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<span>Calf</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calf-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bull" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bull"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Bull</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bull-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milk_production_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milk_production_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Milk production levels</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Milk_production_levels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Milk production levels subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Milk_production_levels-sublist" 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href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hormone_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormone_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Hormone use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormone_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breeds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breeds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Breeds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breeds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal_welfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal_welfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Animal welfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal_welfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy cattle</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A8" title="بقرة حلوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بقرة حلوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%95%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B" title="བ་ཕྱུགས་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བ་ཕྱུགས་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dojnice" title="Dojnice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dojnice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malkekv%C3%A6g" title="Malkekvæg – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Malkekvæg" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCpsilehm" title="Lüpsilehm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lüpsilehm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laktobovino" title="Laktobovino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Laktobovino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%88_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="گاو شیری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گاو شیری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vache_laiti%C3%A8re" title="Vache laitière – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vache laitière" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%96%EC%86%8C" title="젖소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="젖소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81" title="दुधारू पशु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दुधारू पशु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapi_perah" title="Sapi perah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sapi perah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%A8_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%91" title="בקר לחלב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בקר לחלב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapi_perah" title="Sapi perah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sapi perah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%A8" title="ಹೈನು ದನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹೈನು ದನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lembu_susu" title="Lembu susu – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lembu susu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%B3%E7%89%9B" title="乳牛 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="乳牛" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mj%C3%B8lkeku" title="Mjølkeku – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mjølkeku" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Молочный скот – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Молочный скот" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/ulang" title="ulang – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="ulang" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaw" title="Kaw – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Kaw" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lypsykarja" title="Lypsykarja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lypsykarja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lkboskap" title="Mjölkboskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mjölkboskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9voetan%C3%A2h%C3%A1ve%27ho%27%C3%A9otoa%27e" title="Hévoetanâháve'ho'éotoa'e – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Hévoetanâháve'ho'éotoa'e" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tsetsêhestâhese</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2_s%E1%BB%AFa" title="Bò sữa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bò sữa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%B3%E7%89%9B" title="乳牛 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="乳牛" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Dairy+cattle%22">"Dairy cattle"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Dairy+cattle%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Dairy+cattle%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Dairy+cattle%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Dairy+cattle%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Dairy+cattle%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Dairy_cattle" title="Talk:Dairy cattle">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2025</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cow_female_black_white.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cow_female_black_white.jpg/220px-Cow_female_black_white.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cow_female_black_white.jpg/330px-Cow_female_black_white.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Cow_female_black_white.jpg/440px-Cow_female_black_white.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1803" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Holstein_cattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Holstein cattle">Holstein</a> cow with prominent <a href="/wiki/Udder" title="Udder">udder</a> and less muscle than is typical of beef breeds</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Dairy cattle</b> (also called dairy cows) are <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> bred with the ability to produce large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a>, from which <a href="/wiki/Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">dairy products</a> are made. Dairy cattle generally are of the <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Bos_taurus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bos taurus">Bos taurus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, little distinction was made between dairy cattle and <a href="/wiki/Beef_cattle" title="Beef cattle">beef cattle</a>, with the same stock often being used for both meat and milk production. Today, the bovine industry is more specialized and most dairy cattle have been bred to produce large volumes of milk. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DairyCattle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/DairyCattle.jpg/220px-DairyCattle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/DairyCattle.jpg/330px-DairyCattle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/DairyCattle.jpg/440px-DairyCattle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>Cows on a dairy farm in Maryland, U.S.</figcaption></figure> <p>Dairy cows may be found either in <a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">herds</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">dairy farms</a>, where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the world depending on landholding culture and social structure. The United States has an estimated 9 million cows in around 75,000 dairy herds, with an average herd size of 120 cows. The number of small herds is falling rapidly, with 51% of U.S. milk in 2007 produced by the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United Kingdom dairy herd overall has nearly 1.5 million cows, with about 100 head reported on an average farm.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In New Zealand, the average herd has more than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220 cows in the average herd.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States dairy herd produced 84.2 billion kilograms (185.7 billion pounds) of milk in 2007,<sup id="cite_ref-cornell2003_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cornell2003-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> up from 52.9 billion kilograms (116.6 billion pounds) in 1950,<sup id="cite_ref-blaney_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blaney-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet there were only about 9 million cows on U.S. dairy farms—about 13 million fewer than there were in 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-blaney_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blaney-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have an annual production rate of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 pounds) of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein.<sup id="cite_ref-dairyinfo.gc.ca_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dairyinfo.gc.ca-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dairy farming, like many other livestock-rearing methods, can be split into intensive and extensive management systems.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intensive systems focus towards maximum production per cow in the herd. This involves formulating their diet to provide ideal nutrition and housing the cows in a confinement system such as free stall or tie stall. These cows are housed indoors throughout their lactation and may be put to pasture during their 60-day <a href="/wiki/Dry_cow" title="Dry cow">dry period</a> before ideally calving again. Free stall-style barns involve cattle loosely housed where they can have free access to feed, water, and stalls, but are moved to another part of the barn to be milked multiple times a day. In a tie-stall system, the milking units are brought to the cows during each milking. These cattle are tethered within their stalls with free access to water and feed provided. In extensive systems, cattle are mainly outside on pasture for most of their lives. These cattle are generally lower in milk production and are herded multiple times daily to be milked. The systems used greatly depend on the climate and available land of the region in which the farm is situated.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cow caring for her newborn calf" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg/220px-New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg/330px-New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg/440px-New_born_Frisian_red_white_calf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2309" data-file-height="1732" /></a><figcaption>A cow caring for her newborn calf</figcaption></figure> <p>To maintain <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, a dairy cow must be bred and produce calves.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on market conditions, the cow may be bred with a "dairy bull" or a "beef bull." Female calves (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heifer" class="extiw" title="wikt:heifer">heifers</a>) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she then goes to market and can be slaughtered for beef. Male calves can either be used later as a breeding bull or sold and used for <a href="/wiki/Veal" title="Veal">veal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Beef" title="Beef">beef</a>. Dairy farmers usually begin breeding or artificially inseminating heifers around 13 months of age.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cow's <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a> period is about nine months.<sup id="cite_ref-animaldiversity.ummz.umich_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-animaldiversity.ummz.umich-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newborn calves are separated from their mothers quickly, usually within three days, as the mother/calf bond intensifies over time and delayed separation can cause extreme stress on both cow and calf.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Domestic cows can live beyond 20 years;<sup id="cite_ref-animaldiversity.ummz.umich_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-animaldiversity.ummz.umich-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around age six and marketed for beef.<sup id="cite_ref-wallace_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallace-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, roughly 9.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were <a href="/wiki/Culled" class="mw-redirect" title="Culled">culled</a> dairy cows – cows that can no longer be seen as an economic asset to the dairy farm.<sup id="cite_ref-slaughter2014_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-slaughter2014-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These animals may be sold due to reproductive problems or common diseases of milk cows such as <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">mastitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lameness" class="mw-redirect" title="Lameness">lameness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wallace_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wallace-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calf">Calf</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Calf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most heifers (female calves) are kept on farm to be raised as replacement heifers, bred to enter the production cycle. Market calves are generally sold at two weeks of age and bull calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for <a href="/wiki/Veal" title="Veal">veal</a>, or for one of several types of <a href="/wiki/Beef_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Beef production">beef production</a>, depending on available local crops and markets. Such bull calves may be <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castrated</a> if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, to make them less aggressive. Purebred bulls from elite cows may be put into progeny testing schemes to find out whether they might become superior sires for breeding. Such animals can become extremely valuable. </p><p>Most dairy farms separate calves from their mothers within a day of birth to reduce transmission of disease and simplify management of milking cows. Studies have been done allowing calves to remain with their mothers for 1, 4, 7 or 14 days after birth. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one day after birth showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves allowed to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at three times the rate of early removals as well as more searching behavior and better social relationships with other calves.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After separation, some young dairy calves subsist on commercial <a href="/wiki/Milk_replacer" class="mw-redirect" title="Milk replacer">milk replacer</a>, a feed based on dried milk powder. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk because it is cheaper, can be bought at varying fat and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A day-old calf consumes around 5 liters of milk per day.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cattle are social animals; their ancestors tended to live in matriarchal groups of mothers and offspring. The formation of "friendships" between two cows is common and long lasting. Traditionally individual housing systems were used in calf rearing, to reduce the risk of disease spread and provide specific care. However, due to their social behaviour the grouping of offspring may be better for the calves' overall welfare. Social interaction between the calves can have a positive effect on their growth. It has been seen that calves housed in grouped penning were found to eat more feed than those in single pens,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting social facilitation of feeding behaviour in the calves. Play behaviour in pre-weaned dairy calves has also been suggested to help build social skills for later in life. It has been seen that those reared in grouped housing are more likely to become the dominant cattle in a new combination of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These dominant animals have a priority choice of feed or lying areas and are generally stronger animals. For these reasons, it has become common practice to group or pair calves in their housing. It has become common in Canada to see paired or grouped housing in outdoor hutches or in an indoor pack penning.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bull">Bull</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bull"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A bull calf with high genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. It may be kept by a dairy farm as a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A bull may service up to 50 or 60 cows during a breeding season. Any more and the <a href="/wiki/Sperm_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm count">sperm count</a> declines, leading to cows "returning to service" (needing to be bred again). A herd bull may only stay for one season, as when most bulls reach over two years old their temperament becomes too unpredictable. </p><p>Bull calves intended for breeding are commonly bred on specialized dairy breeding farms, not production farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for <a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sexing" title="Sexing">Sexing</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Milk_production_levels">Milk production levels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Milk production levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken,_V%C3%A4rmland,_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg/220px-Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg/330px-Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg/440px-Boskapssk%C3%B6tsel_i_ladug%C3%A5rden._Mangskogs_socken%2C_V%C3%A4rmland%2C_1911_-_Nordiska_Museet_-_NMA.0043102.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2194" /></a><figcaption>Dairy cattle in Mangskog, Sweden, 1911.</figcaption></figure> <p>The dairy cow produces large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels peak at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterwards until milking is stopped at about 10 months. The cow is "dried off" for about sixty days before calving again. Within a 12 to 14-month inter-calving cycle, the milking period is about 305 days or 10 months long.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of around 6,800 to 17,000 kg (15,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Holstein Friesian is the main breed of dairy cattle in Australia, and said to have the "world's highest" productivity, at 10,000 litres (2,200 imp gal; 2,600 US gal) of milk per year.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average for a single dairy cow in the US in 2007 was 9,164 kg (20,204 lb) per year, excluding milk consumed by her calves,<sup id="cite_ref-cornell2003_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cornell2003-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas the same average value for a single cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine press to be 12,240 kg (26,980 lb) in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High production cows are more difficult to breed at a two-year interval. Many farms take the view that 24 or even 36 month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dairy cows may continue to be economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of problems arising which may lead to a cow being culled are high, however; the average herd life of US Holstein is today fewer than 3 lactations. This requires more herd replacements to be reared or purchased. Over 90% of all cows are slaughtered for 4 main reasons: </p> <ul><li><b>Infertility</b> – failure to conceive and reduced milk production.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Cows are at their most fertile between 60 and 80 days after calving. Cows remaining "open" (not with calf) after this period become increasingly difficult to breed, which may be due to poor health. Failure to expel the <a href="/wiki/Afterbirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Afterbirth">afterbirth</a> from a previous pregnancy, luteal <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cyst" title="Ovarian cyst">cysts</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Metritis" title="Metritis">metritis</a>, an infection of the uterus, are common causes of infertility</dd></dl> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Mastitis_in_dairy_cattle" title="Mastitis in dairy cattle">Mastitis</a></b> – a persistent and potentially fatal mammary gland infection, leading to high <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell_count" title="Somatic cell count">somatic cell counts</a> and loss of production.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Mastitis is recognized by a reddening and swelling of the infected quarter of the <a href="/wiki/Udder" title="Udder">udder</a> and the presence of whitish clots or pus in the milk. Treatment is possible with long-acting antibiotics but milk from such cows is not marketable until drug residues have left the cow's system, also called withdrawal period.</dd></dl> <ul><li><b>Lameness</b> – persistent foot infection or leg problems causing infertility and loss of production.</li></ul> <dl><dd>High feed levels of highly digestible carbohydrate cause acidic conditions in the cow's <a href="/wiki/Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a>. This leads to <a href="/wiki/Laminitis" title="Laminitis">laminitis</a> and subsequent lameness, leaving the cow vulnerable to other foot infections and problems which may be exacerbated by standing in faeces or water soaked areas.</dd></dl> <ul><li><b>Production</b> – some animals fail to produce economic levels of milk to justify their feed costs.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Production below 12 to 15 L (2.6 to 3.3 imp gal; 3.2 to 4.0 US gal) of milk per day is not economically viable.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (August 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl> <p>Cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lower production cows live longer than high production cows, but may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk production are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is generally used for processed meat. Another factor affecting milk production is the <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physiology)">stress</a> the cow is faced with. Psychologists at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leicester" title="University of Leicester">University of Leicester</a>, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> can improve milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cow_comfort_and_its_effects_on_milk_production">Cow comfort and its effects on milk production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cow comfort and its effects on milk production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain behaviors such as eating, <a href="/wiki/Ruminating" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruminating">ruminating</a>, and lying down can be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort. These behaviors can also be related to the productivity of the cows. Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort negatively affect milk productivity. Therefore, it can be said that it is in the best interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Vanhoudt_et_al_2015_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vanhoudt_et_al_2015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/Estrous_cycle" title="Estrous cycle">estrous</a> behaviors such as mounting can be a sign of cow comfort, because if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or housed in an overcrowded barn, its estrous behaviors are altered.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feeding behaviors are important for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the cow ingests dry matter. However, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and utilize the nutrients in the feed.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_et_al_2007_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_et_al_2007-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dairy cows with good <a href="/wiki/Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a> health are likely to be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health—as a healthy rumen aids in digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production.<sup id="cite_ref-Vanhoudt_et_al_2015_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vanhoudt_et_al_2015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The productivity of dairy cattle is most efficient when the cattle have a full rumen.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the standing action while feeding after milking has been suggested to enhance udder health. The delivery of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to feed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis as the sphincters have time to close while standing.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This makes the pattern of feeding directly after being milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd. </p><p>Cows have a high motivation to lie down.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_et_al_2007_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_et_al_2007-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They should lie down for at least five to six hours after every meal to ruminate well.<sup id="cite_ref-tweti20021026_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tweti20021026-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood flow is increased to the <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary gland</a> which in return results in a higher milk yield.<sup id="cite_ref-Haley_et_al_2001_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haley_et_al_2001-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they stand too long, cows become stressed, lose weight, get sore feet, and produce less milk.<sup id="cite_ref-tweti20021026_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tweti20021026-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfortable.<sup id="cite_ref-tweti20021026_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tweti20021026-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A stall should have a rubber mat and <a href="/wiki/Bedding_(animals)" title="Bedding (animals)">bedding</a>, and be large enough for the cow to lie down and get up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable enough for the cows are the cows are standing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying down, or perching, which is when the cow has its front end in the stall and their back end out of the stall.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dried manure, almond shells, straw, sand, or <a href="/wiki/Waterbed" title="Waterbed">waterbeds</a> are used for cow bedding.<sup id="cite_ref-tweti20021026_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tweti20021026-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and tie stall. Free style housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its environment and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stanchion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artificial light and daylight inlets have an impact on milk production and cow behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For cows in lactation a light program of 16 hours light and 8 hours of darkness is recommended,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while for non-lactating pregnant cows 8 hours of light and 16 hours of darkness seem to be a better fit.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By-products_and_processing">By-products and processing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: By-products and processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">Pasteurization</a> is the process of heating milk to a high enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep time and decrease spoilage time. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and elimination of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C (145 °F) for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at 72 °C (162 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-milkfacts.info_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milkfacts.info-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the main lipid in milk. The cream contains 18–40% butterfat. The industry can be divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk's protein composition and is separated from the casein (80% of milk's protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inseminace_krav.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Inseminace_krav.jpg/220px-Inseminace_krav.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Inseminace_krav.jpg/330px-Inseminace_krav.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Inseminace_krav.jpg/440px-Inseminace_krav.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Cows can be impregnated naturally (by a bull) or, as here, by <a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">artificial insemination</a> (AI) is used at most dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses <a href="/wiki/Estrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrus">estrus</a> synchronization to indicate when the cow is going through <a href="/wiki/Ovulation" title="Ovulation">ovulation</a> and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low cost and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a large number of bulls, elimination of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Rather than a large bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to complete the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's body.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dairy cattle are polyestrous, meaning they cycle continuously throughout the year. They tend to be on a 21 day estrus cycle. However for management purposes, some operations use synthetic hormones to synchronize their cows or heifers to have them breed and calve at the ideal times. These hormones are short term and only used when necessary. For example, one common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the body. Then, seven days later prostaglandin F2-alpha is injected, followed by another GnRH injection 48 hours later. This protocol causes the animal to ovulate 24 hours later.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Estrus is often called standing heat in cattle and refers to the time in their cycle where the female is receptive towards the male. Estrus behaviour can be detected by an experienced stockman. These behaviours can include standing to be mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, <a href="/wiki/Embryo_transfer" title="Embryo transfer">embryo transfer</a> has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are then 'flushed' from the cow's <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a>. 7–12 <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryos</a> are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_mother" class="mw-redirect" title="Surrogate mother">surrogate mothers</a>. This results in between three and six calves instead of the normal single or (rarely) twins. </p><p>As a result of long-term cooperation between <a href="/wiki/USDA" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA">USDA</a> and dairy farmers which led to a revolution in dairy cattle productivity, the United States has since 1992 been the world’s largest supplier of dairy bull semen.<sup id="cite_ref-USdairy_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USdairy-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hormone_use">Hormone use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hormone use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Farmers in some countries sometimes administer hormone treatments to dairy cows to increase milk production and reproduction. </p><p>About 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with <a href="/wiki/Bovine_somatotropin" title="Bovine somatotropin">Bovine somatotropin</a>, also called recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of this hormone increases milk production by 11%–25%.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Drug Administration (United States)">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) has ruled that rBST recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH) is harmless to people, while the American Cancer Society finds that the use of rBGH can cause adverse health effects in cows. Though the evidence for potential harm to humans is inconclusive and would require more research.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of rBST is banned in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, parts of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> due to possible opposing views and of lack of findings.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires a milk sample is taken from every farm and from every load of milk delivered to a processing plant.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These samples are then tested for antibiotic and any milk testing positive is discarded and farm identified. Traceback to the dairy is undertaken by the FDA with further consequences including the possibility revocation of ability to sell milk.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nutrition plays an important role in keeping cattle <a href="/wiki/Healthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthy">healthy</a> and strong. Implementing an adequate nutrition program can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">Nutrient</a> requirements may not be the same depending on the animal's age and stage of production. Diets are formulated to meet the dairy cow's energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forages, which refer especially to anything grown in the field such as hay, straw, corn silage, or grass silage, are the most common type of feed used. The base of most lactating dairy cattle diets is high quality forage. <a href="/wiki/Cereal_grain" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereal grain">Cereal grains</a>, as the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in helping to meet the <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> needs of dairy cattle. <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">Barley</a> is an excellent source of balanced amounts of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">fiber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ensuring adequate <a href="/wiki/Body_fat" class="mw-redirect" title="Body fat">body fat</a> reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fat or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may have problems with calving.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a> have found that a variety of fat supplements can benefit conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include <a href="/wiki/Oleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleic acids">oleic acids</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Canola_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Canola oil">canola oil</a>, animal tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in <a href="/wiki/Cottonseed" title="Cottonseed">cottonseed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safflower" title="Safflower">safflower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflower</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diets may additionally be formulated to strategically reduce <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> emissions. Ruminants such as the cow have microbes in their rumen called <a href="/wiki/Methanogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanogens">methanogens</a> which are capable of digesting down plant material so it can be utilized for energy, but also generates methane as a byproduct which is then released into the atmosphere by <a href="/wiki/Belching" class="mw-redirect" title="Belching">belching</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Breeds">Breeds</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Breeds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_dairy_cattle_breeds" title="List of dairy cattle breeds">List of dairy cattle breeds</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/220px-seek%3D1-Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="12" data-mwtitle="Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2b/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm/Jersey_dairy_cattle_nearbieihokkaido-2022-08-11.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Jersey cattle in rural <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>, Japan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass,_Schweiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg/220px-Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg/330px-Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg/440px-Braunvieh_am_Simplonpass%2C_Schweiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4136" data-file-height="2725" /></a><figcaption>Swiss <a href="/wiki/Braunvieh" title="Braunvieh">Braunvieh</a> in the Alps</figcaption></figure> <p>According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, PDCA, there are 7 major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: <a href="/wiki/Holstein_Friesian_cattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Holstein Friesian cattle">Holstein</a> Black/White and Red/White, <a href="/wiki/Brown_Swiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown Swiss">Brown Swiss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guernsey_cattle" title="Guernsey cattle">Guernsey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayrshire_cattle" title="Ayrshire cattle">Ayrshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jersey_cattle" title="Jersey cattle">Jersey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Milking_Shorthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Milking Shorthorn">Milking Shorthorn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holstein cows originate from the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and have distinct black and white or more rarely red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow usually weighs around 700 kilograms (1,500 lb) and is 147 centimetres (58 in) tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk production among the main breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around 10,000 kilograms (23,000 lb) of milk each lactation. Of the 9 million dairy cows in the U.S., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have a production rate of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 lb) of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein<sup id="cite_ref-dairyinfo.gc.ca_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dairyinfo.gc.ca-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brown_Swiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown Swiss">Brown Swiss</a> cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a part of northeastern <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from around the year 4000 BC Also, there is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about 1000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded as a well established breed in 1812. The different breeds that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. However, there is evidence that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Guernsey cows originated just off the coast of France on the small Isle of <a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a>. The breed was first known as a separate breed around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Golden Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jersey originates on the island of Jersey in the Channel Islands. Cows usually weigh some 350–400 kg (800–900 lb). The milk is rich and has a yellowish tinge; the fat content may exceed 6%.<sup id="cite_ref-cabi_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cabi-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 212">: 212 </span></sup> American Jerseys have been <a href="/wiki/Selectively_bred" class="mw-redirect" title="Selectively bred">selectively bred</a> for higher milk yield, and are often larger and coarser than the island stock.<sup id="cite_ref-cabi_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cabi-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 212">: 212 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Animal_welfare">Animal welfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Animal welfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen,_DeLaval.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg/220px-Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg/330px-Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg/440px-Mobiler_Melkstand_mit_Futtertr%C3%B6gen%2C_DeLaval.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Mobile milking parlor for <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> cattle</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a> refers to both the physical and mental state of an animal, and how it is coping with its situation. An animal is considered in a good state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from harmful states such as distress, fear and pain. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If the animal is slaughtered then it is no longer "good animal welfare".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the human responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and management practices including humane <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>. </p><p>Proper animal handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare as well as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of human-animal interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike have focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agriculture workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of movement, and sounds and touch of the handler.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. However, as the growing U.S. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship training and education resources become more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such as language barriers and time limitations.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Health Center offer resources such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resources for stockmanship training.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For cows to reach high performance in milk yields and reproduction, they must be in great condition and comfortable in the system. Once an individual's welfare is reduced, so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, hygienic, atmosphere for their cattle. As well as provide quality nutrition that keep the cows yield high.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The production of milk requires that the cow be in <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as <a href="/wiki/Cattle#Terminology" title="Cattle">steers</a> for beef production or used for veal. </p><p>The practice of dairy production has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a> proponents. Some of the <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat#Non-meat_products" title="Ethics of eating meat">ethical reasons regarding dairy production</a> cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated needed to produce milk, the separation of calves from their mothers to obtain the milk meant for their calves and the fact that dairy cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young age, another reason is that most male calves are of no use to the dairy industry and are sold for beef or veal, as well as environmental concerns regarding any cattle production.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dairy_cattle&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dairy_cattle" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dairy cattle">Dairy cattle</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609060635/http://www.uwsp.edu/biology/facilities/vertebrates/Mammals%20of%20Wisconsin/Bos%20taurus/Bos%20taurus%20page.htm">"Mammals of Wisconsin"</a>. 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