founding fathers' efforts to form a federal state, which were heavily influenced by the will to integrate."}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Policy of concordance",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"There is a vibrant tradition of seeking concordance, or balance, throughout Swiss history, dating back to long before the establishment of the federal state. In this context, it is worth taking a look at the history of Swiss neutrality. Neutrality developed gradually as the Swiss Confederation grew in size from 1291 onwards, with domestic and foreign policy considerations consistently playing an important role. When, for example, Basel joined the confederation of cantons in 1501, this new member was obliged to pledge to ‘sit still’, in other words remain neutral, and mediate in the event of conflicts between the other cantons. This requirement, designed to achieve peaceful coexistence and constructive interaction, was based on the experience of the \u003Cem\u003EAcht Alten Orte\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the eight 'Old Cantons'. ‘Sitting still’ and mediating, domestic policy measures intended to ensure peaceful coexistence, became more and more important in relation to foreign policy over time, ultimately leading to the first official declaration of neutrality by the Federal Diet in 1674.\r\n\r\nHowever, the Confederation remained entangled in numerous alliances, leading to disaccord and power-political interests that repeatedly got in the way of peaceful development. Neither was the mercenary system conducive to a foreign policy based on trust. Nevertheless, Switzerland's declared neutrality increasingly brought about the desired unity, and this multilingual country divided along denominational lines was able to develop relatively independently following its formal recognition by the international community as a sovereign state in the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Confederation subsequently managed to stay outside the European wars of faith, conquest and succession in the early modern era. The concept of armed neutrality began to take shape during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), when the \u003Cem\u003EDefensionale of Wil\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (1647) created the first set of Confederation-wide military regulations. Switzerland developed its own arbitration procedures for peaceful dispute resolution. Initially intended as domestic policy measures, they later also gave rise to protecting power mandates on behalf of other countries."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:120960,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale.jpg",alt:do0,title:do0,height:2005,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-180x300.jpg 180w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-919x1536.jpg 919w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-269x450.jpg 269w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-449x750.jpg 449w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-539x900.jpg 539w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-359x600.jpg 359w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-898x1500.jpg 898w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-1077x1800.jpg 1077w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-718x1200.jpg 718w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-180x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdefensionale-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:"List of troop contingents in accordance with the \u003Cem\u003EDefensionale of Wil\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, 1647.",source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"It is not possible to discuss the policy of concordance without likewise mentioning Switzerland's cooperative tradition. Numerous areas of society in the Confederation at that time were organised in a wide variety of cooperative forms. Frequent reference was made to the three ‘selves’ – self-help, self-responsibility and self-determination. Many of the problems in the conflicts that kept recurring could normally be resolved peacefully within a cooperative setting, thus strengthening the \u003Cem\u003Ebonum commune\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Vasella places particular emphasis here on the Federal Diet, which played an important role in holding the country together in the early modern period: «The establishment and nature of the Federal Diet [are] characteristic of the cooperative spirit and the belief in concordance. […] It played a decisive role in strengthening the belief in concordance. […] Its negotiations reflect the constant struggle to reconcile many different interests. It fostered the sense of sharing a common bond like no other institution before it.»\r\n\r\nFollowing the difficult periods of the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803) and the Mediation (1803–1815), which had nevertheless also generated significant momentum, Switzerland was once more able to develop more independently and to integrate the tradition of concordance, agreement and balance in its policies to a greater extent. It is possible to describe the cantons as ‘laboratories of liberty’ as early as the Restoration period (1815–1830). In due course, this too contributed to the development of democracy at the communal and cantonal level. These processes led to more direct democracy, but they also helped many valuable experiences to be gained and prevented disagreements from degenerating into political violence."}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Attempts to revise the Federal Treaty, and the Sonderbund War",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"At the start of the Regeneration (1830–1848), liberal-radical movements established themselves in 11 cantons in 1830\u002F31 and, in a peaceful revolutionary act, adopted new cantonal constitutions. These constitutions were imbued with the principle of popular sovereignty, the division of power between the political institutions, and a democratic principle that guaranteed regular elections.\r\n\r\nIn addition, the liberal-radical faction was soon pushing for the Federal Treaty to be revised in the spirit of the new cantonal constitutions, based partly on an appeal made by Kasimir Pfyffer, an eminent citizen of Lucerne. However, revising the Federal Treaty faced a high political hurdle. As the document did not contain any provisions concerning its own revision, a heated debate erupted in the Diet as to whether a unanimous vote or a simple majority was required to change it."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:120976,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer.jpg",alt:bC,title:bC,height:1718,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-210x300.jpg 210w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-1073x1536.jpg 1073w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-314x450.jpg 314w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-524x750.jpg 524w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-629x900.jpg 629w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-419x600.jpg 419w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-1048x1500.jpg 1048w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-838x1200.jpg 838w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-210x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkasimir-pfyffer-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bC,source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The Canton of Thurgau submitted the official petition for revision to the Diet in 1831. The majority of the Diet, specifically 13½ cantons out of 22, agreed in 1832 that such a revision should go ahead. It entrusted a commission chaired by Gallus Jakob Baumgartner (1797–1869) with the task of drawing up the revised constitution. The draft that emerged and was submitted in 1832 is often referred to as the ‘Rossi Plan’ after Geneva's envoy to the Diet and the commission's rapporteur Pellegrino Rossi (1787–1848), or simply as the \u003Cem\u003EBundesurkunde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, a 'deed of federation'. The draft comprised 120 articles providing for various fundamental rights and a modern state in federal form. The Federal Diet was to be transformed into a parliament, and there were plans to create a Federal Council with five members, presided over by a \u003Cem\u003ELandammann\u003C\u002Fem\u003E as head of state of the Confederation.\r\n\r\nAmong the economic measures, the free movement of persons and goods was to apply in Switzerland and a single currency was to be introduced. The draft was no doubt too ambitious overall, as considerable changes were made to it when the Diet met in May 1833. Following its approval by ten cantons, Rossi's draft was rejected in a popular referendum in Lucerne, the presiding canton that was also a candidate to become the seat of federal government, in July 1833, thus effectively scuppering the project. The opponents of the Rossi Plan, mainly Catholic and Protestant conservatives, and federalists, had won the day with their insistence that any amendment to the Federal Treaty would require unanimity. A second attempt at revision in 1833–1835 also met with failure. It must be noted that the Rossi Plan as a whole, along with three other non-official draft constitutions, represents an important milestone in the Swiss Confederation's constitutional history. However, although a start had been made, progress was far too slow for the liberal-radicals, who therefore continued to push the revolution forward, even if this meant violating the law on occasion and eventually led to retaliatory measures by the conservatives and to the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund \u003C\u002Fem\u003Ewar."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:120987,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag.jpg",alt:bD,title:bD,height:1096,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:dp},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-300x274.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-450x411.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-750x685.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-900x822.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-600x548.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-300x274.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fkarikatur-bundesvertrag-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bD,source:{title:s,url:dp}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"In the estimation of US historian Joachim Remak, the actual \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E War was not really a civil war, but merely a ‘quarrel between fellow Swiss’, especially when compared with the American Civil War. While the role played by General \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2017\u002F11\u002Fthe-birth-of-modern-cartography\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EDufour\u003C\u002Fa\u003E was undeniably important, it should not be exaggerated unnecessarily. Based on past experiences, the mood of the population and the quest for balance and agreement were of greater consequence. It was this mood that the Diet aimed to accommodate in a proclamation made shortly before the first acts of war took place. Its words were addressed specifically to the people of the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E cantons: \"The Federal Diet does not seek to oppress members of the Confederation, to destroy cantonal sovereignty, to violently overthrow existing federal institutions, to form a unity government, to violate your rights and freedoms, to threaten your religion.\"\r\n\r\nThe policy of concordance was consolidated at the end of the short \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E War when the new Federal Constitution was drawn up. Consequently, this process and the subsequent introduction of the Federal Constitution was no ‘Zero Hour’ as argued by Rolf Holenstein in his book \u003Cem\u003EStunde Null\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. That aside, the private protocols and secret reports featured in the book make it a treasure trove of history in relation to the emergence of the Swiss federal state, and one which closes a number of gaps in the research. What is important, however, is the view that the Federal Constitution as a whole and the federal state are the result of a longue durée, or an extended period of development. In this context, Vasella states that \"the spirit of wanting to understand one another, the determination to get along\" has been significant in Swiss history. He goes on to say: \"It took a long historical process to achieve [this] ethical basis.\""}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:121000,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour.jpg",alt:bE,title:bE,height:1306,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-276x300.jpg 276w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-413x450.jpg 413w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-689x750.jpg 689w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-827x900.jpg 827w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-551x600.jpg 551w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-1103x1200.jpg 1103w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-276x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgeneral-dufour-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bE,source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The genius of the Federal Constitution",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The Federal Constitution of 1848 was the first to be adopted by the citizens of Switzerland entitled to vote at that time. The commission set up by the Diet to revise the Federal Treaty consisted of 23 members of the individual cantonal governments (including liberal-radical members from the former \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E cantons), who were pragmatically minded, willing to compromise and placed little value on theoretical concepts. In a chapter devoted to the part played by the intellectuals, Holenstein impressively highlights the ideas and references from intellectual history that were fundamental to the fathers of the constitution.\r\n\r\nJust five days after the commission sat for the first time in February 1848, revolution broke out in Paris. It quickly spread to Europe's authoritarian monarchies, which only a few weeks earlier had been threatening to intervene should the Federal Treaty be amended. This development significantly weakened the external anti-liberal forces. The 23-strong commission seized the opportunity presented to it. Forgoing further improvements to the old Federal Treaty, it created the Federal Constitution in 51 days."}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The subsequent formation of the federal state should be seen as a genuine revolution. As previously mentioned, the Federal Treaty did not contain any provisions regarding its own revision and therefore required all the parties, i.e. the cantons, to be in agreement on its amendment. The fathers of the constitution swept all this aside by issuing transitional provisions that created new legal foundations. These formed the basis for all the steps that followed, including the cantonal referendums and the subsequent decision by the Diet. Unanimity was no longer required.\r\n\r\nThe Diet thus approved the new constitution in June 1848. Referendums were held in the cantons in July and August, with 15½ in favour and 6½ against. All the cantons of central Switzerland, plus Ticino and Valais said 'No'. Uri, Obwalden and Nidwalden also rejected the proposal at their \u003Cem\u003ELandsgemeinde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E cantonal assemblies. Lucerne said 'Yes', although that was due to a special procedure in which abstentions were counted as votes in favour. The former \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E canton of Fribourg also voted in favour by virtue of a decision of the cantonal parliament. None of these events can exactly be described as a good omen for the new Federal Constitution, and hence for concordance and the integration of the losing side. However, it must be stressed that the defeated Catholic conservative camp was not opposed to the project per se and that most of the opposing cantons accepted the majority principle through gritted teeth and agreed to be bound by the Constitution, not least because some of their concerns had been incorporated into it. On 12 September 1848, the Diet thus declared the Federal Constitution adopted and in force as the basic law of the Confederation."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:121018,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung.jpg",alt:bF,title:bF,height:cR,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:dq},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-1173x1536.jpg 1173w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-344x450.jpg 344w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-573x750.jpg 573w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-687x900.jpg 687w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-458x600.jpg 458w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-1146x1500.jpg 1146w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-917x1200.jpg 917w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-229x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesverfassung-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bF,source:{title:s,url:dq}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"In the second half of the 19th century, this made Switzerland an island of democratic republicanism in a sea of European monarchies. The Federal Constitution can certainly be seen as a synthesis of existing knowledge and experience considering that the Swiss had already been adhering to the principle of concordance for quite some time, as shown by the history of neutrality and the cooperative approach."}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Integrating the losers",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"For a long time following the formation of the federal state, history tended to be written in a way that attributed all of the state's achievements, including the subsequent development of its direct democratic instruments, to the liberal-radical victors of the Sonderbund War. Yet, despite the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E's defeat, some of its demands did find their way into the draft of the new Federal Constitution of 1848. The victorious majority took account of the concerns of those it had defeated. As mentioned above, the proclamation issued to the inhabitants of the \u003Cem\u003ESonderbund\u003C\u002Fem\u003E cantons by the Diet prior to the first acts of war had already pointed in this direction. The victors paid particular attention to the wish for cantonal sovereignty, a desire that was also expressed by moderate liberals.\r\n\r\nNeither must the ban on the Jesuits be allowed to conceal the clear federalist accents set by the federal state in giving the cantons power over the schools and churches, setting up the Council of States and introducing the requirement that a majority of the cantons must vote in favour of a proposal for it to be accepted. The Federal Constitution enshrined the principle of nationhood while allowing the cantons to retain their sovereignty. The Confederation and its member states fulfilled their mandate by means of bilateral cooperation based on subsidiarity. Thus, the Sonderbund indirectly helped to make a centralist solution more difficult and to prevent further revolutionary upheavals as called for by the radicals."}}];da.snm_model={categories:[{parent:{parent:h,order:F,id:be,name:bG,description:a,slug:bH,taxonomy:f,permalink:bI},order:F,id:aw,name:"Federal Constitution",description:a,slug:"federal-constitution",taxonomy:f,permalink:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fexhibitions\u002Ffederal-constitution\u002F"},{parent:h,order:Y,id:d,name:af,description:a,slug:ag,taxonomy:f,permalink:aj},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:h,order:at,id:b,name:au,description:a,slug:av,taxonomy:f,permalink:aD}],primaryCategory:aw,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:dr,longitude:ds},id:bc,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"die-eidgenoessische-politik-des-ausgleichs"},fr:{single:"la-politique-suisse-du-consensus"}},slug:db,title:bA,excerpt:dk,postType:w,permalink:dc,thumbnail:{id:de,url:df,alt:bd,title:bd,height:dg,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dh,poster:di,square:dj},date:1685692800,readableDate:"02.06.2023",modifiedDate:1686935711,readableModifiedDate:"16.06.2023",seoTitle:a,seoDescription:a};dt.id=bJ;dt.date="2022-05-13T07:30:00";dt.slug=du;dt.type=w;dt.link=dv;dt.title={rendered:bK};dt.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};dt.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EOf all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EOf all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};dt.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EDirect democracy in Switzerland – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Die Schweiz hat von allen Demokratien die weitestreichenden direktdemokratischen Elemente. Ihre historischen Wurzeln liegen im relativ gut entwickelten Bildungssystem und den ländlichen Volksbewegungen des 19. Jahrhunderts.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Direct democracy in Switzerland\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Of all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2022-05-13T05:30:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:title\" content=\"Direct democracy in Switzerland\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:description\" content=\"Of all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\",\"name\":\"Direct democracy in Switzerland – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2022-05-13T05:30:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2022-05-13T05:30:00+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"Die Schweiz hat von allen Demokratien die weitestreichenden direktdemokratischen Elemente. Ihre historischen Wurzeln liegen im relativ gut entwickelten Bildungssystem und den ländlichen Volksbewegungen des 19. Jahrhunderts.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1200,\"caption\":\"On voting weekends, posters like this one summon voters to the ballot box.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";dt.lang=C;dt.translations={en:bJ,fr:98391,de:97820};dt.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aH,blockData:{image:{id:dw,url:dx,alt:aT,title:aT,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:dy},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dz,poster:dA,square:dB},video:h,videoMobile:h,title:bK,caption:aT,lead:dC,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Over the past 200 years, Switzerland’s citizens have developed democracy into a globally unique model of government. Direct democracy is an integral part of our political culture, and a key aspect of the country’s economic success. No other country conducts as many voting processes every year as Switzerland does. On a total of four separate dates each year, the Swiss people have the opportunity to voice their opinions through initiatives and referenda covering a huge array of issues. And this system operates at all political levels – municipal, cantonal and federal. For example, Switzerland was the only country in the world that had two opportunities, in the past year, to vote on a COVID-19 law. What are the roots of this model of democratic success?"}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Cooperative principle, natural law and education system as a basis",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Even before the federal state was founded in 1848, implementing direct democracy enabled Switzerland to build a foundation at municipal and cantonal level which took some very different directions over the course of the 19th century. This always happened “from the bottom up”, that is, building from the municipalities and proceeding through the respective canton to federal level; this is how our established federalist and subsidiary model evolved. The cooperative principle and natural law were key aspects of this process.\r\n\r\n“Natural law” means that people are concerned about the intrinsic rules for living together – the basic, humanitarian rules that transcend time – about ethical behaviour (question of values), and about the structure of the political and legal order. Natural law was applied in Switzerland with, among other things, the cooperative principle and its three “selves” – self-help, self-determination and self-responsibility. This principle implied an integrating force without which Switzerland as a \u003Cem\u003EWillensnation\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, a nation forged by the will of its people, a nation based on freedom and equality, could not have emerged. This is evidenced by numerous forms of pre-modern democratic institutions, such as the \u003Cem\u003ELandsgemeinde\u003C\u002Fem\u003E with their different forms of arrangement in various cantons, the \u003Cem\u003E“Free State of the Three Leagues”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in the Canton of Graubünden, and the \u003Cem\u003E“Republic of the Seven Tithings”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in the Canton of Valais. Such forms have existed in Switzerland since the late Middle Ages, contrasting with the situation in predominantly feudal and absolutist Europe."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:97831,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320.jpg",alt:bL,title:bL,height:o,width:1696,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-1536x1087.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-450x318.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-750x531.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-900x637.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-600x425.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-1500x1061.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-1200x849.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320.jpg 1696w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-300x212.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Flandgemeinde-glarus-um-1895-gbe-118229-lm-76911320-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bL,source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Economic development began late in the Confederation, but it was on a solid, humanitarian footing. This didn’t mean the country’s growth was free of conflicts, but it usually produced good solutions in line with the “bonum commune”. Prior to 1848 Switzerland was primarily rural and agricultural, but from the end of the 18th century up to 1848 the country experienced an initial industrial upturn. However, this only covered certain regions of the country and was based on the export-oriented light industries – cotton spinning and weaving mills, silk weaving and clock-making. At the end of the 19th century this process also began to have an impact on other sectors, and imbued Switzerland with a wealth of innovative spirit. One key reason for this is that Switzerland was far ahead of most European countries when it came to the education system, as the current evaluations of what is known as the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.stapferenquete.ch\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003EStapfer Enquête\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fa\u003E demonstrate. In 1799, Helvetic minister Philipp Albert Stapfer (1766-1840) conducted the first empirical survey of Switzerland’s school system. The critical edition of these important sources didn’t appear until 2015. The initial findings of research projects are now available, and they are surprising and very enlightening. In about 1800, for example, Switzerland was a real “bastion of schooling”, where almost every child attended school. The first research findings may explain a lot, including the further political developments in Switzerland."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:97834,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862.jpg",alt:bM,title:bM,height:o,width:2050,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:dD,url:dE},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-300x176.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-1536x899.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-2048x1199.jpg 2048w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-450x263.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-750x439.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-900x527.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-600x351.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-1500x878.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-1800x1054.jpg 1800w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-1200x702.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-300x176.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdas-schulexamen-von-albert-anker-1862-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bM,source:{title:dD,url:dE}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Recognising the human urge to participate in shaping and improving societal circumstances, educated people of the time initiated major changes not only in the economic sector but also in politics. The educational system that was already in place was significant in that respect. As a result of this “bastion of schooling”, among other factors, in the first half of the 19th century a number of rural grassroots movements in Switzerland succeeded in winning the first direct democratic people’s rights. These rights were pushed through sometimes in the face of very fierce resistance, chiefly from liberal circles. This is shown by a swathe of cantonal examples in which rural grassroots movements, bringing together traditional and progressive liberal concepts, notably became active during the period of Swiss regeneration (1830-1848)."}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Baselland and its “movement people”",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"From 1830 onwards, liberal groups pushed ahead with democratic development in Baselland. As a small, liberal elite, they advocated the principle of representation. The sovereignty of the people was to consist merely of the election, limited by a census, of the legislative authority and should not be fleshed out by further rights of the people. An opposition movement made up of factions of the rural population, known as the “movement people”, quickly formed. These were radical-thinking liberals, some of whom moved in a Jacobinic or early Socialist direction and espoused more far-reaching popular rights. In the wake of the separation from Basel-Stadt, the “movement people” soon had their first taste of success. In 1832 Baselland adopted its first independent constitution, enshrining in it the statutory veto, a precursor to today’s optional referendum. This made Baselland the second canton, after St Gallen, to introduce this law of the people. Initial political experiences were good, and the system of direct democracy was subsequently improved little by little."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:97840,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft.jpg",alt:bN,title:bN,height:1232,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:bf,url:dF},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-300x231.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-1536x1183.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-450x347.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-750x578.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-900x693.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-600x462.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-1500x1155.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-1200x924.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-300x231.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fgebietsteilung-als-folge-des-konflikts-zwischen-stadt-und-landschaft-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:bN,source:{title:bf,url:dF}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Lucerne and its “rural democrats”",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"In 1831, the Canton of Lucerne had adopted a constitution by referendum for the first time. The 1931 constitution was a product primarily of liberal groups and, thanks to its democratic nature, was a great leap forward. However, as in the beginning in Baselland, democracy was representative, which means that except for restricted elections (census), there was no opportunity for the population to have an active role in shaping the political landscape. For the liberals, this was the \u003Cem\u003E“ideal system of governance”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. The Catholic conservatives, also known as “rural democrats”, had a different idea of sovereignty of the people. They wanted to give the people more say. To achieve this, a rural grassroots movement was formed. After intensive political debate, in 1841 the “rural democrats” pushed for a complete revision of the constitution, a move which ultimately received a large majority in the voting. The first paragraph of the new constitution identified the Canton of Lucerne as a \u003Cem\u003E“free democratic state”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. In a commentary to the constitution, the founding fathers explained that the introduction of citizens’ rights was crucial, because in a representative democratic state the \u003Cem\u003E“will of the people is ceded to those who represent them”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and the people themselves are left with \u003Cem\u003E“only the shadow of actual sovereignty”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. As in St Gallen and Baselland, citizens’ rights included the statutory veto. For Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866), probably Switzerland’s most significant 19th century philosopher, the Lucerne statutory veto was \u003Cem\u003E“the most important new institution”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. He also called for citizens’ rights for other cantons so that they would be \u003Cem\u003E“more orderly and happier”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E; this subsequently came about. In the Canton of Lucerne, direct democracy was further developed over the next few decades."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:97843,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler.jpg",alt:bO,title:bO,height:1312,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:bf,url:dG},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-274x300.jpg 274w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-412x450.jpg 412w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-686x750.jpg 686w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-823x900.jpg 823w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-549x600.jpg 549w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-1098x1200.jpg 1098w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-274x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fignaz-paul-vital-troxler-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:bO,source:{title:bf,url:dG}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"A number of political currents were essential in enforcing direct democratic rights",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Following the establishment of the modern Federal state in 1848, the liberals took important steps towards driving economic growth in Switzerland, thus making possible the second industrialisation (including railway construction). But, as the example of Alfred Escher shows, they also had a tendency towards aristocratisation, retaining power within the upper echelons of society, and favoured a utilitarian principle that produced social inequality and injustice. In this respect, the liberals often failed to respond adequately to the societal aspect of industrialisation. The “movement people” and the “rural democrats” were among the political losers in 1848 after the Sonderbund War. But like the Liberals, they left their mark on Swiss history before and after 1848. The liberal victors of the Sonderbund War of 1847 had to go through a long learning process before they accepted direct democracy and discarded their attitude of condescension and conceit towards the “people”. Switzerland would not be a federalist state with a system of direct democracy, nor would it have today’s model of economic success, if the liberal, anti-clerical and, to some extent, centralist elements had been able to assert themselves unopposed. Liberal, early socialist and conservative circles were jointly responsible for the development of the democratic system in Switzerland. What do we need today to maintain and improve this system?"}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:97849,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat.jpg",alt:dH,title:dH,height:o,width:1707,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:dI,url:dJ},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-300x211.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-1536x1080.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-450x316.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-750x527.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-900x633.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-600x422.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-1500x1054.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-1200x844.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat.jpg 1707w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-300x211.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdie-landsgemeinde-standerat-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"Symbolic reminder of the pre-modern democratic institutions in the chamber of the Council of States. \u003Cem\u003E“Die Landsgemeinde”\u003C\u002Fem\u003E mural by Albert Welti and Wilhelm Balmer, 1917.",source:{title:dI,url:dJ}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Significant expansion of political education",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Direct democracy in Switzerland is an extremely challenging task, and requires the country’s inhabitants to debate the relevant issues intensively and in a factually sound manner. It is also necessary for people to be well informed about aspects of Switzerland’s institutions, respect the democratic structure of our federalist country, and be able to historically contextualise the proposals on which they are asked to vote.\r\n\r\nAll of this requires good civic knowledge and a broad knowledge of Swiss history; this learning should start in primary school and be continued at secondary level II, with references to current issues. However, active participation in direct democracy isn’t simply about learning individual skills; it requires the whole individual to be willing to participate and to actively help shape society in the interests of the common good."}}];dt.snm_model={categories:[{parent:h,order:Y,id:d,name:af,description:a,slug:ag,taxonomy:f,permalink:aj},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:{parent:h,order:aE,id:l,name:aJ,description:a,slug:aK,taxonomy:f,permalink:aU},order:F,id:am,name:dK,description:a,slug:dL,taxonomy:f,permalink:dM}],primaryCategory:e,comments:[],coordinates:{latitude:a,longitude:a},id:bJ,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{fr:{single:"la-suisse-et-la-democratie-directe"},de:{single:"die-direkte-demokratie-der-schweiz"}},slug:du,title:bK,excerpt:dC,postType:w,permalink:dv,thumbnail:{id:dw,url:dx,alt:aT,title:aT,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:dy},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dz,poster:dA,square:dB},date:dN,readableDate:"13.05.2022",modifiedDate:dN,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:"Die Schweiz hat von allen Demokratien die weitestreichenden direktdemokratischen Elemente. Ihre historischen Wurzeln liegen im relativ gut entwickelten Bildungssystem und den ländlichen Volksbewegungen des 19. Jahrhunderts."};dO.id=bP;dO.date="2021-09-15T08:00:00";dO.slug=dP;dO.type=w;dO.link=dQ;dO.title={rendered:bQ};dO.content={rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n};dO.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EConcordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EConcordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};dO.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003EUsing the ‘magic formula’ to achieve concordance – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. 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The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2021-09-15T06:00:00+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2021-08-25T07:58:05+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:title\" content=\"Using the ‘magic formula’ to achieve concordance\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:description\" content=\"Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F\",\"name\":\"Using the ‘magic formula’ to achieve concordance – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2021-09-15T06:00:00+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2021-08-25T07:58:05+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1200,\"caption\":\"The Federal Council on the occasion of its “extra muros” meeting on April 24, 2013 together with the Vaudois government and the Nyon municipal council in the Château de Prangins.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";dO.lang=C;dO.translations={en:bP,fr:78399,de:78191};dO.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aH,blockData:{image:{id:dR,url:dS,alt:bg,title:bg,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dT,poster:dU,square:dV},video:h,videoMobile:h,title:bQ,caption:"The Federal Council on the occasion of its ‘extra muros’ meeting on April 24, 2013 together with the Vaudois government and the Nyon municipal council in the Château de Prangins. The principle of concordance applies not only in the Federal Council, but also at the cantonal and, in some cases, the communal level.",lead:dW,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The term ‘concordance’ means ‘agreement’ and it has become an integral part of Switzerland’s political culture. It refers in particular to the executive organ at the federal level, the seven-member \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F05\u002Fhome-story-federal-council\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EFederal Council\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The parties with the largest number of voters share the executive seats among themselves and thus form, so to speak, an all-party government. Linked to this is the principle of collegiality, which means that collective decisions are supported and defended by all members vis-à-vis the outside world. This results in a body that is characterised by stability, and often also by continuity. In the medium and long term, therefore, concordance and collegiality provide for a decision-making mechanism that is defined by amicable consensus and broad-based compromise solutions. These principles of Swiss politics are not enshrined in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EFederal Constitution\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and thus represent a kind of ‘customary law’, which can also be found to a greater or lesser extent at the cantonal level."}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The concordance form of democracy contrasts with the so-called ‘competitive democracy’, a principle that characterises most other democracies worldwide. After elections, the party with the largest number of voters takes over the government or forms a coalition government with one or more other parties. In the next election everything could be completely different again, with a new majority structure. This puts a significant strain on the predictability of politics.\r\n\r\nIn Switzerland the term concordance characterises the Federal Council, as well as the other political powers and organs. All major political parties are included in the consensus-based decision-making process. The principle of concordance guarantees that the parties’ views are taken into consideration in proportion to their size, especially when it comes to the allocation of political offices and leadership positions in the administration, the armed forces and the judiciary."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:78140,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal.jpg",alt:dX,title:dX,height:1038,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:dY,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-300x195.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-1536x996.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-450x292.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-750x487.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-900x584.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-600x389.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-1500x973.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-1200x779.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-300x195.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fnationalratssaal-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"In parliament, too, all important political parties are included in consensus-based decision-making.",source:{title:dY,url:a}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Historical roots",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Historically, concordance democracy has developed in Switzerland since the 1930s. Totalitarian political ideologies such as \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F06\u002Fgeneva-nsdap-section\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003Efascism\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and Stalinism, as well as the global economic crisis, had brought about a polarisation between the labour movement and the middle classes in Switzerland. At that time, Switzerland’s political culture was on a solid footing, with direct democracy have been expanded at the federal level (referendum 1874, popular initiative 1891). Nevertheless World War I and, in particular, the general strike of 1918 caused serious problems for Swiss politics. A central demand of the labour movement was proportional representation, in order to challenge the liberal supremacy that had held sway since the state was founded in 1848 and was cemented by the majority system. This demand was met in 1919 with the first proportional representation in the National Council. The standoff between the conservative middle-class bloc and the communist and social democratic parties slowly eased off. The first clear approval by the Social Democratic Party (SPS) for national military defence, which was given in 1935, then finally broke the ice. The middle-class, conservative parties no longer classified the SPS as a class enemy and were willing to fight the political battles on the democratic floor. This also strengthened cooperation between the parties, eventually culminating in the election of the first Social Democrat, Ernst Nobs, to the Federal Council in 1943. With the approval of a second seat in 1959, the SP was represented almost in proportion to its party size in the collegial body of the Federal Council; the quasi-all-party government was perfect. This line-up was also known as the ‘magic formula’."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:dZ,url:d_,alt:aV,title:aV,height:d$,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:ea,poster:eb,square:ec},size:L,caption:aV,source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:78149,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382.jpg",alt:ed,title:ed,height:1229,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:bh,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-300x230.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-1536x1180.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-450x346.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-750x576.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-900x691.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-600x461.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-1500x1152.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-1200x922.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-300x230.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesratswahl-1959-dig-14653-lm-1100382-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"With the election of Hans-Peter Tschudi on December 17, 1959, the Federal Council was composed for the first time according to the “magic formula”. The newly elected Federal Council at the swearing-in in the National Council chamber. From left to right: Max Petitpierre (FDP), Paul Chaudet (FDP), Friedrich Traugott Wahlen (SVP), Jean Bourgknecht (CVP), Willy Spühler (SP), Ludwig von Moos (CVP), Hans-Peter Tschudi (SP) and Federal Chancellor Charles Oser.",source:{title:bh,url:a}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The ‘magic formula’ of the Federal Council",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"This party-political composition, namely two SP politicians, two from the FDP, two from the CVP and one from the BGB\u002FSVP, was retained from 1959 to 2003, making it probably the most powerful expression of concordance democracy. In Switzerland in particular, the alternative, i.e. an executive based on a (narrow) majority – a ‘competitive democracy’ – is considered inefficient, as the opposition could make the government’s work much more difficult by submitting too many referendum proposals.\r\n\r\nHowever, the SP in particular and, since the 1990s, the SVP as well, have repeatedly torpedoed efforts at consensus politics by bringing their own political agenda into play, mainly by putting forward their own initiatives. This does liven up the political landscape, but the result is repeated intervention by the other parties, which accuse the SP and SVP of deviating from the government consensus and threaten them with expulsion from the Federal Council. In 2003 the electoral mathematics of the magic formula was restored, with the voting out of a CVP Federal Councillor and the election of a second SVP Federal Councillor. Following an interlude from 2007 with one BDP Federal Councillor – the \u003Cem\u003EConservative Democratic Party\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Bürgerlich-demokratische Partei, the BDP) emerged after the split from the SVP – the ‘normal state’ has prevailed once again with a de facto ‘magic formula’ since 2015."}},{blockName:ee,blockData:{slider:[{image:{id:78137,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004.jpg",alt:ef,title:ef,height:1036,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:"Federal Chancellery \u002F Tobias Madörin",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-300x194.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-1536x995.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-450x291.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-750x486.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-900x583.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-600x389.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-1500x971.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-1200x777.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-300x194.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2004-320x320.jpg"},caption:"The Federal Council in 2004: Moritz Leuenberger, Samuel Schmid, Pascal Couchepin, Joseph Deiss (president), Micheline Calmy-Rey, Christoph Blocher, Annemarie Huber-Hotz (chancellor), Hans-Rudolf Merz."},{image:{id:78134,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008.jpg",alt:eg,title:eg,height:1132,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:"Federal Chancellery \u002F Béatrice Devènes und Dominic Büttner",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-300x212.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-1536x1087.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-450x318.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-750x531.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-900x637.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-600x425.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-1500x1061.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-1200x849.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-300x212.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2008-320x320.jpg"},caption:"The Federal Council in 2008: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Moritz Leuenberger, Micheline Calmy-Rey, Pascal Couchepin (president), Samuel Schmid, Doris Leuthard, Hans-Rudolf Merz, Corina Casanova (chancellor)."},{image:{id:78131,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016.jpg",alt:eh,title:eh,height:1136,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:"Federal Chancellery \u002F Edouard Rieben und Nina Líška Rieben",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-300x213.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-1536x1091.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-450x320.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-750x533.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-900x639.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-600x426.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-1500x1065.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-1200x852.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-300x213.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbundesrat-2016-320x320.jpg"},caption:"The Federal Council in 2016: Alain Berset, Didier Burkhalter, Doris Leuthard, Johann N. Schneider-Ammann (president), Ueli Maurer, Simonetta Sommaruga, Guy Parmelin, Walter Thurnherr (chancellor)."}]}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Great political importance",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Alongside federalism, direct democracy and the principle of the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003Ecitizens’ legislature\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, concordance is a central political pillar of Switzerland’s political culture which has so far proven very successful. The advantages over a ‘competitive democracy’ are obvious, because the mechanism of direct democracy acts, among other things, to loosen the grip on political power: there is no ‘party dictatorship’; authoritarian individuals have little opportunity to make a mark; there is less corruption, and greater transparency in the political process.\r\n\r\nEven in a concordance democracy, however, constructive opposition is possible and can be quite efficient. The main opposition is the citizens’ vote, which can intervene in the political process at any time through direct democracy. Alongside this – in addition to the problematic opposition policy operated by the SP and SVP pool parties as outlined above – smaller parties that are not part of the government have the opportunity to initiate internal and extra-parliamentary opposition. A good example of this is the success of the Greens and Green Liberals as part of the climate debate, a development which, in the medium term, could knock the current ‘magic formula’ out of line."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:76759,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen.jpg",alt:ei,title:ei,height:1738,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:bh,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-207x300.jpg 207w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-1061x1536.jpg 1061w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-311x450.jpg 311w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-518x750.jpg 518w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-621x900.jpg 621w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-414x600.jpg 414w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-1036x1500.jpg 1036w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-829x1200.jpg 829w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-207x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fabstimmen-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:"The Swiss electorate can decide on political issues several times a year. In this way, even smaller parties and organizations that are not involved in the government have the opportunity to run the opposition. Voting poster, 1977.",source:{title:bh,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Another important feature of the Swiss concordance system is the inclusion in political decisions, since the post-war period, of the groups capable of forcing a referendum. A group capable of forcing a referendum is an organisation with at least 50,000 members which could by itself, by activating its members, achieve the required number of signatures in a referendum in a short time. With the so-called \u003Cem\u003EVernehmlassungsverfahren\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (consultation procedure), these groups are given the opportunity to comment on proposals before they are dealt with in parliament. In most cases a compromise is then negotiated, which is intended to make a referendum unnecessary.\r\n\r\nIn general, the principle of concordance – the quest for a ‘balance’ – facilitates a smooth and objective political process that brings a good and reasonable solution to immediate problems. We must make sure this continues in the future."}},{blockName:ej,blockData:{image:{id:78152,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide.jpg",alt:bR,title:bR,height:ek,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-300x120.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-1536x614.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-450x180.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-750x300.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-900x360.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-600x240.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-1500x600.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-1200x480.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-300x120.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FGrafik-Ausstellung-BR-Parteien-wide-320x320.jpg"},caption:bR,source:{title:s,url:a}}}];dO.snm_model={categories:[{parent:h,order:ar,id:c,name:ax,description:a,slug:ay,taxonomy:f,permalink:aF},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:h,order:at,id:b,name:au,description:a,slug:av,taxonomy:f,permalink:aD}],primaryCategory:e,comments:[],coordinates:h,id:bP,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{fr:{single:"la-formule-magique-de-la-concordance"},de:{single:"mit-der-zauberformel-zur-konkordanz"}},slug:dP,title:bQ,excerpt:dW,postType:w,permalink:dQ,thumbnail:{id:dR,url:dS,alt:bg,title:bg,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:dT,poster:dU,square:dV},date:1631692800,readableDate:"15.09.2021",modifiedDate:1629885485,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:"Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century."};el.id=bS;el.date="2021-01-20T08:00:39";el.slug=em;el.type=w;el.link=en;el.title={rendered:bT};el.content={rendered:dd,protected:n};el.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EAt first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EAt first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};el.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ESwitzerland and the USA: sister republics – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:description\" content=\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.facebook.com\u002FLandesmuseumZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2021-01-20T07:00:39+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2021-01-19T12:25:21+00:00\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1600\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1200\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\u002Fjpeg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"author\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:title\" content=\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:description\" content=\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\",\"name\":\"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics – Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2021-01-20T07:00:39+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2021-01-19T12:25:21+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg\",\"width\":1600,\"height\":1200,\"caption\":\"The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848.\"},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E";el.lang=C;el.translations={en:bS,de:60928,fr:62136};el.snm_blocks=[{blockName:aH,blockData:{image:{id:eo,url:ep,alt:aW,title:aW,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:eq,url:a},srcset:er,poster:es,square:et},video:h,videoMobile:h,title:bT,caption:aW,lead:bU,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"Ever since the Swiss Confederation started operating as a sovereign federation of states in 1648 and Great Britain established its colonies on the east coast of North America, figures from politics, business and culture on both sides of the Atlantic have been swapping ideas back and forth. If we take a look at these links from the 17th century to the present day and relate them specifically to philosophical and constitutional concepts, we can identify an ‘Atlantic cycle of modern conceptions of the state’. The famous Swiss constitutional historian and expert in constitutional law Alfred Kölz (1944-2003) coined this term, and it is astonishing how consistently the give and take between Switzerland and what would soon become the USA has been carried on. It is only in the past few decades that the relationship has cooled."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:60938,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131.jpg",alt:eu,title:eu,height:1703,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg 211w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1082x1536.jpg 1082w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-317x450.jpg 317w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-528x750.jpg 528w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-634x900.jpg 634w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-423x600.jpg 423w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-1057x1500.jpg 1057w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-846x1200.jpg 846w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-211x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fbriefmarke-usa-ch-gbe-102368_lm-10845131-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:"To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern. ",source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"Scepticism towards Rousseau’s sovereignty of the people",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"For the American intellectual elites in the 17th and 18th centuries English tradition, such as the idea of relative freedom and the parliamentary system, was the guiding principle. In addition to the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and the Frenchman Montesquieu (1689-1755), as political debates took shape other classic figures of the European Enlightenment and natural law gained in significance; this was especially true for representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law (‘École romande du droit naturel’) such as Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (1694-1748) and Emer de Vattel (1714-1767). But the influence of the Genevan \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2018\u002F08\u002Fnational-identities\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EJean-Jacques Rousseau\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (1712-1778), with his concept of the sovereignty of the people, was limited. This scepticism towards the will of the people and too much equality later became apparent in the federal Constitution of the USA, with the introduction of the system of electors (panel of presidential electors) for the election of the president. The founding fathers were generally wary of ‘the people’. The system they envisaged therefore provided that the electors were able to overturn the results of a direct presidential election, in case the masses were carried away by their emotions and wanted to install the wrong president, such as a devious seducer of the people, on the presidential chair."}},{blockName:ee,blockData:{slider:[{image:{id:61013,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke.jpg",alt:bV,title:bV,height:1463,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:"29.6"},source:{title:"The State Hermitage Museum",url:"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.hermitagemuseum.org\u002Fwps\u002Fportal\u002Fhermitage\u002Fdigital-collection\u002F01.+Paintings\u002F38692\u002F?lng=en "},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke-246x300.jpg 246w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke-369x450.jpg 369w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjohn-locke-615x750.jpg 615w, 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https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-986x1200.jpg 986w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-247x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fjames_madison-320x320.jpg"},caption:cb}]}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The American Revolution as the fruit of the Swiss Enlightenment",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The representatives of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law were concerned primarily with the struggle for a modern form of natural law, a term which means in essence that every person has certain natural rights from birth. These ideas sowed the seeds of the Age of Enlightenment in Switzerland, and culminated in fundamental debates about human rights and civil rights, as well as a democratic basic order. The teachings of francophone Switzerland’s school of natural law played an important role in the North American independence movement and the American Revolution. The American constitutional fathers, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and John Adams, studied the works of representatives of the school and adopted modern principles of natural law, as well as what was known as the ‘personal idea of man’. This was expressed in the Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776:"}},{blockName:"acf\u002Fquote",blockData:{quote:"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.",author:"Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776"}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The reference to modern natural law and the personal idea of man also informed the world’s first written declaration of fundamental rights, the Virginia Bill of Rights of 12 June 1776. In the first section, it says: ‘That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.’\r\n\r\nIt was during the late 18th century, during its war of independence against the British, that the USA first spoke of ‘Sister Republics’ in relation to Switzerland. The USA was comparing its own war of independence against the British crown with the existence – at the time, admittedly, idealised – of a federal republic in an otherwise monarchical Europe."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:60944,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull.jpg",alt:ev,title:ev,height:1059,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:cc,url:ew},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1536x1017.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-450x298.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-750x496.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-900x596.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-600x397.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1500x993.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-1200x794.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-300x199.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdeclaration_of_independence_1819_by_john_trumbull-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:"The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol. ",source:{title:cc,url:ew}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The American Revolution as impetus for the French and Helvetic Revolutions",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The French Revolution took up the message of the American Constitution’s development with its ‘Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen’ of 6 August 1789. In Article 1, it declares modern natural law to be the foundation: ‘1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.’ In Article 6, the French constitutional fathers make reference to Rousseau’s concept of sovereignty of the people: ‘The Law is the expression of the general will (volonté générale). All citizens have the right to take part, personally or through their representatives, in its making.’\r\n\r\nDuring the French Revolution, draft constitutions were submitted which included instruments of direct democracy and which became important points of reference for developments in Switzerland but not, for the time being, in the USA. Fuelled by the political practice of the American and French Revolutions, the brief period of the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803) laid the foundations for further democratic debates in Switzerland."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:60941,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum.jpg",alt:cd,title:cd,height:794,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:ex,url:ey},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-450x298.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-750x496.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-900x596.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-600x397.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-300x199.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fcosmopolitan-swis-miss-referendum-320x320.jpg"},size:L,caption:cd,source:{title:ex,url:ey}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The US Constitution as a model for Switzerland’s Federal Constitution",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 went on to incorporate key elements of the US Federal Constitution of 1787\u002F89. As in the USA (Bill of Rights), fundamental human rights were enshrined in the Swiss Federal Constitution. The Swiss Confederation also introduced the separation of powers in 1848. However, Switzerland chose not to vest extensive power in a single president; instead, \u003Cem\u003Eexecutive\u003C\u002Fem\u003E power was distributed among seven liberal leaders. In the USA, the executive authority (the President) is still chosen indirectly by the people (and confirmed by the aforementioned electors); in Switzerland, the choice is made by the legislative authority. In terms of the composition of the Swiss Federal Council, the priority has always been integrating the various parts of the country and the different language regions. Subsequent development of the system broke through the liberals’ claim to sole representation, and brought conservative and social democrat politicians into the Executive as well. The apogee of this development was the ‘magic formula’ of 1959, which completed the Swiss concordance system and can be described as a model of success.\r\n\r\nAs the legislative authority in Switzerland, the National Council and the Council of States are a copy of the US bicameral system. The real impetus for this concept came from the most important Swiss philosopher of the 19th century, Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866). When the Swiss Constitution was revised in 1848, Troxler took a decisive hand in the discussions on the federal institutions. He had long advocated the federal state concept with a bicameral system modelled on the USA. The paper he had written on the subject, ‘\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3931\u002Fe-rara-29503\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"\u003EDie Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas als Musterbild der schweizerischen Bundesreform\u003C\u002Fa\u003E’ (The Constitution of the United States of North America as a Model for Swiss Federal Reform), probably found its way into the deliberations of the relevant committee through one of his former students. The idea became reality, and Troxler thus left his mark on the Swiss federal state system based on the US model. With the introduction of proportional voting rights for the National Council, from 1919 onwards Switzerland strengthened the pluralism of the parties; in the USA this step has not yet been taken."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:dZ,url:d_,alt:aV,title:aV,height:d$,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:s,url:a},srcset:ea,poster:eb,square:ec},size:L,caption:"Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910. ",source:{title:s,url:a}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"The members of the US Supreme Court, that is, the \u003Cem\u003Ejudiciary\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. Appointed for life, the members of the judiciary thus end up, time and again, little more than political pawns. Switzerland took a different approach, and lets the United Federal Assembly appoint the members of the Federal Supreme Court based on party proportional representation.\r\n\r\nAs already noted, the American constitutional fathers were sceptical of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and rejected his concept of sovereignty of the people. For that reason, they were wary of any forms of further participation in decision-making by the population within the framework of the \u003Cem\u003Eprinciple of democracy\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Lockean liberalism thus gained greater significance in the USA, because it took up the English utilitarian tradition more directly. But in the late 19th century, Switzerland once again became an important source of ideas for the USA, namely in terms of direct democracy."}},{blockName:"acf\u002Fimage-column",blockData:{left:{image:{id:62129,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en.jpg",alt:ce,title:ce,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:"Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia\u002F111Alleskönner",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-300x225.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-the-usa-en-320x320.jpg"},caption:ce},right:{image:{id:62120,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en.jpg",alt:ez,title:ez,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:"Illustration: Swiss National Museum, according to Wikimedia\u002FWufiCH",url:a},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en.jpg 1600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-300x225.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fpol-system-of-switzerland-en-320x320.jpg"},caption:"Switzerland’s political system."},joint:{caption:a,source:h}}},{blockName:G,blockData:{title:"The Populist Movement calls for a direct democracy as in Switzerland",size:H}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"After Switzerland had also introduced the referendum (1874) and the constitutional initiative (1891) at federal level, this direct democratic model became the subject of intensive discussion in the USA as well. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Populist Movement in the USA highlighted the close constitutional development of Switzerland and the USA, and called for more direct democracy based on the Swiss model. The ‘populists’ in the USA at that time were mainly representatives of the predominantly agricultural Midwest, who sought to curb the increasing power of big business and banks. In 1892 a political party was established: the ‘People’s Party’. With its demands for greater political involvement and weakening of ‘big business’, the party’s policies aligned with the interests of many Americans. In the 1892 elections the party achieved considerable success, and threatened to dismantle the two-party system in the USA which was based on the majority voting right. However, when the party decided in 1896 to form a coalition with the Democrats, it quickly lost influence. As an important result of the debate about direct democracy in Switzerland, in the next few years nearly half of the 50 states of the USA introduced some form of the referendum and the initiative. However, the introduction of more direct democracy at federal level has still not been achieved."}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:60947,url:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california.jpg",alt:cf,title:cf,height:1586,width:o,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:eA,url:eB},srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg 227w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-1162x1536.jpg 1162w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-340x450.jpg 340w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-567x750.jpg 567w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-681x900.jpg 681w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-454x600.jpg 454w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-1135x1500.jpg 1135w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-908x1200.jpg 908w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california.jpg 1200w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-227x300.jpg",square:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Floc-referendum-1972-california-320x320.jpg"},size:ai,caption:cf,source:{title:eA,url:eB}}},{blockName:r,blockData:{text:"For the democratic culture of the USA it would make perfect sense to revive the old relationships with the country’s ‘Sister Republic’ of Switzerland, and to reinstate the mutually beneficial back and forth of ideas. The two republics owe each other a great deal, and the learning process is still ongoing."}}];el.snm_model={categories:[{parent:h,order:Y,id:d,name:af,description:a,slug:ag,taxonomy:f,permalink:aj},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:h,order:at,id:b,name:au,description:a,slug:av,taxonomy:f,permalink:aD}],primaryCategory:e,comments:[],coordinates:h,id:bS,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"schweiz-und-usa-schwesterrepubliken"},fr:{single:"la-suisse-et-les-etats-unis-des-republiques-soeurs"}},slug:em,title:bT,excerpt:bU,postType:w,permalink:en,thumbnail:{id:eo,url:ep,alt:aW,title:aW,height:o,width:y,focus:{x:g,y:g},source:{title:eq,url:a},srcset:er,poster:es,square:et},date:1611129639,readableDate:"20.01.2021",modifiedDate:1611062721,readableModifiedDate:a,seoTitle:a,seoDescription:bU};eC.id=cg;eC.date="2019-10-18T08:00:22";eC.slug=eD;eC.type=w;eC.link=eE;eC.title={rendered:ch};eC.content={rendered:"\n\u003Cp\u003EThe term ‘militia’ (Miliz) refers to an organisational principle that is common in public life in Switzerland. Any citizen, male or female, who considers himself or herself capable of doing so can take on public duties and responsibilities on a part-time or voluntary basis. But being part of the citizen legislature involves much more than an additional job or voluntary position as understood in the charitable or non-profit sector. Rather, it refers to a republican identity which – if internalised – is one of the most important mainstays of our Swiss political culture. In that sense, the ‘militia’ principle is still firmly anchored in Switzerland’s political culture and is closely linked to the country’s system of direct democracy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe term Milizsystem, which is only used in Switzerland, originally comes from the field of warfare (lat. militia). Miliz, usually translated as ‘militia’, is actually the name for a vigilante group, or people’s army, as opposed to the regular army. The term was borrowed in the 17th century from lat. militia, ‘military service; body of the soldiery’, and was initially used primarily in the military sector, and later also for the political sphere.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EHISTORICAL ROOTS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe historical origins of the militia principle go back to ancient Greece or, more specifically, to Attic democracy and the early years of the Roman Republic. Even then, the term was used to refer to the exercise of civil office. In the ancient polis, the free and independent, landowning male citizens who were fit for military service met in the People’s Assembly to personally discuss and decide every individual matter. In addition, political offices were usually determined in short-term rotation by the drawing of lots. This was based on the belief that every citizen is obligated and competent to temporarily assume public functions (a system which, with the appropriate political education, would be worth reconsidering today…).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn addition to having their roots in antiquity, ancient Germanic institutions such as the Thing, which are based on old Germanic law, certainly also have their place (He who is honourable is worthy of defending). From the Late Middle Ages onwards, one legacy of these approaches to the concept of a citizen legislature has been the pre-modern collective democracy of the cantonal assembly (Landsgemeindedemokratie) operating in the Swiss Confederation. But clear indications of the militia principle are also found in the federal city cantons.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ENiccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) saw, in the old Confederation, the return of the Roman principle of the unity of citizen and soldier, and in his ground-breaking book Il Principe he espouses the principle that a republic such as the Confederation must rely on its own soldiery and not on foreign troops. In respect of the old Swiss Confederation, he therefore stated: ‘The Swiss are well armed and very free’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EThe cantonal assembly (Landsgemeinde) is a symbol of the Swiss system of citizen legislature. Here, the cantonal assembly of Glarus, 1941.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\nSwiss National Museum \u002F ASL\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EMilitia army\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn Switzerland, the principle of the people’s army, as opposed to the regular army, goes back to the citizen’s militias that were active in the individual confederate states in the Late Middle Ages. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) had the Swiss federal principle of the people’s army in mind when he wrote in 1772, in his opinion on the complete revision of Poland’s constitution after his return from exile in Switzerland: ‘Tout citoyen doit être soldat par devoir, nul ne doit l’être par métier. Tel fut le système militaire des Romains; tel est aujourd’hui celui des Suisses; tel doit être celui de tout État libre […].’ (‘All citizens should see being a soldier as their duty, not as a profession. Such was the case with the Roman military system; such is the case with the Swiss system today; and such should be the case with any free State […].’) Rousseau thus establishes the positive connection between citizen and soldier, between militia army and liberal state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EFollowing the model of the French and American revolutionary armies, the first constitution for Switzerland as a whole, the Helvetic Constitution of 1798, laid down the militia principle in Article 25, inter alia: ‘Every citizen is a born soldier of the Fatherland’. From 1830 onwards, the reframed cantonal constitutions then also adopted this principle. The Federal Constitutions of 1848 and 1874 approved compulsory military service (conscription) and prohibited the federal government from maintaining a standing army. It wasn’t until 1999 that the military Milizsystem was explicitly enshrined in the Federal Constitution, under Article 58: ‘Switzerland shall have armed forces. In principle, the armed forces shall be organised as a militia.’ Incidentally, this mention in the Constitution is the only reference to the ‘militia’ principle. The political ‘militia’ principle is thus to a large extent part of the unwritten constitutional tradition. That is likely why it has so far been given scant attention in the constitutional and historical research and literature on the old Swiss Confederation and modern Switzerland.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003ETHE CITIZEN LEGISLATURE SYSTEM IN POLITICS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ESince antiquity, there has been evidence that the militia system has also been carried over to the political sphere. From the 13th or 14th century onwards, the federal towns and cantonal assemblies already mentioned have implanted the militia concept in their populations; see, for example, the Federal Charter (Bundesbrief) of 1291, and other founding documents of the Swiss Confederation. The political roots of the militia system are therefore firmly planted in the Ancien Régime. The principle of voluntary, non-paid action has left its mark on scores of cooperative forms of organisation on the territory of present-day Switzerland. The collective relied on the ‘most able’, on their willingness to sacrifice their time and resources for the community. No doubt the Christian principle of caritas – that is, the duty to provide assistance to the sick, the handicapped, the poor and the destitute – was also at work, as reflected in an array of charitable voluntary organisations such as the Samaritans.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EBeat Ludwig von Muralt (1665-1749), an Early Enlightenment philosopher from Bern, and the Basel Enlightenment philosopher Isaac Iselin (1728-1782) called for Switzerland to create a republican identity of its own. Within this framework they emphasised the concept of the militia and the principle of mutual interest, laying the foundations, with their philosophical writings, for a discussion of virtue. Republican values such as courage, thrift, mutual aid, trust in one’s own judgement and contempt for courtly grandeur were necessary in order to establish a national self-image and a Swiss communal republic. Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Philipp Albert Stapfer (1766-1840) then developed these ideas further, creating connections between the modern republicanism based on the idea of the militia, and Switzerland’s early liberalism.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EGraphic print with a portrait of Isaac Iselin, about 1780.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe reframed cantonal constitutions from 1830 onwards then explicitly carried over the militia system to the municipalities and their system of self-government. In all public affairs, citizens were required to shoulder their share of responsibility for the local community. This was the basis on which the republican form of government was founded, and from which it continues to draw its vitality. It was therefore common for the key positions in government to be occupied for the term of office not by salaried municipal authorities or civil servants, but by ordinary citizens.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ETogether with the associations and societies which took hold in the 19th century, in political terms the ‘militia’ principle is still a fundamental characteristic of our federalist, populist nation, at municipal, cantonal and federal level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n};eC.excerpt={rendered:"\u003Cp\u003EEven today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. But what does the term ‘militia’ actually mean? And how did this system come about?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca class=\"button\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F\"\u003Eread more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E",protected:n,rendered_internal:"\u003Cp\u003EEven today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. But what does the term ‘militia’ actually mean? And how did this system come about?\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"};eC.yoast_head="\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ESwiss History – Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"Even today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. 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And how did this system come about?\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FUrne_Twitter.jpg\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Verfasst von\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"René Roca\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Geschätzte Lesezeit\" \u002F\u003E\n\t\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"6 Minuten\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss History – Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2019-10-18T06:00:22+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2020-09-01T07:46:00+00:00\",\"author\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\"},\"description\":\"Even today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. 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Flag ceremony on Bern’s Bundesplatz, 1945.\u003Cbr\u003E\nSwiss National Museum",lead:"Even today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is a central tenet of the country’s political culture. But what does the term ‘militia’ actually mean? And how did this system come about?",author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae}}},{blockName:ci,blockData:{content:"\n\u003Cp\u003EThe term ‘militia’ (Miliz) refers to an organisational principle that is common in public life in Switzerland. Any citizen, male or female, who considers himself or herself capable of doing so can take on public duties and responsibilities on a part-time or voluntary basis. But being part of the citizen legislature involves much more than an additional job or voluntary position as understood in the charitable or non-profit sector. Rather, it refers to a republican identity which – if internalised – is one of the most important mainstays of our Swiss political culture. In that sense, the ‘militia’ principle is still firmly anchored in Switzerland’s political culture and is closely linked to the country’s system of direct democracy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe term Milizsystem, which is only used in Switzerland, originally comes from the field of warfare (lat. militia). Miliz, usually translated as ‘militia’, is actually the name for a vigilante group, or people’s army, as opposed to the regular army. The term was borrowed in the 17th century from lat. militia, ‘military service; body of the soldiery’, and was initially used primarily in the military sector, and later also for the political sphere.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EHISTORICAL ROOTS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe historical origins of the militia principle go back to ancient Greece or, more specifically, to Attic democracy and the early years of the Roman Republic. Even then, the term was used to refer to the exercise of civil office. In the ancient polis, the free and independent, landowning male citizens who were fit for military service met in the People’s Assembly to personally discuss and decide every individual matter. In addition, political offices were usually determined in short-term rotation by the drawing of lots. This was based on the belief that every citizen is obligated and competent to temporarily assume public functions (a system which, with the appropriate political education, would be worth reconsidering today…).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn addition to having their roots in antiquity, ancient Germanic institutions such as the Thing, which are based on old Germanic law, certainly also have their place (He who is honourable is worthy of defending). From the Late Middle Ages onwards, one legacy of these approaches to the concept of a citizen legislature has been the pre-modern collective democracy of the cantonal assembly (Landsgemeindedemokratie) operating in the Swiss Confederation. But clear indications of the militia principle are also found in the federal city cantons.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ENiccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) saw, in the old Confederation, the return of the Roman principle of the unity of citizen and soldier, and in his ground-breaking book Il Principe he espouses the principle that a republic such as the Confederation must rely on its own soldiery and not on foreign troops. In respect of the old Swiss Confederation, he therefore stated: ‘The Swiss are well armed and very free’.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:28055,url:eI,alt:a,title:a,height:1047,width:bj,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus-287x300.jpg 287w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus-768x804.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus-978x1024.jpg 978w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus.jpg 1000w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus-287x300.jpg",square:eI},size:L,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:ci,blockData:{content:"\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EThe cantonal assembly (Landsgemeinde) is a symbol of the Swiss system of citizen legislature. Here, the cantonal assembly of Glarus, 1941.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\nSwiss National Museum \u002F ASL\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003EMilitia army\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EIn Switzerland, the principle of the people’s army, as opposed to the regular army, goes back to the citizen’s militias that were active in the individual confederate states in the Late Middle Ages. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) had the Swiss federal principle of the people’s army in mind when he wrote in 1772, in his opinion on the complete revision of Poland’s constitution after his return from exile in Switzerland: ‘Tout citoyen doit être soldat par devoir, nul ne doit l’être par métier. Tel fut le système militaire des Romains; tel est aujourd’hui celui des Suisses; tel doit être celui de tout État libre […].’ (‘All citizens should see being a soldier as their duty, not as a profession. Such was the case with the Roman military system; such is the case with the Swiss system today; and such should be the case with any free State […].’) Rousseau thus establishes the positive connection between citizen and soldier, between militia army and liberal state.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EFollowing the model of the French and American revolutionary armies, the first constitution for Switzerland as a whole, the Helvetic Constitution of 1798, laid down the militia principle in Article 25, inter alia: ‘Every citizen is a born soldier of the Fatherland’. From 1830 onwards, the reframed cantonal constitutions then also adopted this principle. The Federal Constitutions of 1848 and 1874 approved compulsory military service (conscription) and prohibited the federal government from maintaining a standing army. It wasn’t until 1999 that the military Milizsystem was explicitly enshrined in the Federal Constitution, under Article 58: ‘Switzerland shall have armed forces. In principle, the armed forces shall be organised as a militia.’ Incidentally, this mention in the Constitution is the only reference to the ‘militia’ principle. The political ‘militia’ principle is thus to a large extent part of the unwritten constitutional tradition. That is likely why it has so far been given scant attention in the constitutional and historical research and literature on the old Swiss Confederation and modern Switzerland.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Ch3\u003ETHE CITIZEN LEGISLATURE SYSTEM IN POLITICS\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ESince antiquity, there has been evidence that the militia system has also been carried over to the political sphere. From the 13th or 14th century onwards, the federal towns and cantonal assemblies already mentioned have implanted the militia concept in their populations; see, for example, the Federal Charter (Bundesbrief) of 1291, and other founding documents of the Swiss Confederation. The political roots of the militia system are therefore firmly planted in the Ancien Régime. The principle of voluntary, non-paid action has left its mark on scores of cooperative forms of organisation on the territory of present-day Switzerland. The collective relied on the ‘most able’, on their willingness to sacrifice their time and resources for the community. No doubt the Christian principle of caritas – that is, the duty to provide assistance to the sick, the handicapped, the poor and the destitute – was also at work, as reflected in an array of charitable voluntary organisations such as the Samaritans.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EBeat Ludwig von Muralt (1665-1749), an Early Enlightenment philosopher from Bern, and the Basel Enlightenment philosopher Isaac Iselin (1728-1782) called for Switzerland to create a republican identity of its own. Within this framework they emphasised the concept of the militia and the principle of mutual interest, laying the foundations, with their philosophical writings, for a discussion of virtue. Republican values such as courage, thrift, mutual aid, trust in one’s own judgement and contempt for courtly grandeur were necessary in order to establish a national self-image and a Swiss communal republic. Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Philipp Albert Stapfer (1766-1840) then developed these ideas further, creating connections between the modern republicanism based on the idea of the militia, and Switzerland’s early liberalism.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}},{blockName:A,blockData:{image:{id:28067,url:eJ,alt:a,title:a,height:751,width:cj,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FIsaac-Iselin-240x300.jpg 240w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FIsaac-Iselin.jpg 600w",poster:"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FIsaac-Iselin-240x300.jpg",square:eJ},size:ai,caption:a,source:[n]}},{blockName:ci,blockData:{content:"\n\u003Cp style=\"text-align: center;\" class=\"migrated-caption\"\u003EGraphic print with a portrait of Isaac Iselin, about 1780.\u003Cbr \u002F\u003E\nSwiss National Museum\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003EThe reframed cantonal constitutions from 1830 onwards then explicitly carried over the militia system to the municipalities and their system of self-government. In all public affairs, citizens were required to shoulder their share of responsibility for the local community. This was the basis on which the republican form of government was founded, and from which it continues to draw its vitality. It was therefore common for the key positions in government to be occupied for the term of office not by salaried municipal authorities or civil servants, but by ordinary citizens.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp\u003ETogether with the associations and societies which took hold in the 19th century, in political terms the ‘militia’ principle is still a fundamental characteristic of our federalist, populist nation, at municipal, cantonal and federal level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E"}}];eC.snm_model={categories:[{parent:h,order:Y,id:d,name:af,description:a,slug:ag,taxonomy:f,permalink:aj},{parent:h,order:O,id:e,name:P,description:a,slug:Q,taxonomy:f,permalink:T},{parent:h,order:at,id:b,name:au,description:a,slug:av,taxonomy:f,permalink:aD}],primaryCategory:d,comments:[],coordinates:h,id:cg,author:{title:a,mail:a,website:a,link:V,portrait:{id:_,url:$,alt:a,title:aa,height:x,width:x,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:ab,poster:ac,square:ad},id:W,name:X,description:ae},language:C,availableLanguages:{de:{single:"milizsystem-in-der-schweiz"},fr:{single:"systeme-de-milice-en-suisse"}},slug:eD,title:ch,excerpt:eK,postType:w,permalink:eE,thumbnail:{id:34917,url:bi,alt:a,title:a,height:eF,width:bB,focus:{x:j,y:j},source:n,srcset:eG,poster:eH,square:bi},date:1571385622,readableDate:"18.10.2019",modifiedDate:1598953560,readableModifiedDate:eL,seoTitle:"Swiss History – Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system",seoDescription:eK};return {layout:"default",data:[{}],fetch:{"data-v-ecdb438c:0":{author:cE,posts:[cF,da,dt,dO,el,eC],page:ck,total:6,totalPages:ck}},error:h,state:{options:{general:{isBlogBanner:eM,algoliaIndex:"prod_snm_blog"},pages:{landing:{id:cl,date:"2018-10-30T10:14:09",slug:eN,type:bk,link:eO,title:{rendered:eP},content:{rendered:"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",protected:n},excerpt:{rendered:a,protected:n},yoast_head:"\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ESwiss history blog - Swiss national museum\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"description\" content=\"The Swiss National Museum’s blog provides information about historical events, presents objects from the past or places topical news in a historical context. 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To also receive the blog newsletter, click on «Adjust settings» in the newsletter of the Swiss National Museum, which you received at this address.",previewNotFoundTitle:"Preview not found",previewNotFoundText:"The preview has expired or could not be found",imageOf:"Image % of",backButton:"Back",sliderLeft:"To the left",sliderRight:"To the right",mapSearch:"Search location",mapBackgroundTitle:"Select background",mapBackgroundBasis:"Classic map",mapBackgroundSatellite:"Satellite image",mapBackgroundHistory:"Historic map",mapFilterTitle:"mapFilterTitle",mapFilterAll:"mapFilterAll"}},menu:{visible:n},adminBar:{visible:n},banner:{visible:n},nonce:"464969bdff",i18nTransition:n,author:{authors:[{id:W,name:X,description:"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffidd.ch\u002F\"\u003Efidd.ch\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.",link:V,slug:gE,yoast_head:"\u003C!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.6 (Yoast SEO v23.6) - https:\u002F\u002Fyoast.com\u002Fwordpress\u002Fplugins\u002Fseo\u002F --\u003E\n\u003Ctitle\u003ERené Roca, Autor bei Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\u003C\u002Ftitle\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"de_DE\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:type\" content=\"profile\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:title\" content=\"René Roca, Autor bei Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=500&d=mm&r=g\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cmeta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@LMZurich\" \u002F\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\"application\u002Fld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\"\u003E{\"@context\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fschema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"ProfilePage\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\",\"name\":\"René Roca, Autor bei Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\"},\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#website\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F\",\"name\":\"Swiss National Museum - Swiss history blog\",\"description\":\"Background and stories about the collection and exhibition\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\"},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002F579bdc55258119c12f3993428e67a43a\",\"name\":\"René Roca\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"de-CH\",\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F#\u002Fschema\u002Fperson\u002Fimage\u002F\",\"url\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002Ff76f88456260c2dd499447037a2c12c8?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"René Roca\"},\"description\":\"René Roca ist promovierter Historiker, Gymnasiallehrer und leitet das Forschungsinstitut direkte Demokratie fidd.ch.\",\"sameAs\":[\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fidd.ch\"],\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F\"}}]}\u003C\u002Fscript\u003E\n\u003C!-- \u002F Yoast SEO Premium plugin. --\u003E",snm_model:cE}]},category:{categories:[]},comment:{comments:[]},post:{post:n,posts:[cF,da,dt,dO,el,eC]},route:{name:"author-author___en",path:cC,hash:a,query:{},params:{author:gE},fullPath:cC,meta:{},from:{name:h,path:cD,hash:a,query:{},params:{},fullPath:cD,meta:{}}},i18n:{routeParams:{}}},serverRendered:eM,routePath:cC,config:{algoliaApiKey:"QAQEHLLWP9",algoliaApplicationId:"94b5ff7e52342d74d0962965962016e1",_app:{basePath:cD,assetsPath:"\u002F_nuxt\u002F",cdnURL:h}}}}("",799,85,62,105,"category","50",null,80,50,798,132,117,false,1200,75,486,"acf\u002Ftext","Swiss National Museum",59,110,10866,"post",400,1600,0,"acf\u002Fimage",94,"en",39551,97,"0","acf\u002Ftitle","h2",120,89,134,"regular",38183,128,"13","Politics","politics",84,82,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002F",123,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F",37,"René Roca","4","raw",121060,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca.jpg","ReneRoca","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-160x160.jpg 160w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-320x320.jpg 320w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca.jpg 400w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-300x300.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Freneroca-320x320.jpg","René Roca has a PhD in history and is a secondary school teacher and Director of the Research Institute for Direct Democracy \u003Ca class=\"link decoration\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffidd.ch\u002F\"\u003Efidd.ch\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.","Modern Age","modern-age",57,"small","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fmodern-age\u002F",40622,"12",143,"Economy","economy",38674,42425,"5","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002F","21","Article","article",41213,"20th \u002F 21st century","20-21-century",40263,33376,114,53,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Farticle\u002F","14","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002F20-21-century\u002F","15","acf\u002Ftitle-fullbleed","3","Society","society","Culture","culture",35740,42250,40465,"Three Leagues, one Free State. Graubünden’s past is more democratic than you might think. Illustration by Marco Heer","Middle Ages","middle-ages","On voting weekends, posters like this one summon voters to the ballot box.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fsociety\u002F","Propaganda postcard for the introduction of the proportional representation system, around 1910.","The Constitution of the United States with its famous preamble ‘We the People’ (left), and an excerpt from the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fculture\u002F",500,42809,39239,153740,"Direct democracy in the Free State of the Three Leagues","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fmiddle-ages\u002F",121577,"Helvetia, enthroned in the centre, is crowned with a laurel wreath as she brandishes the new Federal Constitution. Instead of the usual allegories, she is flanked on both sides by citizens depicted in military uniform and in civilian dress, embodying the people as the supreme political authority.",42116,"Zentralbibliothek Zürich","The Federal Council on the occasion of its “extra muros” meeting on April 24, 2013 together with the Vaudois government and the Nyon municipal council in the Château de Prangins.","Swiss National Museum \u002F ASL","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel.jpg",1000,"page","11","Religion","religion-en","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner.jpg","Katrin Brunner",32953,37286,156,1397,"series","Historical map of the Free State of the Three Leagues.","The topography influenced life in the Free State and problems could only be solved by working together. Picture of Clemja bridge near Vulpers, 19th century.","Noblemen like Ulysses von Salis soon became part of the League.","Federal Charter of 1524 in which the three Leagues officially joined forces.","Three become one: the coat of arms of the canton of Graubünden is a combination of the emblems of the three Leagues.","The Confederation's policy of concordance",2500,"Kasimir Pfyffer on a visiting card portrait, circa 1850.","Conservative caricature lampooning the revision of the Federal Treaty of 1815.","General Dufour on a print dating from 1862.","Federal Constitution of 1848.","Exhibitions","exhibitions","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fexhibitions\u002F",98395,"Direct democracy in Switzerland","The Glarus Landsgemeinde, the cantonal assembly, on a postcard dating from around 1895.","A fundamental pillar of direct democracy: education for all. “Das Schulexamen” by Albert Anker, 1862.","Carving up territory as a result of the conflict between town and countryside.","Portrait of Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780-1866).",78411,"Using the ‘magic formula’ to achieve concordance","Parties in the Federal Council since 1848.",62110,"Switzerland and the USA: sister republics","At first glance, the USA and Switzerland seem like two very different countries. But a look back at their shared history springs a few surprises. It shows how closely the political systems of the two nations are related to one another.","John Locke, 1697.","Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, 1728.","Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, around 1799.","Emer de Vattel, around 1760.","Jean-Jacques Rousseau, around 1763.","Thomas Jefferson, 1800.","The White House Historical Association","John Adams, around 1792.","James Madison, 1816.","Wikimedia","The Swiss woman (standing on the rock and dressed in traditional costume) recommends the referendum to her sisters the USA, Germany, France and Great Britain (from left to right). Drawing in the magazine The Cosmopolitan, No XV\u002F3 (July 1893).","The political system of the USA (thin arrows indicate rights of confirmation or veto).","Campaign poster for a California referendum on legalising cannabis, 1972.",36607,"Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system","snm\u002Fclassic",600,1,21881,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Freligion-en\u002F","Alexander Rechsteiner","André Perler",111934,"Andrea Weidemann","1","2",157109,156124,153207,155075,89986,42122,645,139,53170,"\u002Fen\u002Fauthor\u002Frene-roca\u002F","\u002F",{},{},"direct-democracy-in-the-free-state-of-the-three-leagues","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F09\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-the-free-state-of-the-three-leagues\u002F",143991,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde.jpg","62.6","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fdrei-bunde-320x320.jpg","Direct democracy was already practised in the area that is now Graubünden over 500 years ago.","Wikimedia \u002F Marco Zanoli","https:\u002F\u002Fcommons.wikimedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Geschichte_Graubuenden.png",1571,"https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100729893","https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100489057","The coats of arms of the three leagues (from left): the Grey League, the League of God’s House and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions.","The oath of the Grey League in Trun, where the barons of Rhäzüns called the shots. Sketch by Horace de Saussure, 1902.","State Archives of Graubünden, StAGR A I\u002F1 No. 73","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.gr.ch\u002FDE\u002FMedien\u002FMitteilungen\u002FMMStaka\u002F2023\u002FPublishingImages\u002FStAGR_A-I-01-073_Urkunde__w_1600__h_0.jpg","No common treasury, no common currency. Taler coin from the league of God’s House, 16th century.","https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100286524","46.773954810858704","9.204614156802515",{},"the-confederations-policy-of-concordance","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F06\u002Fthe-confederations-policy-of-concordance\u002F","\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",121030,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg",1222,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-300x229.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1536x1173.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-450x344.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-750x573.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-900x687.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-600x458.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1500x1146.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-1200x917.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-300x229.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002FPolitischer-Ausgleich-Titel-1-320x320.jpg","The Swiss Confederation has had a constitution since 1848. Yet the history of this legal document, which is still in force today, dates back much further. It would be almost impossible to imagine the federal state in its current form without this historical prelude.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Frevslider\u002Fgenesis-2\u002Fsonderbundskrieg.jpg","The Sonderbund War of 1847 was the last armed conflict on Swiss soil.","https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100139238","List of troop contingents in accordance with the Defensionale of Wil, 1647.","https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100100794","https:\u002F\u002Fpermalink.nationalmuseum.ch\u002F100159373","46.94884300670826","7.445937348400391",{},"direct-democracy-in-switzerland","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F05\u002Fdirect-democracy-in-switzerland\u002F",97824,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg","68","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fon-vote-titel-320x320.jpg","Of all the world’s democracies, Switzerland has the most extensive elements of direct democracy. The historical roots of this political structure lie in the country’s relatively well-developed educational system, and the rural uprisings of the 19th century.","Wikimedia \u002F Kunstmuseum Bern","https:\u002F\u002Fde.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FDatei:Albert_Anker_-_Das_Schulexamen.jpg ","https:\u002F\u002Fuzb.swisscovery.slsp.ch\u002Fdiscovery\u002Ffulldisplay?vid=41SLSP_UZB:UZB&search_scope=DiscoveryNetwork&tab=41SLSP_UZB_DN&docid=alma991041192209705501&lang=en&context=L","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.e-rara.ch\u002Fzuz\u002Fcontent\u002Fzoom\u002F14789918 ","Symbolic reminder of the pre-modern democratic institutions in the chamber of the Council of States. “Die Landsgemeinde” mural by Albert Welti and Wilhelm Balmer, 1917.","Parliamentary services","https:\u002F\u002Fmedia-parl.ch\u002Fpicture.php?\u002F578\u002Fcategory\u002F44 ","Education","education","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fsociety\u002Feducation\u002F",1652427000,{},"using-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F09\u002Fusing-the-magic-formula-to-achieve-concordance\u002F",78146,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fextra-muros-2013-prangins-320x320.jpg","Concordance is a model of democracy that promotes consensus and ensures internal peace, and it is a hallmark of Switzerland’s political system. The system came into being at the beginning of the 20th century. ","National Council Chamber","Parliamentary Services Bern",60950,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938.jpg",1052,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1536x1010.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-450x296.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-750x493.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-900x592.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-600x395.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1500x986.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-1200x789.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-300x197.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Fmajorz-proporz-col-7467_lm-736938-320x320.jpg","Election of Hans-Peter Tschudi on December 17, 1959","acf\u002Fimage-slider","The Federal Council in 2004","The Federal Council in 2008","The Federal Council in 2016","Voting poster, 1977.","acf\u002Fimage-fullbleed",640,{},"switzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2021\u002F01\u002Fswitzerland-and-the-usa-sister-republics\u002F",60962,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg","Wikimedia \u002F Swiss National Museum","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-450x338.jpg 450w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-750x563.jpg 750w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-900x675.jpg 900w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-600x450.jpg 600w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1500x1125.jpg 1500w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa.jpg 1600w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-300x225.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002Ftitel-verfassungen-ch-usa-320x320.jpg","To mark the 700th anniversary of the Swiss Confederation in 1991, the US postal service and Swiss Post issued a joint postage stamp. The stamp depicts the Capitol in Washington and the federal parliament building, the Bundeshaus, in Bern.","The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776, depicted in the painting by John Trumbull (1756-1843), 1819. The painting is 5.5 m wide and now hangs in the Capitol.","https:\u002F\u002Fen.wikipedia.org\u002Fwiki\u002FFile:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg ","HathiTrust","https:\u002F\u002Fhdl.handle.net\u002F2027\u002Fmdp.39015009215891?urlappend=%3Bseq=335 ","Switzerland’s political system","Library of Congress","https:\u002F\u002Fwww.loc.gov\u002Fitem\u002F2016648779\u002F ",{},"militia-system-in-switzerland","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2019\u002F10\u002Fmilitia-system-in-switzerland\u002F",1305,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel-300x157.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel-768x401.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel-1024x535.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel-1500x783.jpg 1500w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FMiliz_Titel-300x157.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FLandsgemeinde-Glarus.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F10\u002FIsaac-Iselin.jpg","Even today, Switzerland’s ‘militia’ system of citizen legislature (Milizsystem) is central to the country’s system of government. But what does the term ‘militia’ actually mean? And how did this system come about?","01.09.2020",true,"home","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F","Swiss National Museum History Blog",21633,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2018\u002F12\u002Fsilent-night-the-story-of-a-christmas-carol\u002F","War\u002Fbattle","war-battle","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002Fwar-battle\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F12\u002Fchristmas-truce1914.jpg",133419,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2023\u002F11\u002Ffrom-vesuvius-to-moscow-without-leaving-switzerland\u002F","Nature","nature-en","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fsociety\u002Fnature-en\u002F","The whole wide world reflected in Swiss place names. Illustration by Marco Heer.","36","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F12\u002Fthe-dream-of-a-quick-profit\u002F","47.39153492497094","8.506817687573433","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F07\u002FWaidemann.jpg","The dream of a quick profit","Scene in London’s “Change Alley” in 1720",156796,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fbreisach-a-hotspot-of-european-history\u002F","Protohistory","protohistory","Classical antiquity","classical-antiquity","Kurt Messmer","The cathedral – the town’s emblematic monument. The Münsterberg hill, Breisach.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fgenevas-italian-side\u002F","46.20538982183319","6.140600749264616","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F01\u002FChristophe_Vuilleumier.jpg","Geneva’s Italian side","The Turrettini family’s influence is evident wherever you look in Geneva. View over the Quai Turrettini, circa 1940.",157206,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fcocoa-in-ghana-how-it-all-began\u002F","Research","research","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002Fresearch\u002F","Colonialism","colonialism","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Fpolitics\u002Fcolonialism\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2017\u002F03\u002Ficon-1.jpg","Pascale Meyer","Local workers and a supervisor dressed in ‘colonial whites’ at a cocoa drying area run by the Basel Mission Trading Company in Accra in what is now Ghana (1904\u002F1905).","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F11\u002Fthe-genesis-of-modern-mountain-rescue\u002F","Tourism","tourism","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Fcategory\u002Feconomy\u002Ftourism\u002F","46.615927946921076","8.195679213316776","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fauthor\u002Fkatrin-brunner\u002F",39516,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner.jpg 500w","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2019\u002F12\u002FKatrin-Brunner-300x300.jpg",104,"Katrin Brunner is a self-employed journalist specialising in history and chronicler of Niederweningen.","The birth of aerial mountain rescue","With their feet, the stranded passengers wrote the French word “fini” (meaning “finish”) in the snow to stop the dangerous air drops of supplies.","19.11.2024","Subscribe to the blog","We will inform you about new articles every two weeks.","Enter your email address","beige","The famous mountain doctor from Emmental","7.7846760449605314","46.94221034691882","Visiting the Rigi used to make people ill, why?","8.485467561045732","47.056767897967035","Escape to Switzerland",96,"Emperor Haile Selassie, God of the Rastafarians","7.509459851780047","47.04796350886161",102,153,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F10\u002Fvisiting-the-rigi-used-to-make-people-ill-why\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2022\u002F01\u002Femperor-haile-selassie-god-of-the-rastafarians\u002F","22","Series","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F04\u002Fmurielle-schlup.jpg",521,"Emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975), who was crowned ‘King of Kings’ in Addis Ababa in 1930, was believed in Ethiopia to have been chosen by God. The Rastafarians in Jamaica even ‘recognised’ him as their Messiah and God. A look at the dual ‘careers’ of a 20th-century figure who was as remarkable as he was controversial.","Haile Selassie I in his limousine during his state visit to Bern on 25 November 1954. His headdress is decorated with a lion’s mane.",149095,"https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F06\u002Fsexuality-in-the-middle-ages\u002F","Detail from The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch, 1490-1500.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002F2024\u002F10\u002Fthe-famous-mountain-doctor-from-emmental\u002F","Michael Schüppach in his ‘apothecary’ in Langnau im Emmental. Print, circa 1775.","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fapp\u002Fuploads\u002F2018\u002F04\u002FS.jpg","article-not-found","https:\u002F\u002Fblog.nationalmuseum.ch\u002Fen\u002Farticle-not-found\u002F","Article not found",24,92,"Search","rene-roca"));</script><script src="/_nuxt/3fbaa83.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/f5bb0c0.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/6b9286a.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/b94f6da.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/1cd886d.js" defer></script><script src="/_nuxt/a3fb2e5.js" defer></script><script data-n-head="ssr" src="https://api3.geo.admin.ch/loader.js?version=4.4.2" data-body="true"></script> </body> </html>