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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Zhou Houkun</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="nickname" lang="zh">周厚坤</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg/220px-Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg/330px-Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Zhou_Houkun_1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="526" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Zhou in 1914</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1890</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a>, Jiangsu, Qing China</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">After 1959</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> design</td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Zhou Houkun</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">周厚坤</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Zhōu Hòukūn</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Chou1 Hou4-k'un1</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Zhou Houkun</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">周厚坤</span>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1890</span> – after 1959<sup id="cite_ref-:3_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), also written <b>Chow Hou-kun</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a Chinese engineer and inventor best known for his <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> design. Born in <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi, China</a>, Zhou was selected for the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a> and arrived in the United States in 1910. There, he attended the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT), studying a range of engineering fields. At MIT, he assisted in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> and researched the use of <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>. </p><p>While studying at MIT, Zhou developed a prototype for a Chinese typewriter, which could produce 4,000 common <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>. His prototype received international attention and was featured in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a></i>. He returned to China in an effort to mass-produce the typewriter alongside the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a>; due to poor production quality, Zhou never saw the mass production of his design. After his contract with Commercial Press ended, he worked as an engineer for various Chinese companies, as the <a href="/wiki/Editor-in-chief" title="Editor-in-chief">chief editor</a> of the <i>Journal of The Chinese Engineering Society,</i> and as the vice president of Shanghai Industrial Junior College, which he cofounded in 1940. He fled from China during <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">its communist revolution</a> and retired in the United States. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zhou Houkun was born in <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi, China</a>, sometime between 1889 and 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His family had previously attained wealth through <a href="/wiki/Silkworm_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Silkworm farming">silkworm farming</a>. Zhou's mother died when he was young; his father was the first in his family to become a <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">Confucian scholar</a> instead of a farmer or merchant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202252_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202252-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou attended <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanyang_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nanyang College (page does not exist)">Nanyang College</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%8B%E5%85%AC%E5%AD%A6" class="extiw" title="zh:南洋公学">zh</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Jiaotong_University" title="Southwest Jiaotong University">Tangshan Railway and Mining College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zhou was selected as an <a href="/wiki/Indemnity_Scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Indemnity Scholar">Indemnity Scholar</a> in 1910, giving him and other Chinese students the opportunity to travel abroad and study in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137–138_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137–138-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He departed from Shanghai on 16 August of that year<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202253_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arrived in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> on 11 September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017137-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From there, Zhou travelled to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>, studying <a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">railway engineering</a> for a year. He then transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and studied <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aeronautical engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At MIT, Zhou assisted in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Clarke_Hunsaker" title="Jerome Clarke Hunsaker">Jerome Clarke Hunsaker</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202255_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202255-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed an ink-grinding machine in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He participated in the university's Cosmopolitan Club, Rifle Club, and the Chinese Students' Alliance,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202255_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202255-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which he was the president.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring of 1914, Zhou graduated MIT with bachelor's degrees in <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">naval architecture</a>. He wrote two theses that year; the first was on the use of <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> to reinforce <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a><sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202257_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202257-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was the first to conduct experiments combining the two materials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021693_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021693-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His second thesis was entitled "The Effect of Time on the Elongation and Set of Copper and Composition Wires".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1915,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper20044_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper20044-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he received his <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> in aeronautical engineering at MIT, the first such degree awarded in the field in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper200433_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper200433-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His thesis "Experimental Determination of Damping Coefficients in the Stability of Aeroplanes" was featured in the periodical <i>Aerial Age Weekly</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_typewriter">Chinese typewriter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chinese typewriter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At a 1912 <a href="/wiki/Trade_show" title="Trade show">trade show</a>, hosted at the <a href="/wiki/Mechanics_Hall_(Boston,_Massachusetts)" title="Mechanics Hall (Boston, Massachusetts)">Mechanics Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Zhou witnessed the operation of a <a href="/wiki/Monotype_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotype machine">Monotype machine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202244_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202244-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inspired, he sought to create an equivalent machine for the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202245_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202245-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He quickly understood that due to fundamental differences between <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and Chinese, his <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a> would require a drastically different design than what was standard at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017139_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017139-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou opposed the modification or abandonment of Chinese in order to more easily adapt to alphabet-based technologies, and believed that the development of a Chinese typewriter was a problem of engineering, not of the language itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138–139_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017138–139-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPretel_&_Camprubí201828_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPretel_&_Camprubí201828-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Beginning work in the summer of 1914,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202257_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202257-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou reviewed the manuals for <a href="/wiki/Devello_Sheffield" class="mw-redirect" title="Devello Sheffield">Devello Sheffield</a>'s older <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> design, noting its shortcomings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202262_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202262-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou first assigned each <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese character</a> to a spot on a flat grid, then imposed the grids over four cylinders, each 10 inches (25 cm) long and capable of holding up to 1,500 characters. This approach allowed his typewriter to print a similar amount of characters to Sheffield's design,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was the size of a "small table",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202261_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202261-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while occupying much less space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The characters were sorted by their <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_radicals" title="Kangxi radicals">Kangxi radicals</a> and stroke counts and were typed using a selector needle, which was placed over the letter and pressed. Pressing the selector needle over a character caused a hammer to strike it into the paper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202263_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202263-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou selected 4,000 commonly-used characters for his first prototype,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202264_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which ended up measuring 24 by 36 inches (61 by 91 cm) and weighing 40 pounds (18 kg).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202262_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202262-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png/220px-Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png/330px-Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Zhou_Houkun_with_his_typewriter.png 2x" data-file-width="387" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Zhou with his typewriter in 1917</figcaption></figure><p>Days before Zhou published an article detailing the technical aspects and difficulties of the development of his typewriter in <i>The Chinese Student's Monthly</i>, multiple newspapers published stories on the typewriter developed by Qi Xuan (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">祁暄</span><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), a student at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202264–65_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202264–65-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qi's design differed by Zhou's in that it broke characters into separate elements, instead of maintaining them whole, thus potentially allowing more characters to be typed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202267_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202267-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017149_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017149-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhou criticized Qi's design in his 1915 <i>Chinese Student's Monthly</i> article, specifically attacking his approach of splitting the characters into pieces; Zhou believed that it was imperative to keep the characters in the whole form in which they were written.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202269_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202269-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qi's response, which defended his modular design and insulted Zhou's intelligence, was published in <i>The Chinese Student's Monthly</i> shortly after.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202270_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202270-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zhou and Qi's feud notwithstanding, Zhou's typewriter received widespread attention internationally.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1916 <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">New York Times</a></i> article described his invention in detail, concluding with Zhou's belief that his invention would become popular among Chinese offices and writers.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A photograph of him and his invention appeared in the April 1917 issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017145-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_China">Return to China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Return to China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following his graduation from MIT, Zhou was briefly employed by the <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_Aeroplane_and_Motor_Company" title="Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company">Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motivated by his desire to mass-produce his typewriter for the Chinese people's use, as well as to care for his aging father, he decided against remaining in America.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bringing the prototype with him, he left the United States and returned to Shanghai in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Press" title="Commercial Press">Commercial Press</a> in Shanghai agreed to finance the development and production of his design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the publicity his typewriter had attained, Zhou received many invitations to give speeches across China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a speech given on 22 July 1916, he implored a crowd to value manual labor and industry over China's "feeble" scholar class.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273–74_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273–74-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just ten days after Zhou's return to China, his father died of a sudden illness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite Zhou's high expectations, he quickly encountered issues in the mass production of his prototype. China's industrial capabilities were far inferior to those of the United States at that time, leading to much lower production quality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202281–82_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202281–82-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of the ten factories in China with which Zhou worked met his standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202282_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202282-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a meeting with Commercial Press director <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Yuanji&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Yuanji (page does not exist)">Zhang Yuanji</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B5%E5%85%83%E6%BF%9F" class="extiw" title="zh:張元濟">zh</a>]</span> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">張元濟</span><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), Zhou asked for permission to work with American factories; instead, Zhang released Zhou from his contract.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercial Press employee Shu Zhendong (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">舒震东</span><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) took over the project and improved on Zhou's design;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shu's Chinese typewriter became the first to reach mass production.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following his tenure at Commercial Press, Zhou worked as an engineer for various companies, including Han Yeh Ping Iron and Coal Company, Mobile Shanghai and Texaco Shanghai. He was also the <a href="/wiki/Editor-in-chief" title="Editor-in-chief">chief editor</a> of the <i>Journal of The Chinese Engineering Society</i> and the vice president of Shanghai Industrial Junior College, which he cofounded in 1940. In addition to his typewriter, he also designed an "impact-proof ship" in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fleeing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese communist revolution</a>, Zhou emigrated from China in 1949 and returned to the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where he eventually retired. There is no record of Zhou ever marrying.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was still alive by 1959, as he received an invitation to the Federation of Hong Kong Industries that year.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:3-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMullaney" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Mullaney" title="Thomas S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+Chinese+in+America&rft.atitle=Chinese+Typewriter%2C+Radical+Machines&rft.date=2019-08-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mocanyc.org%2Fcollections%2Fstories%2Fchinese-typewriter-radical-machines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202269-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202269_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202270-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202270_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017143_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/97882696">"Chinaman Invents Chinese Typewriter Using 4,000 Characters"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 23 July 1916. p. 15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/97882696">97882696</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chinaman+Invents+Chinese+Typewriter+Using+4%2C000+Characters&rft.pages=15&rft.date=1916-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F97882696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202272-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202272_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017157_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202273–74-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202273–74_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 73–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202286-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202286_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202281–82-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202281–82_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202282-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202282_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiu2010" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Liu Hecheng (柳和城) (7 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gmw.cn/02blqs/2010-02/07/content_1133371.htm">"张元济传记与张元济研究"热"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [Zhang Yuanji's biography and the "hot" research on Zhang Yuanji]. <i><a href="/wiki/Guangming_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangming Online">Guangming Online</a></i> (in Chinese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guangming+Online&rft.atitle=%E5%BC%A0%E5%85%83%E6%B5%8E%E4%BC%A0%E8%AE%B0%E4%B8%8E%E5%BC%A0%E5%85%83%E6%B5%8E%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E2%80%9C%E7%83%AD%E2%80%9D&rft.date=2010-02-07&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Hecheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmw.cn%2F02blqs%2F2010-02%2F07%2Fcontent_1133371.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETsu202284-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETsu202284_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTsu2022">Tsu 2022</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://china.caixin.com/2010-04-08/100132974.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"舒式打字机"发明者后人讲述与世博八十年情缘"</a> [Descendants of the inventor of the "Schuh typewriter" discuss their 80-year relationship with the World Expo]. <i><a href="/wiki/Caixin" title="Caixin">Caixin</a></i> (in Chinese). 8 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caixin&rft.atitle=%22%E8%88%92%E5%BC%8F%E6%89%93%E5%AD%97%E6%9C%BA%22%E5%8F%91%E6%98%8E%E8%80%85%E5%90%8E%E4%BA%BA%E8%AE%B2%E8%BF%B0%E4%B8%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%8D%9A%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%81%E5%B9%B4%E6%83%85%E7%BC%98&rft.date=2010-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchina.caixin.com%2F2010-04-08%2F100132974.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullaney2017167_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMullaney2017">Mullaney 2017</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Houkun&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMascarenhas-Mateus_&_Pires2021" class="citation book cs1">Mascarenhas-Mateus, João; Pires, Ana Paula, eds. (8 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BEhQEAAAQBAJ"><i>History of Construction Cultures</i></a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000468762" title="Special:BookSources/9781000468762"><bdi>9781000468762</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Construction+Cultures&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2021-07-08&rft.isbn=9781000468762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBEhQEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCormick,_Newberry,_&_Jumper2004" class="citation book cs1">McCormick, Barnes Warnock; Newberry, Conrad F.; Jumper, Eric, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-YJZ3jMMk1MC"><i>Aerospace Engineering Education During the First Century of Flight</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Astronautics" title="American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563477102" title="Special:BookSources/9781563477102"><bdi>9781563477102</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aerospace+Engineering+Education+During+the+First+Century+of+Flight&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781563477102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-YJZ3jMMk1MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMullaney2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Mullaney" title="Thomas S. Mullaney">Mullaney, Thomas</a> (8 August 2017). <i>The Chinese Typewriter: A History</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262340779" title="Special:BookSources/9780262340779"><bdi>9780262340779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Typewriter%3A+A+History&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2017-08-08&rft.isbn=9780262340779&rft.aulast=Mullaney&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPretel_&_Camprubí2018" class="citation book cs1">Pretel, David; Camprubí, Lino, eds. (13 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xv1fDwAAQBAJ"><i>Technology and Globalisation: Networks of Experts in World History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_International_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer International Publishing">Springer International Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319754505" title="Special:BookSources/9783319754505"><bdi>9783319754505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+Globalisation%3A+Networks+of+Experts+in+World+History&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2018-06-13&rft.isbn=9783319754505&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxv1fDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTsu2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jing_Tsu" title="Jing Tsu">Tsu, Jing</a> (18 January 2022). <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Characters" title="Kingdom of Characters"><i>Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution that Made China Modern</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780735214743" title="Special:BookSources/9780735214743"><bdi>9780735214743</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingdom+of+Characters%3A+The+Language+Revolution+that+Made+China+Modern&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2022-01-18&rft.isbn=9780735214743&rft.aulast=Tsu&rft.aufirst=Jing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZhou+Houkun" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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