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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prehistory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleolithic_(1.7_Ma_–_12_ka)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleolithic_(1.7_Ma_–_12_ka)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleolithic_(1.7_Ma_–_12_ka)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Neolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Bronze Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ancient China</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient China subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Xia_dynasty_(c._2070_–_c._1600_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xia_dynasty_(c._2070_–_c._1600_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xia_dynasty_(c._2070_–_c._1600_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shang_dynasty_(c._1600_–_c._1046_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shang_dynasty_(c._1600_–_c._1046_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shang_dynasty_(c._1600_–_c._1046_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhou_dynasty_(1046–256_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhou_dynasty_(1046–256_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhou_dynasty_(1046–256_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spring_and_Autumn_period_(722–476_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spring_and_Autumn_period_(722–476_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spring_and_Autumn_period_(722–476_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warring_States_period_(476–221_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warring_States_period_(476–221_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Warring States period (476–221 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warring_States_period_(476–221_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Imperial era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Imperial_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Imperial era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Imperial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_imperial_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_imperial_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early imperial China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_imperial_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qin_dynasty_(221–206_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin_dynasty_(221–206_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin_dynasty_(221–206_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Han_dynasty_(206_BC_–_AD_220)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_dynasty_(206_BC_–_AD_220)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_dynasty_(206_BC_–_AD_220)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_Han" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Han"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.1</span> <span>Western Han</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Han-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xin_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xin_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.2</span> <span>Xin dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xin_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Han" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Han"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.3</span> <span>Eastern Han</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Han-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six_Dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_Dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Six Dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six_Dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_(AD_220–280)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Kingdoms_(AD_220–280)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_(AD_220–280)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jin_dynasty_(AD_266–420)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jin_dynasty_(AD_266–420)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jin_dynasty_(AD_266–420)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sixteen_Kingdoms_(AD_304–439)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixteen_Kingdoms_(AD_304–439)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixteen_Kingdoms_(AD_304–439)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(AD_420–589)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(AD_420–589)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(AD_420–589)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-imperial_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-imperial_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Mid-imperial China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-imperial_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sui_dynasty_(581–618)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sui_dynasty_(581–618)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Sui dynasty (581–618)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sui_dynasty_(581–618)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tang_dynasty_(618–907)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tang_dynasty_(618–907)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Tang dynasty (618–907)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tang_dynasty_(618–907)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_(907–960)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_(907–960)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_(907–960)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_imperial_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_imperial_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Late imperial China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_imperial_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Song,_Liao,_Jin,_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_(960–1279)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Song,_Liao,_Jin,_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_(960–1279)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Song,_Liao,_Jin,_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_(960–1279)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yuan_dynasty_(1271–1368)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yuan_dynasty_(1271–1368)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yuan_dynasty_(1271–1368)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Ming dynasty (1368–1644)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.4</span> <span>Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern China</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_China-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern China subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republic_of_China_(since_1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_China_(since_1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Republic of China (since 1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_China_(since_1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China_(since_1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People's_Republic_of_China_(since_1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>People's Republic of China (since 1949)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China_(since_1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of China</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">96 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_China" title="Geskiedenis van China – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van China" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="تاريخ الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_China" title="Historia de China – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de China" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_tarixi" title="Çin tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çin tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="চীনের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ҡытай тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡытай тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Гісторыя Кітая – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Кітая" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8E" title="Гісторыя Кітаю – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гісторыя Кітаю" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historya_kan_Tsina" title="Historya kan Tsina – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Historya kan Tsina" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9" title="История на Китай – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Китай" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཀྲུང་གོའི་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཀྲུང་གོའི་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Kine" title="Historija Kine – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija Kine" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_Xina" title="Història de la Xina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la Xina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D3%97" title="Китай историйӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Китай историйӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_%C4%8C%C3%ADny" title="Dějiny Číny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Číny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Tsieina" title="Hanes Tsieina – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Tsieina" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinas_historie" title="Kinas historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinas historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Chinas" title="Geschichte Chinas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Chinas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiina_ajalugu" title="Hiina ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiina ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της Κίνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της Κίνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_China" title="Historia de China – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de China" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_%C4%88inio" title="Historio de Ĉinio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Ĉinio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinako_historia" title="Txinako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تاریخ چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Chine" title="Histoire de la Chine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Chine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiednis_fan_Sina" title="Skiednis fan Sina – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skiednis fan Sina" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair_na_S%C3%ADne" title="Stair na Síne – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair na Síne" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_China" title="Historia da China – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da China" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%97%B0%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="中國嗰歷史 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="中國嗰歷史" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9A%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B_%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8" title="ચીનનો ઇતિહાસ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ચીનનો ઇતિહાસ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="중국의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarihin_Kasar_Sin" title="Tarihin Kasar Sin – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarihin Kasar Sin" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Չինաստանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինաստանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="चीन का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Kine" title="Povijest Kine – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Kine" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Chinia" title="Historio di Chinia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Chinia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="History of China" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Tiongkok" title="Sejarah Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_Cina" title="Storia della Cina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della Cina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="היסטוריה של סין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של סין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siini_caana%CA%8B_t%C9%94m" title="Siini caanaʋ tɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Siini caanaʋ tɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಚೀನಾದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಚೀನಾದ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჩინეთის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინეთის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Қытай тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қытай тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_China" title="Historia ya China – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya China" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_di_Lachin" title="Istwè di Lachin – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè di Lachin" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Sinica" title="Historia Sinica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Sinica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABnas_v%C4%93sture" title="Ķīnas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīnas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinijos_istorija" title="Kinijos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADna_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Kína történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kína történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ചൈനയുടെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചൈനയുടെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჩინეთიშ ისტორია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჩინეთიშ ისტორია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_China" title="Sejarah China – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah China" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_la_China" title="Stória de la China – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de la China" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Хятадын түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хятадын түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="တရုတ်သမိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ်သမိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_China" title="Geschiedenis van China – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van China" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="चीनको इतिहास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चीनको इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="中国の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinas_historie" title="Kinas historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kinas historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_historie" title="Kinesisk historie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kinesisk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_China" title="Istòria de China – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de China" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xitoy_tarixi" title="Xitoy tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xitoy tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਚੀਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="چین دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چین دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د چین تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چین تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_Chaina" title="Ischri a Chaina – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a Chaina" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Chin" title="Historia Chin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Chin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_China" title="História da China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Chinei" title="Istoria Chinei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Chinei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="История Китая – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Китая" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/a_laylay_nu_Cuo-kuo" title="a laylay nu Cuo-kuo – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="a laylay nu Cuo-kuo" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_sa_Tzina" title="Istòria de sa Tzina – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Istòria de sa Tzina" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Kin%C3%ABs" title="Historia e Kinës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Kinës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="චීන ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="චීන ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of China" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Kitajske" title="Zgodovina Kitajske – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Kitajske" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="مێژووی چین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی چین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Историја Кине – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Кине" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Kine" title="Historija Kine – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija Kine" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinan_historia" title="Kiinan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinas_historia" title="Kinas historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kinas historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="சீன வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சீன வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="ประวัติศาสตร์จีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์จีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_tarihi" title="Çin tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkhang_Caina" title="Nkhang Caina – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Nkhang Caina" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8E" title="Історія Китаю – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Китаю" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تاریخ چین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ چین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%87%DA%AD%DA%AF%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%89%D8%AE%D9%89" title="جۇڭگو تارىخى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="جۇڭگو تارىخى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c" title="Lịch sử Trung Quốc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Trung Quốc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Tsina" title="Kaagi han Tsina – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han Tsina" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="中国历史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="中国历史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A2" title="היסטאריע פון כינע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע פון כינע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%B2" title="中國史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中國史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="中国历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中国历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q82972#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BC)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BC)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BC</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BC)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BC)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BC – 220 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BC – 9 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 AD)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic<br />of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br />1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of China</b> spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> valley, which along with the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze</a> basin constitutes the geographic core of the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Chinese cultural sphere</a>. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">traditional lens</a> for viewing Chinese history is the <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">dynastic cycle</a>: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread <a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">many thousands of years into the past</a>, making it one of the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradles of civilization</a>. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Sayan_Mountains" title="Sayan Mountains">Sayan Mountains</a>, and as far south as the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Delta" title="Red River Delta">delta of the Red River</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic China">Neolithic</a> period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_river_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow river civilization">Yellow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a> rivers. The <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">central plains of China</a> is sometimes identified with the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> (3rd millennium BC) of traditional <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a>. The earliest surviving <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">written Chinese</a> dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Chinese bronze inscriptions</a>, ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include <a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yi_Jing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Jing">divination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shang_Shu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shang Shu">records of official speeches</a>. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">culture</a> remembered by the earliest <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">extant literature</a> is that of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – 256 BC), China's <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a>, during which the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a></i>. </p><p>China was <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">first united</a> under a single imperial state by <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> in 221 BC. <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a>, weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – 220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>. The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its <a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">core texts</a> were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>: mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its <a href="/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture">sericulture</a>. When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a>, art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. </p><p>A period of unity began in 581 with the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, which soon gave way to the long-lived <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a>, reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">Mechanical printing</a> was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">wood-block prints</a> from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examination system">imperial examination system</a> gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>. </p><p>Eventually, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> conquered all of China, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644) include <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">global exploration</a>, fine <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">porcelain</a>, and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a>. Three of the four <a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Classic Chinese Novels</a> were written during the Ming. The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a> people. The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong" class="mw-redirect" title="Qianlong">Qianlong</a> emperor (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> </span> 1735–1796) commissioned <a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">a complete encyclopaedia</a> of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>. </p><p>The 1911 <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and others, created the modern <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a>. From 1927 to 1949, a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">costly civil war</a> roiled between the Republican government under <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> and the Communist-aligned <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a>, interrupted by the industrialized <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communist</a> victory, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> proclaimed the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) in 1949, with the Republic retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">economic reforms</a> under <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, and became the world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_growth_rate" title="List of countries by real GDP growth rate">fastest-growing major economy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2023)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> in 2023. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic_(1.7_Ma_–_12_ka)"><span id="Paleolithic_.281.7_Ma_.E2.80.93_12_ka.29"></span>Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistory of China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">List of Paleolithic sites in China</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Paleolithic</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:146px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skull_pekingman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Skull_pekingman.jpg/127px-Skull_pekingman.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Skull_pekingman.jpg/191px-Skull_pekingman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Skull_pekingman.jpg/254px-Skull_pekingman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="891" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Traditional reconstruction of the Peking Man skull</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:146px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_(Cast)_-_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png/157px-Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="157" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png/236px-Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png/314px-Teeth_of_Yuanmou_Man_%28Cast%29_-_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Casts of the teeth of Yuanmou Man</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dali_Man_Skull,_Replica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg/152px-Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg/228px-Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg/304px-Dali_Man_Skull%2C_Replica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2577" data-file-height="2475" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Restoration of the skull <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi_History_Museum" title="Shaanxi History Museum">Shaanxi History Museum</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Longlin_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Longlin_1.jpg/132px-Longlin_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Longlin_1.jpg/198px-Longlin_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Longlin_1.jpg/264px-Longlin_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="1733" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">LL-1 partials skull</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human">archaic human</a> species of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> arrived in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 <a href="/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago">million years ago</a> (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest of these is the southwestern <a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">Yuanmou Man</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">元谋人</span></span>; in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>), dated to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed <a href="/wiki/Bushland" title="Bushland">bushland</a>-forest environment alongside <a href="/wiki/Chalicothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalicothere">chalicotheres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>, the elephant <i><a href="/wiki/Stegodon" title="Stegodon">Stegodon</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Rhino" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhino">rhinos</a>, cattle, pigs, and the <a href="/wiki/Giant_short-faced_hyena" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant short-faced hyena">giant short-faced hyena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhuPottsPanYao20081077,_1084–1085_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhuPottsPanYao20081077,_1084–1085-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The better-known <a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans">北京猿人</span></span>; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Zhoukoudian" title="Zhoukoudian">Zhoukoudian</a> cave alongside <a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">scrapers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">choppers</a>, and, dated slightly later, points, <a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">burins</a>, and awls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuLin198392_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWuLin198392-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <i>Homo erectus</i> fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern <a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">Lantian Man</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, as well minor specimens in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dates of most <a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic sites</a> were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern <a href="/wiki/Magnetostratigraphy" title="Magnetostratigraphy">magnetostratigraphy</a>: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, <a href="/wiki/Xiaochangliang" title="Xiaochangliang">Xiaochangliang</a> at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, <a href="/wiki/Banshan" title="Banshan">Banshan</a> at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAoDekkersWeiQiang20131_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAoDekkersWeiQiang20131-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of fire use by <i>Homo erectus</i> occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of <a href="/wiki/Xihoudu" title="Xihoudu">Xihoudu</a>, Shanxi Province.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesDennellGilbertLewis19892_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesDennellGilbertLewis19892-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The circumstances surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolution</a> of <i>Homo erectus</i> to contemporary <i><a href="/wiki/H._sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="H. sapiens">H. sapiens</a></i> is debated; the three main theories include the dominant <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">"Out of Africa" theory</a> (OOA), the <a href="/wiki/Regional_continuity_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional continuity model">regional continuity model</a> and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in <a href="/wiki/Fuyan_Cave" title="Fuyan Cave">Fuyan Cave</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dao_County" title="Dao County">Dao County</a>, Hunan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct <i><a href="/wiki/Ailuropoda_baconi" title="Ailuropoda baconi">Ailuropoda baconi</a></i> panda, the <i><a href="/wiki/Crocuta" title="Crocuta">Crocuta ultima</a></i> hyena, the <i>Stegodon</i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Giant_tapir" title="Giant tapir">giant tapir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Palaeolithic">Middle Palaeolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois</a> technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of <a href="/wiki/Guanyindong" title="Guanyindong">Guanyindong</a> Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuMarwickZhangRui201882_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuMarwickZhangRui201882-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic">Neolithic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">List of Neolithic cultures of China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River civilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze civilization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Neolithic</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:89px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg/134px-National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg/201px-National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg/268px-National_Museum_of_China_2014.02.01_14-43-38.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">10,000-year-old pottery, <a href="/wiki/Xianren_Cave" title="Xianren Cave">Xianren Cave</a> culture (18,000–7000 BC)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:89px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bone_Arrowheads,_Jiahu_site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg/150px-Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg/225px-Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg/300px-Bone_Arrowheads%2C_Jiahu_site.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="479" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Bone Arrowheads, <a href="/wiki/Peiligang_culture" title="Peiligang culture">Peiligang culture</a> (7000–5000 BC)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun(Neolithic)_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG/133px-Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="133" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG/200px-Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG/266px-Butterfly-shaped_ivory_vessel_with_the_pattern_of_two_birds_facing_the_sun%28Neolithic%29_in_Zhejiang_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Butterfly-shaped ivory vessel with the pattern of two birds facing the sun, <a href="/wiki/Hemudu_culture" title="Hemudu culture">Hemudu culture</a> (5500–3300 BC)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:100px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hemudu_Site_Museum,_2017-08-12_36.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg/151px-Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg/227px-Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg/302px-Hemudu_Site_Museum%2C_2017-08-12_36.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Pottery artifacts from Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC)</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic Age">Neolithic Age</a> in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-neolithic_period_in_china_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neolithic_period_in_china-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Pringle_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pringle-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early evidence for <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> agriculture in the Yellow River valley was <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon-dated</a> to about 7000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Jiahu" title="Jiahu">Jiahu</a> site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At <a href="/wiki/Damaidi" title="Damaidi">Damaidi</a> in Ningxia, 3,172 <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_signs_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic signs in China">cliff carvings</a> dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a>, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-earliest_writing_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earliest_writing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Damaidi around 6000 BC, <a href="/wiki/Dadiwan_culture" title="Dadiwan culture">Dadiwan</a> from 5800 BC to 5400 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Banpo" title="Banpo">Banpo</a> dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like <a href="/wiki/Taosi" title="Taosi">Taosi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liangzhu_culture" title="Liangzhu culture">Liangzhu culture</a> in the Yangtze delta.<sup id="cite_ref-Pringle_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pringle-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the <a href="/wiki/Yangshao_culture" title="Yangshao culture">Yangshao culture</a> (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the <a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Longshan culture</a> (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as <a href="/wiki/Peaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Peaches">peaches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cherries" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherries">cherries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">oranges</a>, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_sites_in_China" title="List of Bronze Age sites in China">List of Bronze Age sites in China</a></div> <p>Bronze artifacts have been found at the <a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majiayao culture</a> site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bronze Age is also represented at the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Xiajiadian_culture" title="Lower Xiajiadian culture">Lower Xiajiadian culture</a> (2200–1600 BC)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> site in northeast China. <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui</a> located in what is now <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Shu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Shu">state of Shu</a>, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley1999135_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley1999135-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Iron_Age"></span> <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Ferrous metallurgy</a> begins to appear in the late 6th century in the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> valley.<sup id="cite_ref-Higham_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Higham-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bronze hatchet with a blade of <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a> excavated near the city of <a href="/wiki/Gaocheng_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaocheng District">Gaocheng</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shijiazhuang" title="Shijiazhuang">Shijiazhuang</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> has tentatively been associated with the <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhung_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Zhung culture">Zhang Zhung culture</a> described in early Tibetan writings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_China" title="Outline of ancient China">Outline of ancient China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a></div> <p>Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yao" title="Emperor Yao">Yao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shun" title="Emperor Shun">Shun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu</a>. Traditionally, the <a href="/wiki/Abdication_system" title="Abdication system">abdication system</a> was prominent in this period,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xia_dynasty_(c._2070_–_c._1600_BC)"><span id="Xia_dynasty_.28c._2070_.E2.80.93_c._1600_BC.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="Xia"></span>Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turquoise-Inlaid_Plaque_with_Stylized_Animal-Mask_Decoration,_1900-1350_BC,_Neolithic_to_Shang_period,_Erlitou_culture,_China,_bronze_with_turquoise_inlay_-_Sackler_Museum_-_DSC02627.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Turquoise-Inlaid_Plaque_with_Stylized_Animal-Mask_Decoration%2C_1900-1350_BC%2C_Neolithic_to_Shang_period%2C_Erlitou_culture%2C_China%2C_bronze_with_turquoise_inlay_-_Sackler_Museum_-_DSC02627.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Turquoise-Inlaid_Plaque_with_Stylized_Animal-Mask_Decoration%2C_1900-1350_BC%2C_Neolithic_to_Shang_period%2C_Erlitou_culture%2C_China%2C_bronze_with_turquoise_inlay_-_Sackler_Museum_-_DSC02627.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Turquoise-Inlaid_Plaque_with_Stylized_Animal-Mask_Decoration%2C_1900-1350_BC%2C_Neolithic_to_Shang_period%2C_Erlitou_culture%2C_China%2C_bronze_with_turquoise_inlay_-_Sackler_Museum_-_DSC02627.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2911" data-file-height="4160" /></a><figcaption>Decorative plaque from the <a href="/wiki/Erlitou_culture" title="Erlitou culture">Erlitou culture</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes the <i><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_Annals" title="Bamboo Annals">Bamboo Annals</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 91 BC</span>). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at <a href="/wiki/Erlitou" class="mw-redirect" title="Erlitou">Erlitou</a> (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158–159_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158–159-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shang_dynasty_(c._1600_–_c._1046_BC)"><span id="Shang_dynasty_.28c._1600_.E2.80.93_c._1046_BC.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="Shang"></span>Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age#China" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age § China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">Chinese ritual bronzes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Shang" title="Predynastic Shang">Predynastic Shang</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg/220px-HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg/330px-HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg/440px-HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3752" data-file-height="5003" /></a><figcaption>The 12th-century BC<a href="/wiki/Houmuwu_ding" title="Houmuwu ding">Houmuwu ding</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> bronzeware found anywhere in the world</figcaption></figure> <p>Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at <a href="/wiki/Erligang" class="mw-redirect" title="Erligang">Erligang</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>). Findings have been found at <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yinxu</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a>, Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250–1050 BC</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018756_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018756-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>, dating from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986436_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986436-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout their reigns, according to the <i>Shiji</i>, the capital city was moved six times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999233_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999233-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final and most important move was to <a href="/wiki/Yinxu" title="Yinxu">Yin</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Wu_Ding" title="Wu Ding">Wu Ding</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250 BC</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui</a> suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhou_dynasty_(1046–256_BC)"><span id="Zhou_dynasty_.281046.E2.80.93256_BC.29"></span>Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age China">Iron Age China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Zhou" title="Predynastic Zhou">Predynastic Zhou</a></div> <p>The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the <a href="/wiki/Shang" class="mw-redirect" title="Shang">Shang</a>. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, <a href="/wiki/King_Wu_of_Zhou" title="King Wu of Zhou">King Wu</a>, defeated the Shang at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muye" title="Battle of Muye">Battle of Muye</a>. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings. </p><p>The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Shangdi, Heaven (<i>tian</i>) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. </p><p>The Zhou established two capitals <a href="/wiki/Zongzhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Zongzhou">Zongzhou</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Chengzhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengzhou">Chengzhou</a> (<a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spring_and_Autumn_period_(722–476_BC)"><span id="Spring_and_Autumn_period_.28722.E2.80.93476_BC.29"></span>Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a></div> <p>In 771 BC, <a href="/wiki/King_You_of_Zhou" title="King You of Zhou">King You</a> and his forces were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Li" title="Battle of Mount Li">Battle of Mount Li</a> by rebel states and <a href="/wiki/Quanrong" title="Quanrong">Quanrong</a> barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, <a href="/wiki/King_Ping_of_Zhou" title="King Ping of Zhou">King Ping</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous <i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i>. The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_states" title="Ancient Chinese states">settlement states</a>, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a>. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a> lived during this chaotic period. </p><p>Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Jin" title="Partition of Jin">partitioned the state between them</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">classical Chinese philosophy</a> began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Warring_States_period_(476–221_BC)"><span id="Warring_States_period_.28476.E2.80.93221_BC.29"></span>Warring States period (476–221 BC)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/220px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/330px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/440px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="4348" /></a><figcaption>The Warring States, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 260<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC</figcaption></figure> <p>After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States">Warring States</a> period. Though the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> king nominally remained as such until 256<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. </p><p>Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the <i><a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Zhuan</a></i> within the <i>Spring and Autumn Annals</i> (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips" title="Tsinghua Bamboo Slips">Tsinghua</a> collection, dated to 305<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips#Decimal_multiplication_table" title="Tsinghua Bamboo Slips">base-10 multiplication table.</a> The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a>), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of <a href="/wiki/Commandery_(China)" title="Commandery (China)">commanderies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefectures">prefectures</a>. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China"><i>sheng</i> and <i>xian</i></a> ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. </p><p>The state of <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a> became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the <a href="/wiki/Shu_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu (state)">Shu</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Jinsha_site" title="Jinsha site">Jinsha</a> on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a> from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its final expansion began during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ying_Zheng" class="mw-redirect" title="Ying Zheng">Ying Zheng</a>, ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a>—known to history as <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperial_era">Imperial era</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This section is about the ancient dynastic Chinese imperial state. For the empire founded by Yuan Shikai, see <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (1915–1916)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_systems_of_Imperial_China" title="Political systems of Imperial China">Political systems of Imperial China</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_imperial_China">Early imperial China</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qin_dynasty_(221–206_BC)"><span id="Qin_dynasty_.28221.E2.80.93206_BC.29"></span>Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg/290px-Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg/435px-Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg/580px-Terracotta_Army-China2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The massive <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a>, a UNESCO <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">秦朝</span></span>) in 221 BC effectively formalised the region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">秦</span></span>) later evolving into the Western term "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/China" class="extiw" title="wikt:China">China</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198620_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198620-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Shi Huangdi</a></i></span> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A7%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:始">始</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:皇">皇</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:帝">帝</a>; "First Emperor"); the <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Huangdi</a></i></span> title, derived from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>, became the standard for subsequent rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198653_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198653-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based in <a href="/wiki/Xianyang" title="Xianyang">Xianyang</a>, the empire was a centralized <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucratic</a> monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199960_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199960-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201915_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201915-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 <a href="/wiki/Commandery_(China)" title="Commandery (China)">commanderies</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">郡</span></span>; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">jun</i></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made up of <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_China" title="Counties of China">counties</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">县</span></span>; <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">xian</i></span>) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201915–17_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201915–17-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many aspects of society were informed by <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his <a href="/wiki/Grand_chancellor_(China)" title="Grand chancellor (China)">chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a> that was introduced at an earlier time by <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles (<a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">seal script</a>) and metal currency (<a href="/wiki/Ban_Liang" title="Ban Liang">Ban Liang</a>), all of which were standardized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199961_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199961-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198656–57,_59–60_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198656–57,_59–60-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars</a> under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars#Skepticism" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">historicity of this event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> for social and moral beliefs and the five-element <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">五行</span></span>) theories for <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198675–78_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198675–78-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201917_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201917-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2007102_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2007102-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Buckley_Ebrey" title="Patricia Buckley Ebrey">Patricia Buckley Ebrey</a>, as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199963_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199963-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198661_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198661-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major construction projects were assigned to the general <a href="/wiki/Meng_Tian" title="Meng Tian">Meng Tian</a>, who concurrently <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_campaign_against_the_Xiongnu" title="Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu">led a successful campaign</a> against the northern <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198661_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198661-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a> and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198660–61_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198660–61-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor also oversaw the construction of his <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_the_First_Qin_Emperor" title="Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor">monumental mausoleum</a>, which includes the well known <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198682–83_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198682–83-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198684_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198684-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201922–24_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201922–24-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Han_dynasty_(206_BC_–_AD_220)"><span id="Han_dynasty_.28206_BC_.E2.80.93_AD_220.29"></span>Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="History of the Han dynasty">History of the Han dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Western_Han">Western Han</h5></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_Expansion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/250px-Han_Expansion.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/375px-Han_Expansion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Han_Expansion.png/500px-Han_Expansion.png 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The Han dynasty was founded by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Liu Bang</a>, who emerged victorious in the <a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a> that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A <a href="/wiki/Pax_Sinica" title="Pax Sinica">golden age</a> in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> and to areas far west. <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">dominant ethnic group</a> in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">written characters</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">initial laissez-faire policies</a> of Emperors <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Wen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han" title="Emperor Jing of Han">Jing</a>, the ambitious <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han" title="Emperor Wu of Han">Emperor Wu</a> brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENylan201676–79,_84,_107–108_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan201676–79,_84,_107–108-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. <a href="/wiki/Taixue" title="Taixue">Imperial Universities</a> were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Han_Dynasty#Private_manufacture_and_government_monopolies" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of the Han Dynasty">with government monopolies</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:258px;max-width:258px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_qing_blue.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/China_qing_blue.JPG/130px-China_qing_blue.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/China_qing_blue.JPG/195px-China_qing_blue.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/China_qing_blue.JPG/260px-China_qing_blue.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3424" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs,_Western_Han.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg/120px-Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg/180px-Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg/240px-Bronze_mirror_with_painted_designs%2C_Western_Han.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1062" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left"><b>Left image</b>: Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with raised <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">phoenixes</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Taotie" title="Taotie">taotie</a></i><br /> <b>Right image</b>: Reverse side of a Western-Han <a href="/wiki/TLV_mirror" title="TLV mirror">bronze mirror</a> with painted designs of a flower motif</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">Major military campaigns</a> were launched to weaken the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu Empire</a>, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Qian" title="Zhang Qian">Zhang Qian</a>, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">states in the Tarim Basin</a>, opened up the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. </p><p>Emperor Wu also dispatched a <a href="/wiki/Southward_expansion_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Southward expansion of the Han dynasty">series of military campaigns</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a> tribes. The Han annexed <a href="/wiki/Han_campaigns_against_Minyue" title="Han campaigns against Minyue">Minyue in 135 BC</a> and 111 BC, <a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Nanyue_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Nanyue War">Nanyue in 111 BC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Han_campaign_against_Dian" class="mw-redirect" title="Han campaign against Dian">Dian in 109 BC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYu1986455–458_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYu1986455–458-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various <a href="/wiki/Consort_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Consort clan">consort clans</a> exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Xin_dynasty">Xin dynasty</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a></div> <p>In AD 9 the usurper <a href="/wiki/Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a> claimed that the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in <a href="/wiki/Weiyang_Palace" title="Weiyang Palace">Weiyang Palace</a> by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Eastern_Han">Eastern Han</h5></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han">Emperor Guangwu</a> reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, <i>east</i> of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a>. With the capable administrations of Emperors <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Han" title="Emperor Ming of Han">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhang_of_Han" title="Emperor Zhang of Han">Zhang</a>, former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu Empire</a> was <a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War#Final_stages" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">decisively defeated</a>. The diplomat and general <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a> further expanded the conquests across the <a href="/wiki/Pamirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamirs">Pamirs</a> to the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 175">: 175 </span></sup> thus reopening the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism#Traditional_accounts" title="Chinese Buddhism">arrival of Buddhism</a>. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several <a href="/wiki/Romano-Chinese_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-Chinese relations">Roman embassies to China</a> were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. </p><p>The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Han dynasty">most prolific eras of science and technology</a> in ancient China, notably the historic invention of <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cai_Lun" title="Cai Lun">Cai Lun</a>, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Six_Dynasties">Six Dynasties</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_Kingdoms_(AD_220–280)"><span id="Three_Kingdoms_.28AD_220.E2.80.93280.29"></span>Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></div> <p>By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between <a href="/wiki/Consort_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Consort clan">consort clans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eunuch#China" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">warlords</a>. In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel <i><a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> dramatizes events of this period. </p><p>The warlord <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Emperor Xian of Han</a>, thus initiating the <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a> dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a> proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. </p><p>In 266, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a> overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jin_dynasty_(AD_266–420)"><span id="Jin_dynasty_.28AD_266.E2.80.93420.29"></span>Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty (266–420)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="History of the Jin dynasty (266–420)">History of the Jin dynasty (266–420)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:158px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png/165px-Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png" decoding="async" width="165" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png/248px-Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png/330px-Western_Jeun_Dynasty_280_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Western_Jin_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin Dynasty">Western Jin Dynasty</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 280 AD</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:121px;max-width:121px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:158px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG/119px-2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG" decoding="async" width="119" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG/179px-2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG/238px-2016-12-15_Maijishan_Grotten_%E9%BA%A5%E7%A9%8D%E5%B1%B1%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_anagoria_11.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3448" data-file-height="4592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">View of Maijishan hill caves, grottoes and stairways.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a> reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, ending the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Eight_Princes" title="War of the Eight Princes">War of the Eight Princes</a> and lost control of northern China after <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_the_Five_Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Uprising of the Five Barbarians">non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled</a> and captured <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>. In 317, the Jin prince <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin" title="Emperor Yuan of Jin">Sima Rui</a>, based in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sixteen_Kingdoms_(AD_304–439)"><span id="Sixteen_Kingdoms_.28AD_304.E2.80.93439.29"></span>Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></div> <p>Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a>, most of which were founded by <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a> rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic people">Turks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibetans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetans">Tibetans</a>. Many had, to some extent, been "<a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicized</a>" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the <a href="/wiki/Qiang_people" title="Qiang people">Qiang</a> and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(AD_420–589)"><span id="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_.28AD_420.E2.80.93589.29"></span>Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:119px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/124px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png" decoding="async" width="124" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/186px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/248px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Southern and Northern Dynasties, 440 AD</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:119px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/160px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/240px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG/320px-Hanging_Monastery_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="2616" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Hanging_Monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanging Monastery">Hanging Monastery</a>, a temple with the combination of <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang</a> and finally <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen</a>. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a> (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to <a href="/wiki/Sinify" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinify">sinify</a>. </p><p>In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>, a kingdom founded by the <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a>, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a>, which then became the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a>. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han. </p><p>Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoists</a> had become much more tolerant of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-imperial_China">Mid-imperial China</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sui_dynasty_(581–618)"><span id="Sui_dynasty_.28581.E2.80.93618.29"></span>Sui dynasty (581–618)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Sui dynasty (AD 581–618)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png/176px-Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png" decoding="async" width="176" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png/264px-Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png/352px-Cheui_Dynasty_581_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Sui dynasty <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 609</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:110px;max-width:110px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg/108px-Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg/162px-Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg/216px-Sui_Yangdi_Tang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="1272" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Yang Guang depicted as Emperor Yang of Sui</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen</a> in 581 in succession of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a>, the Sui went on to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Southern Chen</a> in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of <a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments and Six Ministries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a> for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of <a href="/wiki/Fubing_system" title="Fubing system">fubing system</a> of the army conscription and the <a href="/wiki/Equal-field_system" title="Equal-field system">equal-field system</a> of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Standardized coinage</a> was enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> was constructed, linking the capitals <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Daxing (Chang'an)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> to the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern China">southeast region</a>, and in another route, to the northeast border. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a> was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Peninsula">Korean Peninsula</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo%E2%80%93Sui_War" title="Goguryeo–Sui War">Goguryeo–Sui War</a> failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Sui_to_Tang" title="Transition from Sui to Tang">the fall of the dynasty</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tang_dynasty_(618–907)"><span id="Tang_dynasty_.28618.E2.80.93907.29"></span>Tang dynasty (618–907)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Tang dynasty (AD 618–907)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China,_742.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/China%2C_742.svg/133px-China%2C_742.svg.png" decoding="async" width="133" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/China%2C_742.svg/200px-China%2C_742.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/China%2C_742.svg/266px-China%2C_742.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Tang Dynasty in 742 AD</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:113px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/151px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/227px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg/302px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97_%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3_%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4352" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The Fengxian cave (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 675 AD) of the <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes" title="Longmen Grottoes">Longmen Grottoes</a>, commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:116px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_(9).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/168px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/252px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg/336px-%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%BE%99%E9%97%A8%E7%9F%B3%E7%AA%9F%EF%BC%8CLuo_Yang_Dragon_Gate_Grottoes_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1108" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Inside a cave of <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Grottoes" title="Longmen Grottoes">Longmen Grottoes</a>, a UNESCO <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:116px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_star_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dunhuang_star_map.jpg/116px-Dunhuang_star_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dunhuang_star_map.jpg/174px-Dunhuang_star_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Dunhuang_star_map.jpg/232px-Dunhuang_star_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="2136" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang map">Dunhuang map</a> is to date the world's oldest complete preserved star atlas.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Tang dynasty was a <a href="/wiki/Pax_Sinica" title="Pax Sinica">golden age of Chinese civilization</a>, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly <a href="/wiki/Tang_poetry" title="Tang poetry">poetry</a>, and technology. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhism</a> became the predominant religion for the common people. <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>), the national capital, was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history" title="List of largest cities throughout history">largest city in the world during its time</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first emperor, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Tang" title="Emperor Gaozu of Tang">Emperor Gaozu</a>, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Taizong</a>, one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperors in Chinese history</a>. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_tributary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Chinese tributary system">a tributary system</a>. Military victories in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Tang dynasty in Inner Asia">Tarim Basin</a> kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably <a href="/wiki/Nara_period" title="Nara period">Japan</a>. Internally the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, a Chinese <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist monk</a>, scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred <a href="/wiki/Sarira" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarira">sarira</a> relics." </p><p>The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "<a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments and Six Ministries</a>" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-bureaucrats">scholar officials</a> selected by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examinations</a>, setting patterns for later dynasties. </p><p>Under the Tang "<a href="/wiki/Equal-field_system" title="Equal-field system">equal-field system</a>" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Fubing_system" title="Fubing system">fubing</a></i> system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing armies</a> had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:121px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG/143px-Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG" decoding="async" width="143" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG/215px-Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG/286px-Freer_SacklerDSCF8036.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2543" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Central Asian</a> influence can also be seen in the shape of this cup. The metropolitan and multicultural influences of this era can also be seen in the myriad depictions of foreigners in Tang <a href="/wiki/Sancai" title="Sancai">Sancai</a> ceramics and wall murals.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:93px;max-width:93px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:121px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg/91px-Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg/137px-Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg/182px-Gilt_silver_jar_with_pattern_of_dancing_horses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A Tang period <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">gilt</a>-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomad</a>'s leather bag decorated with a <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">horse</a> dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Tang">Emperor Xuanzong</a> were trained to do.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999127_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999127-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a>, the only official <a href="/wiki/Empress_regnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress regnant">empress regnant</a> in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Tang">Emperor Xuanzong</a>, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a> with at least <span class="nowrap">50 million</span> people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_poetry" title="Tang poetry">poets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Li_Bai" title="Li Bai">Li Bai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Du_Fu" title="Du Fu">Du Fu</a>. </p><p>At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">An Lushan Rebellion</a> from 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion#Death_toll" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">devastated the population</a> and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">jiedushi</a></i>, gained increasingly autonomous status as the central government lost its ability to control them. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on its <a href="/wiki/Salt_in_Chinese_history" title="Salt in Chinese history">salt monopoly</a>. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. </p><p>In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce <a href="/wiki/Niu%E2%80%93Li_factional_strife" title="Niu–Li factional strife">factional strife</a> and corrupted <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Dew_incident" title="Sweet Dew incident">amassed immense power</a>. Catastrophically, the <a href="/wiki/Huang_Chao_Rebellion" title="Huang Chao Rebellion">Huang Chao Rebellion</a>, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> in 879 was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_massacre" title="Guangzhou massacre">massacre</a> of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 881, both capitals, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Turkic</a> <a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">warlords</a> in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wen" title="Zhu Wen">Zhu Wen</a>'s usurpation led to an <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">era of division</a>. </p><p>In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (<a href="/wiki/Li_Guochang" title="Li Guochang">Li Guochang</a>) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a>. In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning <a href="/wiki/Zhangxin_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangxin Khan">Zhangxin Khan</a>, he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer <a href="/wiki/Shi_Xiong" title="Shi Xiong">Shi Xiong</a> with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_(907–960)"><span id="Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_.28907.E2.80.93960.29"></span>Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Later_Han.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Later_Han.png/186px-Later_Han.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Later_Han.png/279px-Later_Han.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Later_Han.png/372px-Later_Han.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="898" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Five Dynasties Ten Kingdoms Period 947 AD</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:YunYanSiPagoda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/YunYanSiPagoda.jpg/98px-YunYanSiPagoda.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/YunYanSiPagoda.jpg/147px-YunYanSiPagoda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/YunYanSiPagoda.jpg/196px-YunYanSiPagoda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Yunyan_Pagoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Yunyan Pagoda">Yunyan Pagoda</a> in Jiangsu Province of Eastern China.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:127px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_(4986578699).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg/192px-096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg/288px-096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg/384px-096_20100911_bt_shanghai_museum_%284986578699%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Coins of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:94px;max-width:94px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:127px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg/92px-Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg/138px-Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg/184px-Gu_Hongzhong_15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1304" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Section and detail of <i>Night Revels of <a href="/wiki/Han_Xizai" title="Han Xizai">Han Xizai</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Gu_Hongzhong" title="Gu Hongzhong">Gu Hongzhong</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Liang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Tang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Zhou</a>, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Tang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Han</a> were <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicized</a> <a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo Turks</a>, which ruled over an ethnic majority of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> in the north. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms". </p><p>Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Prefectures" title="Sixteen Prefectures">Sixteen Prefectures</a> (region along today's <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a>) were ceded to the emerging <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Khitan Liao dynasty</a>, which drastically weakened the defense of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(938)" title="Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)">gained lasting independence</a> after <a href="/wiki/Third_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Chinese domination of Vietnam">being a Chinese prefecture</a> for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese domination of Vietnam">many centuries</a>. With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> general <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Zhao Kuangyin</a>, and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_imperial_China">Late imperial China</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Song,_Liao,_Jin,_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_(960–1279)"><span id="Song.2C_Liao.2C_Jin.2C_and_Western_Xia_dynasties_.28960.E2.80.931279.29"></span>Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty (1115–1234)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="History of the Song dynasty">History of the Song dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (AD 960–1279)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:174px;max-width:174px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg/172px-Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg/258px-Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg/344px-Asia_in_1100-1200_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1656" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> in China.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:114px;max-width:114px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:149px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/112px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/168px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg/224px-Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="567" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A wooden <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> from the Song dynasty.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/288px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG" decoding="async" width="288" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/432px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG/576px-Chinese_Gunpowder_Formula.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="864" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Earliest known <a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder" title="History of gunpowder">written formula</a> for <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>, from the <i><a href="/wiki/Wujing_Zongyao" title="Wujing Zongyao">Wujing Zongyao</a></i> of 1044 AD.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu</a>, with its capital established in <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a> (then known as <a href="/wiki/Bianjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bianjing">Bianjing</a>). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicized</a> <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">nomadic empires</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a> Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">Northern China</a>. Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tangut</a> tribes founded the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia dynasty</a> from 1032 to 1227. </p><p>Aiming to recover the strategic <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixteen prefectures">sixteen prefectures</a> lost in the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">previous dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaoliang_River" title="Battle of Gaoliang River">campaigns</a> were launched against the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizong of Song">early Song period</a>, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> swept over the exposed <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a> and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the <a href="/wiki/Chanyuan_Treaty" title="Chanyuan Treaty">Chanyuan Treaty</a>, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_tributary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Chinese tributary system">tributary system</a>. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao Empire</a>, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>. </p><p>Within the Liao Empire the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphract</a> annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> Empire (Western Liao dynasty). <a href="/wiki/Jin%E2%80%93Song_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin–Song Wars">Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty</a> followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingkang Incident">Jingkang Incident</a>, ending the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Song dynasty">Northern Song dynasty</a>. Later the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_campaigns_against_the_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchen campaigns against the Song dynasty">entire north of China was conquered</a>. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, and initiated the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty</a>, which ruled territories south of the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a>. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest">Mongol conquest</a>, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Jin dynasty in 1234</a>, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Southern Song dynasty in 1279</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/124px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/186px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg/248px-Dingzhou_Liaodi_Pagoda_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Liaodi_Pagoda" title="Liaodi Pagoda">Liaodi Pagoda</a>, Song dynasty</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:165px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/110px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/165px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg/220px-People%27s_Republic_of_China_Beijing_Tianningsi_Tianing_Temple_David_McBride_Photography-0045_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Pagoda of <a href="/wiki/Tianning_Temple_(Beijing)" title="Tianning Temple (Beijing)">Tianing Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Economy of the Song dynasty">Song economy</a>, facilitated by technological advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over <span class="nowrap">100 million</span> and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history" title="List of largest cities throughout history">most populous cities</a> in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensive <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Route" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime Silk Route">maritime trade</a> with neighbouring states, such as in <a href="/wiki/South-east_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="South-east Asia">South-east Asia</a>, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compasses</a> traveled throughout the <a href="/wiki/China_Seas" title="China Seas">China Seas</a> and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime <a href="/wiki/Shipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Shipment">shipments</a>. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of <a href="/wiki/Jiaozi_(currency)" title="Jiaozi (currency)">paper currency</a> emerged in the western city of <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, as a cheaper supplement to the existing copper <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a>. </p><p>The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101) and <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock printing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paper_money" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper money">paper money</a> were all invented during the Song dynasty, further cementing its status. </p><p>There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors <a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a>, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">Neo-Confucian</a> philosophy formulated by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a>. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i> ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). The invention of <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_print" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodblock print">movable-type printing</a> further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Songs_of_a_Nomad_Flute" title="Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute">Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute</a></i>, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific <a href="/wiki/Lin_Tinggui" title="Lin Tinggui">Lin Tinggui</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/177px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" decoding="async" width="177" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/266px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/354px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:309px;max-width:309px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:123px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/307px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg" decoding="async" width="307" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/461px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg/614px-%E6%B8%85%E6%98%8E%E4%B8%8A%E6%B2%B3%E5%9B%BE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="407" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:276px;max-width:276px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(detail_of_original).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg/274px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="274" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg/411px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg/548px-Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_%28detail_of_original%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/210px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/315px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg/420px-Leifeng_Pagoda_in_the_Southern_Song_Dynasty_by_Li_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1899" data-file-height="1244" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">City views of Song dynasty from paintings. Clockwise from upper left: A Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) era Chinese painting of a water-powered mill for grain, with surrounding river transport. The bridge scene from <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a>'s (1085–1145) painting <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_Qingming_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Along the River During Qingming Festival">Along the River During Qingming Festival</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">Chinese boats</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_Qingming_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Along the River During Qingming Festival">Along the River During Qingming Festival</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Leifeng_Pagoda" title="Leifeng Pagoda">Leifeng Pagoda</a> in the Southern Song Dynasty by <a href="/wiki/Li_Song_(painter)" title="Li Song (painter)">Li Song</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the <a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">history of warfare</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a>, while invented in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, was first put into practical use on the battlefield by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at <a href="/wiki/Dinghai" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinghai">Dinghai</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paddle_wheel" title="Paddle wheel">Paddle-wheel</a> warships equipped with <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchets</a> could launch <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary bombs</a> made of gunpowder and lime to effect, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangdao" title="Battle of Tangdao">Battle of Tangdao</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Caishi" title="Battle of Caishi">Battle of Caishi</a> on the Yangtze River in 1161. </p><p>The advances in civilisation during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest of the North and subsequently other areas of the empire, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">halting Mongol advances</a> for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen" title="Battle of Yamen">Battle of Yamen</a> in 1279. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yuan_dynasty_(1271–1368)"><span id="Yuan_dynasty_.281271.E2.80.931368.29"></span>Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="History of the Yuan dynasty">History of the Yuan dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–1368)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg/93px-Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg/140px-Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg/186px-Miaoyingsi_baita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="448" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The White Stupa of <a href="/wiki/Miaoying_Temple" title="Miaoying Temple">Miaoying Temple</a> in Beijing.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:193px;max-width:193px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/191px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg" decoding="async" width="191" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/287px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg/382px-Deva_King_of_the_East.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2579" data-file-height="1889" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings" title="Four Heavenly Kings">Deva King of the East</a> on the east wall of the <a href="/wiki/Cloud_Platform_at_Juyong_Pass" title="Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass">Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg/168px-Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg/252px-Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg/336px-Bronze_cannon_of_1332.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2688" data-file-height="1359" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Yuan period <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearm</a> with inscription dated the 3rd year of the Zhiyuan era (1332). Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368). Discovered at the Yunju Temple, Fangshan, Beijing, 1935.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/116px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/174px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg/232px-Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2631" data-file-height="1918" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing wood plate, 1287 AD.</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MongolMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/330px-MongolMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/495px-MongolMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/660px-MongolMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Mongol successor khanates</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Great Khan of Mongol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>, one of the grandsons of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, assumed the additional title of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a>, and considered <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">his inherited part</a> of the Mongol Empire as a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese dynasty">Chinese dynasty</a>. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> Yuan dynasty became the first <a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">conquest dynasty</a> in Chinese history to rule the entirety of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">its population</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Mongols_in_China" title="Mongols in China">ethnic minority</a>. The dynasty also directly controlled the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_heartland" title="Mongol heartland">Mongol heartland</a> and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">eastern Mongol empire</a>, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">invasions of Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Khanbaliq</a> (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to lively economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation for Beijing to largely remain as the <a href="/wiki/Historical_capitals_of_China" title="Historical capitals of China">capital</a> of the successive regimes of the unified Chinese mainland. </p><p>A series of <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire#Civil_war" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Mongol civil wars</a> in the late 13th century led to the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">division of the Mongol Empire</a>. In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a> over western khanates (the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>), which nonetheless remained <i>de facto</i> autonomous. The era was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></i>, when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. A network of roads and a <a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">postal system</a> were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a> emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, would settle in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail <a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">travel record</a> inspired generations of <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">medieval Europeans</a> with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where <a href="/wiki/Paper_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper currency">paper currency</a>, known at the time as <i><a href="/wiki/Jiaochao" title="Jiaochao">Jiaochao</a></i>, was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a>, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Observatory,_Dengfeng,_2015-09-24_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg/127px-The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg/191px-The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg/254px-The_Observatory%2C_Dengfeng%2C_2015-09-24_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="4256" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Dengfeng_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengfeng Observatory">Dengfeng Observatory</a>, the first in a series of 27 astronomical observatories built in the early Yuan dynasty.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:109px;max-width:109px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:190px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/107px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/161px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg/214px-%E6%9F%8F%E6%9E%97%E7%A6%85%E5%AF%BA%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9%E5%A1%94_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2232" data-file-height="3968" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Pagoda of Bailin Temple, an octagonal-based brick pagoda built in 1330 during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Jayaatu_Khan_Tugh_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür">Emperor Wenzong</a>, ruler of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).</div></div></div></div></div> <p>While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a> was of lesser extent compared to earlier <a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">conquest dynasties</a> in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Steppe">Mongolian Steppe</a> were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups of <a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">foreign migrants</a> settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar officials</a> and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in <i><a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">zaju</a></i> variety shows and <a href="/wiki/Sanqu" title="Sanqu">literary songs</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Sanqu" title="Sanqu">sanqu</a></i>), which were written in a distinctive <a href="/wiki/Yuan_poetry" title="Yuan poetry">poetry style</a> known as <i><a href="/wiki/Qu_(poetry)" title="Qu (poetry)">qu</a></i>. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:164px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg/110px-%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg/165px-%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg/220px-%E4%BB%A3%E5%8E%BF%E9%98%BF%E8%82%B2%E7%8E%8B%E5%A1%94.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="850" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Ayuwang_Pagoda" title="Ayuwang Pagoda">Ayuwang Stupa</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, China.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:164px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG/124px-Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG" decoding="async" width="124" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG/186px-Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG/248px-Zhao_guan_Tower_2011-10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> on top of an arch (<i>crossing street tower</i>), is a common form of architecture during Yuan period.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately <span class="nowrap">120 million</span> inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly <span class="nowrap">60 million</span> people.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Brook" title="Timothy Brook">Timothy Brook</a> argue that the Mongols created a system of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">enserfment</a> among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 348–351">: 348–351 </span></sup> </p><p>Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent, corrupt governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the <a href="/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history" title="Largest naval battle in history">massive naval engagement</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Poyang" title="Battle of Lake Poyang">at Lake Poyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Zhu Yuanzhang</a> prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">sustained the regime</a>, but the period of Yuan dominance was effectively over for good. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)"><span id="Ming_dynasty_.281368.E2.80.931644.29"></span>Ming dynasty (1368–1644)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="History of the Ming dynasty">History of the Ming dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:146px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haihui_Temple_(Shanxi).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG/110px-Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="110" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG/165px-Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG/220px-Haihui_Temple_%28Shanxi%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Haihui Temple Pagodas, built in the Ming period.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:176px;max-width:176px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:146px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:200_Cash_(%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87)_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_(%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94)_KKNews_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg/174px-200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg/261px-200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg/348px-200_Cash_%28%E8%B2%B3%E4%BD%B0%E6%96%87%29_-_Da-Ming_Tongxing_Baochao_%28%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%E9%80%9A%E8%A1%8C%E5%AF%B6%E9%88%94%29_KKNews_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Da_Ming_Baochao" class="mw-redirect" title="Da Ming Baochao">Da Ming Baochao</a>, a series of banknotes issued by the Ming government.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:193px;max-width:193px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif/lossy-page1-191px-Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="191" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif/lossy-page1-287px-Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif/lossy-page1-382px-Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665_0789.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5016" data-file-height="3666" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Porcelain_Tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Porcelain Tower">Porcelain Tower</a>, from <i><a href="/wiki/An_embassy_from_the_East-India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="An embassy from the East-India Company">An embassy from the East-India Company</a></i> (1665) by Johan Nieuhof. It was first discovered by the Western world when travelers like <a href="/wiki/Johan_Nieuhof" title="Johan Nieuhof">Johan Nieuhof</a> visited it, sometimes listing it as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg/93px-Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg/140px-Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg/186px-Jining_Chongjue_Si_Tieta_2015.08.13_17-18-45.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Pagoda of Chongjue Temple, dated to the Song dynasty. The onion-shaped <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Drin" title="Sōrin">Sōrin</a> was a Ming dynasty addition.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dongyang Luzhai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/180px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/270px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg/360px-Dongyang_Luzhai_2015.05.24_15-53-48.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Residence of the Lu Family in Dongyang, built in the Ming period.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="XiAn CityWall DiLou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg/180px-XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg/270px-XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg/360px-XiAn_CityWall_DiLou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Fortifications_of_Xi%27an" title="Fortifications of Xi'an">City wall of Xi'an</a>, a UNESCO <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> built during the early Ming dynasty</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fenghuang_old_town.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fenghuang old town" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/180px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/270px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Fenghuang_old_town.JPG/360px-Fenghuang_old_town.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Fenghuang_County" title="Fenghuang County">Fenghuang County</a>, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Yixian Hongcun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/180px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/270px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg/360px-Yixian_Hongcun_2016.09.09_17-27-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hongcun" title="Hongcun">Hongcun</a>, a village in Yi County in the historical Huizhou region of southern Anhui Province.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xinye-9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Xinye" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/180px-Xinye-9.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/270px-Xinye-9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Xinye-9.jpg/360px-Xinye-9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3991" data-file-height="2245" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Xinye_Village" title="Xinye Village">Xinye</a>, a village noted for its well-preserved Ming and Qing era architecture and ancient residential buildings.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a>. The capital was initially set at <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, and was later moved to <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> from <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a>'s reign onward. </p><p>Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. </p><p>Despite the <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobia</a> and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">neo-Confucianism</a>, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the <a href="/wiki/Treasure_voyages" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasure voyages">voyages of Zheng He</a>. </p><p>The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Chinese dynasty</a> who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived. </p><p>The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "<a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a>" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including <a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_throne" title="Memorial to the throne">memorials</a> (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. </p><p>The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armies <a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93H%E1%BB%93_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming–Hồ War">conquered</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam">occupied Vietnam</a> for around 20 years, while the <a href="/wiki/Treasure_voyages" class="mw-redirect" title="Treasure voyages">Chinese fleet sailed</a> the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern <a href="/wiki/Moghulistan" title="Moghulistan">Moghulistan</a>. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. </p><p>In 1449 <a href="/wiki/Esen_Tayisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Esen Tayisi">Esen Tayisi</a> led an <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirat</a> Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yingzong_of_Ming" title="Emperor Yingzong of Ming">Zhengtong Emperor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tumu_Crisis" title="Tumu Crisis">Tumu</a>. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Great_Wall" title="Ming Great Wall">Ming Great Wall</a> being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:195px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A donkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/118px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/177px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg/236px-Lin_Liang-Eagles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="1618" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Eagles</i> by <a href="/wiki/Lin_Liang" title="Lin Liang">Lin Liang</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1424 – 1500). Located at the <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:118px;max-width:118px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;;height:195px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A trout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg/116px-Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg/174px-Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg/232px-Bian_Jingzhao-Snow_Plum_and_Twin_Cranes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="2116" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><i>Snow Plums and Twin Cranes</i> by <a href="/wiki/Bian_Jingzhao" title="Bian Jingzhao">Bian Jingzhao</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1355</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1428</span>). Located at the <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Museum" title="Guangdong Museum">Guangdong Museum</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the <a href="/wiki/Haijin" title="Haijin">maritime prohibition</a> laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tunmen" title="Battle of Tunmen">repulsed by the Ming navy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tuen_Mun" title="Tuen Mun">Tuen Mun</a> in 1521 and again <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Tamao" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Tamao">in 1522</a>. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread <i><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">wokou</a></i> piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a> (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_wokou_raids" title="Jiajing wokou raids">much military suppression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to raids from Japan by the <i><a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">wokou</a></i>, raids from Taiwan and the <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines#Pre-colonial_period_(900_AD_to_1565)" title="Military history of the Philippines">Philippines by the Pisheye</a> also ravaged the southern coasts.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese were allowed to settle in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the <a href="/wiki/Manila_Galleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila Galleon">Spanish at Manila</a> imported large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Global_silver_trade_from_the_16th_to_19th_centuries" title="Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries">Mexican and Peruvian silver</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Americas">Spanish Americas</a> to China.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 144–145">: 144–145 </span></sup> The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the <a href="/wiki/Penghu" title="Penghu">Penghu islands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Dutch_conflicts" title="Sino-Dutch conflicts">Sino-Dutch conflicts</a> of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">The Dutch in Taiwan</a> fought with the Ming in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liaoluo_Bay" title="Battle of Liaoluo Bay">Battle of Liaoluo Bay</a> in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a> in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty. </p><p>In 1556, during the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Jiajing_Emperor" title="Jiajing Emperor">Jiajing Emperor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1556_Shaanxi_earthquake" title="1556 Shaanxi earthquake">Shaanxi earthquake</a> killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time. </p><p>The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)</a>, which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon dynasty</a>, its traditional ally and <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">tributary state</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_tributary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Chinese tributary system">regional hegemony</a> of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> in decline, the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a>) tribes, under their chieftain <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a>, broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">later proclaimed</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. It went on to subdue the much weakened <a href="/wiki/Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon dynasty">Korea</a> as its <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">tributary</a>, conquered <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Yuan dynasty">Mongolia</a>, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">peasants uprisings</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)"><span id="Qing_dynasty_.281644.E2.80.931912.29"></span>Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin (1616–1636)</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Qing dynasty (AD 1644–1912)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:131px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_(1836).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg/182px-Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg/273px-Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg/364px-Carte_generale_de_l%27Empire_Chinois_et_du_Japon_%281836%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8445" data-file-height="6140" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">1836 map of China published by C. Picque.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:131px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/102px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/153px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg/204px-Museum_f%C3%BCr_Ostasiatische_Kunst_Dahlem_Berlin_Mai_2006_041.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1429" data-file-height="1841" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Pilgrim flask, <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> with underglaze blue and iron-red decoration.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:104px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg/127px-MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg/191px-MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg/254px-MilitaryCostumeEmperorKienLong1736-1796.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1838" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A military attire of the Qianlong Emperor</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:104px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760,_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG/157px-Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="157" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG/236px-Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG/314px-Chinese_Geomantic_Compass_c._1760%2C_National_Maritime_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1520" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A Qing period geomantic compass (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1760)</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Dongyang Luzhai" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg/180px-%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg/270px-%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg/360px-%E9%A2%90%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%AD%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%B1%B1%E4%BD%9B%E9%A6%99%E9%98%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2896" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a>, an imperial garden in Qing dynasty.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="XiAn CityWall DiLou" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg/180px-Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg/270px-Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg/360px-Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1903" data-file-height="1322" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple" title="Putuo Zongcheng Temple">Putuo Zongcheng Temple</a>, a Buddhist temple complex built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the <a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_(14).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg/180px-%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg/270px-%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg/360px-%E6%99%8B%E5%9F%8E%E7%9A%87%E5%9F%8E%E7%9B%B8%E5%BA%9C_-_panoramio_%2814%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Huangcheng_Chancellor" title="House of the Huangcheng Chancellor">House of the Huangcheng Chancellor</a>, a 10-hectare walled estate on Phoenix Hill in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, China.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/180px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/270px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg/360px-%E8%8A%B1%E6%88%8F%E6%A5%BC_%E5%B1%B1%E9%97%A8_%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Flower Theatre, a Qing period guildhall.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg/180px-%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg/270px-%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg/360px-%E4%BC%9A%E8%8A%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A residential building of <a href="/wiki/Qiao_Family_Compound" title="Qiao Family Compound">Qiao Family Compound</a>, built in the Qing period.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchus</a>, it was the second <a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">conquest dynasty</a> to rule the entirety of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known as <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> united all Jurchen tribes and his son, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a>, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a> system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest. <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a>'s peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a>, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a> to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Ming dynasty">Ming remnants in the south</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Ming-Qing transition</a>, when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like the <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty">Xi dynasty</a> founded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerable <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> at that time such as those caused by the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_in_the_late_Ming_dynasty" title="Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty">Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caused enormous loss of lives and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912#Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)" title="Economic history of China before 1912">significant harm to the economy</a>. In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as <span class="nowrap">25 million</span> lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asian</a> rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty. </p><p>The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu <a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">queue hairstyle</a>. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing <i><a href="/wiki/Changshan" title="Changshan">Changshan</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">bannermen</a> dress and <i><a href="/wiki/Tangzhuang" title="Tangzhuang">Tangzhuang</a></i>), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chinese clothing">traditional Han clothing</a>. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> ordered the creation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i>, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. </p><p>Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Conquests in Central Asia</a> in the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a>, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">previous emperor</a>. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a>, which was founded by the Ming loyalist <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a> (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing <a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">defeated the Russians at Albazin</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a>. </p><p>By the end of <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>'s long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">its zenith</a>. The Qing ruled more than <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Empires_at_their_greatest_extent" title="List of largest empires">one-third of the world's population</a>, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Empires_at_their_greatest_extent" title="List of largest empires">one of the largest empires ever</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/250px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/375px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/500px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="849" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>A map of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1820</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/250px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/375px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png/500px-%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BE.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> (1840) led to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a> (1842), under which <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong_(1800s%E2%80%931930s)" title="History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)">Hong Kong</a> was ceded to Britain and importation of <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a> with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty. </p><p>Internally the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" <a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuquan</a> swept from the south to establish the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Heavenly_Kingdom" title="Taiping Heavenly Kingdom">Taiping Heavenly Kingdom</a> and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a> to raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Nanking" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Battle of Nanking">Third Battle of Nanking</a> in 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhn_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhn-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A string of civil disturbances followed, including the <a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dungan_revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhn_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhn-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/300px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/450px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/600px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption>A scene of the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Yet the dynasty appeared to recover in the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a> (1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his proteges <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zongtang" title="Zuo Zongtang">Zuo Zongtang</a>. Their <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a> made effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The defeat of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>'s modernized "<a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Fleet" title="Beiyang Fleet">Beiyang Fleet</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> (1894–1895) led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a>, advised by <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a>, then launched a comprehensive reform effort, the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> (1898). <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a>, however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it. </p><p>In the summer of 1900, the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Uprising</a> opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_International_Legations" title="Siege of the International Legations">besieged in the foreign legations quarter</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> sent the <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Expedition" title="Seymour Expedition">Seymour Expedition</a> of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were routed and forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Langfang" title="Battle of Langfang">Battle of Langfang</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dagu_Forts_(1900)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dagu Forts (1900)">the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts</a>, the court declared war on the Alliance and authorised the Boxers to join with imperial armies. After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tientsin" title="Battle of Tientsin">fierce fighting at Tianjin</a>, the Alliance formed the second, much larger <a href="/wiki/Gaselee_Expedition" title="Gaselee Expedition">Gaselee Expedition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peking_(1900)" title="Battle of Peking (1900)">finally reached Beijing</a>; the Empress Dowager evacuated to <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a> ended the war, exacting a tremendous <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxer Indemnity">indemnity</a>. </p><p>The Qing court then instituted administrative and legal reforms known as the <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">late Qing reforms</a>, including abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">examination system</a>. But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> and the revolutionary ideas of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>. A localised military uprising, the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang uprising">Wuchang uprising</a>, began on 10 October 1911, in <a href="/wiki/Wuchang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang">Wuchang</a> (today part of <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>), and soon spread. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_China">Modern China</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1903_emperors-2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/1903_emperors-2.JPG/180px-1903_emperors-2.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/1903_emperors-2.JPG/270px-1903_emperors-2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/1903_emperors-2.JPG/360px-1903_emperors-2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2170" data-file-height="1658" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Rulers of the world at the beginning of the 20th century</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republic_of_China_(since_1912)"><span id="Republic_of_China_.28since_1912.29"></span>Republic of China (since 1912)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History of Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)">History of Taiwan (1945–present)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/180px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/270px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/360px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Guangzhou_uprising&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Guangzhou uprising (page does not exist)">First Guangzhou uprising</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg/180px-Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg/270px-Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg/360px-Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Road" title="Nanjing Road">Nanjing Road</a> during <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a>, 1911</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">provisional government of the Republic of China</a> was formed in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> on 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen became <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">President of the Republic of China</a>, but he turned power over to <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, who commanded the <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a>. Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself as the emperor of <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China</a> in late 1915, in the style of an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the rapidly growing prospect of violent rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunyatsen1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/100px-Sunyatsen1.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/150px-Sunyatsen1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sunyatsen1.jpg/200px-Sunyatsen1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1059" data-file-height="1462" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>, the intellectual leader of the Revolution</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Shikai2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yuan_Shikai2.jpg/95px-Yuan_Shikai2.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yuan_Shikai2.jpg/143px-Yuan_Shikai2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Yuan_Shikai2.jpg/190px-Yuan_Shikai2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, the first official president of the Republic of China</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government (that had been nearly brought to its knees by his policies) was all but shattered. This opened the way for the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>, during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_government" title="Beiyang government">Beiyang government</a>, ushering in a short-lived period of uncertainty. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_(May_4,_1919).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/180px-Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/270px-Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg/360px-Beijing_students_protesting_the_Treaty_of_Versailles_%28May_4%2C_1919%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="336" /></a><figcaption>Beijing college students rallied during the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a>, dissatisfied with Article 156 of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> for China (<a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1919, the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> following World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> to Japan. Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey: </p> <dl><dd>"Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999271_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999271-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931928).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/180px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/270px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/360px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Republic of China from 1912 to 1928</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/180px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/270px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/360px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Republic of China from 1928 to now</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, seized control of the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">military force</a>, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government</a> in Nanjing. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">NRA</a>. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a>, the CCP forces embarked on the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a> across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, a feat transformed into legend, where they established a guerrilla base at <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a> in Shaanxi. During the Long March, the communists reorganised under a new leader, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> (Mao Tse-tung). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/129px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/194px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg/258px-%E8%BD%9F%E7%82%B8%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Bombing of Chongqing</a> in 1940</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:157px;max-width:157px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taierzhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/155px-Taierzhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/233px-Taierzhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Taierzhuang.jpg/310px-Taierzhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1063" data-file-height="699" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Chinese soldiers in house-to-house fighting in the Battle of Tai'erzhuang</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:181px;max-width:181px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/179px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="179" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/269px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/358px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="955" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Special Naval Landing Forces troops in gas masks prepare for an advance in the rubble of Shanghai, China.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:107px;max-width:107px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/105px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/158px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg/210px-Jiangjieshi-declare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="626" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at Lushan on 10 July 1937, three days after the <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Seventy-seven Incident</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The bitter <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937–1945), which became a part of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, although this alliance was tenuous at best and disagreements, sometimes violent, between the forces were still common. Japanese forces committed numerous <a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">war atrocities</a> against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a> (<i>Sankō Sakusen</i>), namely being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Big Four</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a>, as a tribute to its enduring struggle against the invading Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China was one of the four major <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country. <a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a> says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonised too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Now, rotten with internal corruption and compounding tactical error after error under crumbling leadership, the Nationalists were slowly routed towards the South. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government fled to <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops there.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognised as the <a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">sole legitimate government of China</a> by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognise the PRC on account of its status as a communist nation during the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">PRC was seated in the United Nations</a>, replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period, and crackdowns against dissidents were common. </p><p>In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Legislative Yuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly" title="National Assembly">National Assembly</a> elected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. In 1996, the ROC held <a href="/wiki/1996_Taiwanese_presidential_election" title="1996 Taiwanese presidential election">its first direct presidential election</a>, and the incumbent president, KMT candidate <a href="/wiki/Lee_Teng-hui" title="Lee Teng-hui">Lee Teng-hui</a>, was elected. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the <a href="/wiki/2008_Taiwan_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 Taiwan presidential election">2008 election</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Ying-jeou" title="Ma Ying-jeou">Ma Ying-jeou</a>. </p><p>Due to the controversial nature of <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Taiwan's political status</a>, the ROC is currently recognised by <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">merely 12 UN member states and the Holy See</a> as of 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_China&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> as the legitimate government of "China". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="People's_Republic_of_China_(since_1949)"><span id="People.27s_Republic_of_China_.28since_1949.29"></span>People's Republic of China (since 1949)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_(1946-1950).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/240px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/360px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/480px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_c_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_c-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_d_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_d-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The PRC was shaped by a <a href="/wiki/List_of_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">series of campaigns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans of the People's Republic of China">five-year plans</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a>, a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Akbar2010_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akbar2010-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (January 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted <a href="/wiki/Collectivisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivisation">collectivisation</a> and implemented the <a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a> camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a> and motivated by concerns of invasion by either the Soviet Union or the United States, China initiated the <a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front campaign</a> to develop national defense and industrial infrastructure in its rugged interior.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 44">: 44 </span></sup> Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 177">: 177 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> met U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> in Beijing to establish relations with the US. In the same year, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">PRC was admitted to the United Nations</a> in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council. </p><p>A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a> were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a>, and gradually emerged as the <i>de facto</i> leader over the next few years. </p><p>Deng Xiaoping was the <a href="/wiki/Paramount_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramount Leader">Paramount Leader</a> of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">significant economic reforms</a>. The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">communes</a> were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. In addition, there were many free market areas opened. The most successful free market area was Shenzhen. It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_e_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_e-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as <a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">market socialism</a>, and officially by the CCP as <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a>. The PRC adopted its current <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the People's Republic of China">constitution</a> on 4 December 1982. </p><p>In 1989 the death of former general secretary <a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a> helped to spark the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square protests</a> of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">Army</a> troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting in <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests#Death_toll" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests">considerable numbers of fatalities</a>. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the communist government.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_f_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_f-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ref_g_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_g-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CCP general secretary and PRC president <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> and PRC premier <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Rongji" title="Zhu Rongji">Zhu Rongji</a>, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_i_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_i-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The country formally joined the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> in 2001. By <a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">1997</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_sovereignty_over_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of sovereignty over Macau">1999</a>, former European colonies of <a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">British Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a> became the Hong Kong and Macau <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China</a>, respectively. </p><p>Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's natural resources and environment. Another concern was that certain sectors of society were not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this was the wide gap between urban and rural areas in terms of development and prevalence of updated infrastructure. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President <a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu Jintao</a> and Premier <a href="/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a>, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known as of 2014<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_China&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_j_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_j-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land,<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_k_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_k-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref_l_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref_l-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Defense">U.S. Department of Defense</a>, as many as 3 million <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> and members of other <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Muslim</a> minority groups are being held in China's <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">internment camps</a> which are located in the <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> region and which Western news reports often label as "concentration camps".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The camps were established in late 2010s under <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">administration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1b_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1b-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a <a href="/wiki/People%27s_war_on_terror" class="mw-redirect" title="People's war on terror">people's war on terror</a>, a policy announced in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fp-gulag_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fp-gulag-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1b_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1b-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Dou-2022_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dou-2022-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academic <a href="/wiki/Kerry_Brown_(historian)" title="Kerry Brown (historian)">Kerry Brown</a> attributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1022_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1022-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 138">: 138 </span></sup> China has repeatedly denied this, asserting that the West has never been able to produce reliably-sourced satellite footage of any such detainment or resulting detention of minority groups. Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centres have been performed as of June 2024, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-Dou-2022_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dou-2022-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, a Washington Post reporter checked a dozen sites previously identified as reeducation centres and found "[m]ost of them appeared to be empty or converted, with several sites labeled as coronavirus quarantine facilities, teachers' schools and vocational schools."<sup id="cite_ref-Dou-2022_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dou-2022-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> said that they were "witnessing more and more arbitrary detention", but that detained individuals were being moved from the camps into the <a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">formal prison system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The novel coronavirus <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a>, which causes the disease <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>, was first detected in <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, Hubei in 2019 and led to a <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">global pandemic</a>, causing the majority of the world to enter a period of lockdown for at least a year following. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign"><img alt="The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/200px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/300px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/400px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="613" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> enters Beijing in the <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin Campaign</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing"><img alt="People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg/200px-China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg/300px-China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg/400px-China_10th_Anniversary_Parade_in_Beijing_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="530" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949."><img alt="Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/200px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/400px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">Chinese emperors family tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">Ancient</a> – <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">Early</a> – <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">Middle</a> – <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">Chinese exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups in Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_imperial_China" title="Foreign relations of imperial China">Foreign relations of imperial China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_canals_in_China" title="History of canals in China">History of canals in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">History of Islam in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Great_Wall_of_China" title="History of the Great Wall of China">History of the Great Wall of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">List of Chinese monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rebellions_in_China" title="List of rebellions in China">List of rebellions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recipients_of_tribute_from_China" title="List of recipients of tribute from China">List of recipients of tribute from China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tributary_states_of_China" title="List of tributary states of China">List of tributary states of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history of China before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women in ancient and imperial China</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Shi Huangdi</i></span>, but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. In its fullest form, Ying's name would be Qin Shi Huangdi (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">秦始皇帝</span></span>), though it is commonly abbreviated to <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">秦始皇</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018287_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018287-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Shiji</a></i>'s description of the Qin including of 36 <a href="/wiki/Commandery_(China)" title="Commandery (China)">commanderies</a> has now been disproven by archaeological evidence indicating more. The exact number is unknown;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201916–17_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201916–17-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sinologist <a href="/wiki/Derk_Bodde" title="Derk Bodde">Derk Bodde</a> noted that probably "four and possibly as many as half a dozen were added by 210 to the original thirty-six".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198655_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198655-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other tribes of the north, collectively called the <a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Wu Hu</a> by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2007129_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2007129-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018737_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2018">Wilkinson 2018</a>, p. 737.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhuPottsPanYao20081077,_1084–1085-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhuPottsPanYao20081077,_1084–1085_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhuPottsPanYao2008">Zhu et al. 2008</a>, pp. 1077, 1084–1085.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWuLin198392-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuLin198392_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWuLin1983">Wu & Lin 1983</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAoDekkersWeiQiang20131-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAoDekkersWeiQiang20131_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAoDekkersWeiQiang2013">Ao et al. 2013</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamesDennellGilbertLewis19892-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamesDennellGilbertLewis19892_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamesDennellGilbertLewis1989">James et al. 1989</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015696_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiuMartinón-TorresCaiXing2015">Liu et al. 2015</a>, p. 696.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuMarwickZhangRui201882-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuMarwickZhangRui201882_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuMarwickZhangRui2018">Hu et al. 2018</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neolithic_period_in_china-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neolithic_period_in_china_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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(2015). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25000203">"Representations of Regional Diversity during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Yuri Pines</a>; Paul R. Goldin; Martin Kern (eds.). <i>Ideology of Power and Power of Ideology in Early China</i>. Sinica Leidensia, vol. 124. 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"Disputers of Abdication: Zhanguo egalitarianism and the sovereign's power". <i>T'oung Pao</i>. <b>91</b> (4/5): 243–300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853205774910098">10.1163/156853205774910098</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4529011">4529011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Disputers+of+Abdication%3A+Zhanguo+egalitarianism+and+the+sovereign%27s+power&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4%2F5&rft.pages=243-300&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853205774910098&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4529011%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu Hong (许宏) (2021). <bdi lang="zh">最早的中国：二里头文明的崛起</bdi> [<i>The Earliest China: The Rise of Erlitou Civilization</i>] (in Chinese). 生活读书新知三联书店. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-108-07083-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-108-07083-8"><bdi>978-7-108-07083-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%EF%BC%9A%E4%BA%8C%E9%87%8C%E5%A4%B4%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E7%9A%84%E5%B4%9B%E8%B5%B7&rft.pub=%E7%94%9F%E6%B4%BB%E8%AF%BB%E4%B9%A6%E6%96%B0%E7%9F%A5%E4%B8%89%E8%81%94%E4%B9%A6%E5%BA%97&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-7-108-07083-8&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Hong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25"><i>China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization</i></a>. City University of Hong Kong Press. 2007. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-937-140-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-937-140-1"><bdi>978-962-937-140-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Five+Thousand+Years+of+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=City+University+of+Hong+Kong+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-962-937-140-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz-fAxn_9f8wC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158–159-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158–159_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagley1999">Bagley 1999</a>, pp. 158–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018756-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018756_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2018">Wilkinson 2018</a>, p. 756.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986436-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoltz1986436_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoltz1986">Boltz 1986</a>, p. 436.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999232_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeightley1999">Keightley 1999</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999233-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeightley1999233_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeightley1999">Keightley 1999</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoileau2023" class="citation journal cs1">Boileau, Gilles (2023). "Shang Dynasty's "nine generations chaos" and the Reign of Wu Ding: towards a Unilineal Line of Transmission of Royal Power". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>86</b> (2). Cambridge University Press: 293–315, esp. 299, 303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X23000277">10.1017/S0041977X23000277</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260994337">260994337</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Shang+Dynasty%27s+%22nine+generations+chaos%22+and+the+Reign+of+Wu+Ding%3A+towards+a+Unilineal+Line+of+Transmission+of+Royal+Power&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=293-315%2C+esp.+299%2C+303&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X23000277&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A260994337%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Boileau&rft.aufirst=Gilles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheung1983" class="citation book cs1">Cheung, Kwong-yue (1983). "Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters". In Keightley, David N.; Barnard, Noel (eds.). <i>The Origins of Chinese Civilization</i>. Translated by Barnard, Noel. University of California Press. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04229-2"><bdi>978-0-520-04229-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recent+archaeological+evidence+relating+to+the+origin+of+Chinese+characters&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04229-2&rft.aulast=Cheung&rft.aufirst=Kwong-yue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBagley1999158_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBagley1999">Bagley 1999</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Li_Feng_(sinologist)" title="Li Feng (sinologist)">Li Feng</a> (2006). <i>Landscape and Power in Early China: the Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou 1045–771 BC</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511489655">10.1017/CBO9780511489655</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511489655" title="Special:BookSources/9780511489655"><bdi>9780511489655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscape+and+Power+in+Early+China%3A+the+Crisis+and+Fall+of+the+Western+Zhou+1045%E2%80%93771+BC&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511489655&rft.isbn=9780511489655&rft.au=Li+Feng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2012" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Joshua J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/china/">"Ancient China"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Ancient+China&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Joshua+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Fchina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2014" class="citation book cs1">Zhang Jinfan (張晉藩) (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AOu5BAAAQBAJ&q=tian+China+rulers&pg=PA159"><i>The Tradition and Modern Transition of Chinese Law</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642232664" title="Special:BookSources/978-3642232664"><bdi>978-3642232664</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tradition+and+Modern+Transition+of+Chinese+Law&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3642232664&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Jinfan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAOu5BAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtian%2BChina%2Brulers%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen_MinzhenPines2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chen Minzhen; <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Pines" title="Yuri Pines">Pines, Yuri</a> (2018). 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Stanford Studies in the Civilizations of Eastern Asia. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/65013110">65013110</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1145777819">1145777819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+China+in+Transition%3A+An+Analysis+of+Social+Mobility%2C+722%E2%80%93222+B.C.&rft.series=Stanford+Studies+in+the+Civilizations+of+Eastern+Asia&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1145777819&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F65013110&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Cho-yun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientchinaintr0000hsuc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiu2014" class="citation news cs1">Qiu, Jane (7 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140122064930/http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482">"Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482">the original</a> on 22 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ancient+times+table+hidden+in+Chinese+bamboo+strips.+The+2%2C300-year-old+matrix+is+the+world%27s+oldest+decimal+multiplication+table&rft.date=2014-01-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature.2014.14482&rft.aulast=Qiu&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Fancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198620-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198620_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198653-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198653_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018287-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2018287_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2018">Wilkinson 2018</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199960-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199960_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201915-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201915_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanft2019">Sanft 2019</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201916–17-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201916–17_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanft2019">Sanft 2019</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198655-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198655_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201915–17-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201915–17_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanft2019">Sanft 2019</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198658–59_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, pp. 58–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199961-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199961_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198656–57,_59–60-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198656–57,_59–60_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, pp. 56–57, 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198675–78-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198675–78_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, pp. 75–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201917-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201917_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanft2019">Sanft 2019</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2007102-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2007102_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2007">Lewis 2007</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey199963-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey199963_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198661-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198661_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198661_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2007129-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2007129_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2007">Lewis 2007</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198660–61-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198660–61_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198682–83-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198682–83_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodde198684-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodde198684_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodde1986">Bodde 1986</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanft201922–24-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanft201922–24_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanft2019">Sanft 2019</a>, pp. 22–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan201676–79,_84,_107–108-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENylan201676–79,_84,_107–108_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNylan2016">Nylan (2016)</a>, pp. 76–79, 84, 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYu1986455–458-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYu1986455–458_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYu1986">Yu 1986</a>, pp. 455–458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2005" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Pingfang (2005). <i>The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective</i>. Yale University Press. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09382-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09382-7"><bdi>978-0-300-09382-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+Chinese+Civilization%3A+An+Archaeological+Perspective&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09382-7&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Pingfang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Gernet, Jacques (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/126">126–127</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49781-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49781-7"><bdi>978-0-521-49781-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=126-127&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-49781-7&rft.aulast=Gernet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern_0%2Fpage%2F126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSo2006" class="citation journal cs1">So, Francis K.H. (蘇其康) (2006). "Travels, contact, and conversion: Chinese rediscovery of the West". <i>Monumenta Serica</i>. <b>54</b>. Taylor & Francis: 165–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fmon.2006.54.1.006">10.1179/mon.2006.54.1.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40727536">40727536</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:190841108">190841108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=Travels%2C+contact%2C+and+conversion%3A+Chinese+rediscovery+of+the+West&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=165-184&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A190841108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40727536%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Fmon.2006.54.1.006&rft.aulast=So&rft.aufirst=Francis+K.H.+%28%E8%98%87%E5%85%B6%E5%BA%B7%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeZhang2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">He Ziquan (何兹全) Zhang Guo'an (张国安) (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/872462398"><i>Wei Jin Nan Bei chao shi = A history of the Wei Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties</i> <bdi lang="zh">魏晉南北朝史</bdi></a> (1st ed.). Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-01-011139-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-01-011139-1"><bdi>978-7-01-011139-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/872462398">872462398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wei+Jin+Nan+Bei+chao+shi+%3D+A+history+of+the+Wei+Jin%2C+and+Southern+and+Northern+dynasties+%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Beijing&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Renmin+Chubanshe&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F872462398&rft.isbn=978-7-01-011139-1&rft.aulast=He&rft.aufirst=Ziquan&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Guo%27an&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F872462398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Edward_Lewis" title="Mark Edward Lewis">Lewis, Mark Edward</a> (2012). <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty</i>. History of Imperial China 3. Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674064010" title="Special:BookSources/9780674064010"><bdi>9780674064010</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Cosmopolitan+Empire%3A+The+Tang+Dynasty&rft.series=History+of+Imperial+China+3&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780674064010&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Mark+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999127-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999127_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrand1922" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Ferrand" title="Gabriel Ferrand">Ferrand, Gabriel</a>, ed. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voyagedumarchand00sirauoft"><i>Voyage du marchand arabe Sulaymân en Inde et en Chine, rédigé en 851, suivi de remarques par Abû Zayd Hasan (vers 916)</i></a> (in French). Paris Éditions Bossard. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voyagedumarchand00sirauoft/page/76">76</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voyage+du+marchand+arabe+Sulaym%C3%A2n+en+Inde+et+en+Chine%2C+r%C3%A9dig%C3%A9+en+851%2C+suivi+de+remarques+par+Ab%C3%BB+Zayd+Hasan+%28vers+916%29&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Paris+%C3%89ditions+Bossard&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoyagedumarchand00sirauoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081028113532/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/judaism/kaifung.html">"Kaifung Jews"</a>. University of Cumbria, Division of Religion and Philosophy. 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Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781838608682" title="Special:BookSources/9781838608682"><bdi>9781838608682</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Central+Asia%2C+the%3A+4-volume+set&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2018-04-18&rft.isbn=9781838608682&rft.aulast=Baumer&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDhiWDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D843%2Bshatuo%26pg%3DRA1-PA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Zizhi Tongjian</i>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7246" class="extiw" title="zh:s:資治通鑑/卷246">vol. 246</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><i>Zizhi Tongjian</i>, <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/s:%E8%B3%87%E6%B2%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%91%91/%E5%8D%B7247" class="extiw" title="zh:s:資治通鑑/卷247">vol. 247</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwitchett2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Denis</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nSk7EAAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=PA173">"Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy"</a>. In Hans van de Ven (ed.). <i>Warfare in Chinese History</i>. Sinica Leidensia, vol. 47. Brill. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004482944_006">10.1163/9789004482944_006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004482944" title="Special:BookSources/9789004482944"><bdi>9789004482944</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tibet+in+Tang%27s+Grand+Strategy&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Chinese+History&rft.series=Sinica+Leidensia%2C+vol.+47&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004482944_006&rft.isbn=9789004482944&rft.aulast=Twitchett&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnSk7EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D843%2Bshatuo%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDardess2010" class="citation book cs1">Dardess, John W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zzEUAgAAQBAJ&dq=843+shatuo&pg=PA32"><i>Governing China: 150–1850</i></a>. Hackett. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603844475" title="Special:BookSources/9781603844475"><bdi>9781603844475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governing+China%3A+150%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781603844475&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzzEUAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D843%2Bshatuo%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ping-ti_Ho" title="Ping-ti Ho">Ho, Ping-ti</a> (1970). "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China". <i>Études Song</i>. 1 (1): 33–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+Song&rft.atitle=An+Estimate+of+the+Total+Population+of+Sung-Chin+China&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-53&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Ping-ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSussman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sussman, George D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academicworks.cuny.edu/lg_pubs/52">"Was the Black Death in India and China?"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the History of Medicine</i>. <b>85</b> (3). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 319–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fbhm.2011.0054">10.1353/bhm.2011.0054</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44452010">44452010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22080795">22080795</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41772477">41772477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Was+the+Black+Death+in+India+and+China%3F&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=319-355&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22080795&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41772477%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44452010%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fbhm.2011.0054&rft.aulast=Sussman&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademicworks.cuny.edu%2Flg_pubs%2F52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHucker2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hucker" title="Charles Hucker">Hucker, Charles O.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-dynastic-succession">"China > History > The Ming dynasty > Political history > The dynastic succession"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China+%3E+History+%3E+The+Ming+dynasty+%3E+Political+history+%3E+The+dynastic+succession&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FChina%2FThe-dynastic-succession&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsorena2004" class="citation journal cs1">Isorena, Efren B. (2004). "The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad". <i>Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 73–95. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29792550">29792550</a>. <q>Chau Ju-Kua, writing in the thirteenth century, probably was the first to mention that certain ferocious raiders of China's <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fukien</a> coast probably came by way of the southern portion of the island of <a href="/wiki/Formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosa">Formosa</a>, He referred to them as the Pi-sho-ye.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philippine+Quarterly+of+Culture+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Visayan+Raiders+of+the+China+Coast%2C+1174%E2%80%931190+Ad&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=73-95&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29792550%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Isorena&rft.aufirst=Efren+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchottenhammer2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schottenhammer, Angela (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44625493">"Connecting China with the Pacific World?"</a>. <i>Orientierungen</i>. <b>31</b>. Gossenberg: Ostasien: 111–171. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0936-4099">0936-4099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientierungen&rft.atitle=Connecting+China+with+the+Pacific+World%3F&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=111-171&rft.date=2019&rft.issn=0936-4099&rft.aulast=Schottenhammer&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F44625493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFan2023" class="citation journal cs1">Fan, Ka-wai (March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369343464">"The Little Ice Age and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty: A Review"</a>. <i>Climate</i>. <b>11</b> (3). 71. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Clim...11...71F">2023Clim...11...71F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fcli11030071">10.3390/cli11030071</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Climate&rft.atitle=The+Little+Ice+Age+and+the+Fall+of+the+Ming+Dynasty%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2023-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fcli11030071&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Clim...11...71F&rft.aulast=Fan&rft.aufirst=Ka-wai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F369343464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF邱2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ch'iu Chung-lin (邱仲麟) (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/3028acXZKHg.pdf"><bdi lang="zh">明代北京的瘟疫與帝國醫療體系的應變</bdi></a> [The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <bdi lang="zh">中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊</bdi> [<i>Journal of the Institute of History and Philology, Academica Sinica</i>] (in Chinese). <b>75</b> (2): 331–388.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%E6%98%8E%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC%E7%9A%84%E7%98%9F%E7%96%AB%E8%88%87%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B%E9%86%AB%E7%99%82%E9%AB%94%E7%B3%BB%E7%9A%84%E6%87%89%E8%AE%8A&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=331-388&rft.date=2004-06&rft.aulast=%E9%82%B1&rft.aufirst=%E4%BB%B2%E9%BA%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F3028acXZKHg.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1997" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, John Morris (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221125053756/https://books.google.com/books?id=3QZXvUhGwhAC"><i>A Short History of the World</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511504-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511504-X"><bdi>0-19-511504-X</bdi></a>. 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Harvard East Asian series. Vol. 49. Harvard University Press. Chapter 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674749511" title="Special:BookSources/9780674749511"><bdi>9780674749511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebellion+and+its+Enemies+in+Late+Imperial+China%3A+Militarization+and+Social+Structure%2C+1796%E2%80%931864&rft.series=Harvard+East+Asian+series&rft.pages=Chapter+6&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780674749511&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation web cs1">White, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm">"Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistics+of+Wars%2C+Oppressions+and+Atrocities+of+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fwars19c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarperFallonGaskellGrundvig2005" class="citation book cs1">Harper, Damsan; Fallon, Steve; Gaskell, Katja; Grundvig, Julie; Heller, Carolyn; Huhti, Thomas; Maynew, Bradley; Pitts, Christopher (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetchin00dami_1"><i>Lonely Planet China</i></a></span> (9 ed.). Lonely Planet. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74059-687-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-74059-687-0"><bdi>1-74059-687-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lonely+Planet+China&rft.edition=9&rft.pub=Lonely+Planet&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-74059-687-0&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Damsan&rft.au=Fallon%2C+Steve&rft.au=Gaskell%2C+Katja&rft.au=Grundvig%2C+Julie&rft.au=Heller%2C+Carolyn&rft.au=Huhti%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Maynew%2C+Bradley&rft.au=Pitts%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flonelyplanetchin00dami_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoot2019" class="citation journal cs1">Foot, Rosemary (2019). "Remembering the past to secure the present: Versailles legacies in a resurgent China". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Affairs_(journal)" title="International Affairs (journal)">International Affairs</a></i>. <b>95</b> (1): 143–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiy211">10.1093/ia/iiy211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Remembering+the+past+to+secure+the+present%3A+Versailles+legacies+in+a+resurgent+China&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=143-160&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiy211&rft.aulast=Foot&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999271-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey1999271_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbrey1999">Ebrey 1999</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">Fairbank, John King</a>; <a href="/wiki/Merle_Goldman" title="Merle Goldman">Goldman, Merle</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nBDC2cqb6I0C&pg=PA320"><i>China: A New History</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674018280" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674018280"><bdi>978-0674018280</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=320&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0674018280&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John+King&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Merle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnBDC2cqb6I0C%26pg%3DPA320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38">"The Moscow Declaration on general security"</a>. <i>Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947</i>. Lake Success, NY: United Nations. 1947. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/243471225">243471225</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Columbia University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24">24</a>–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12239-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12239-9"><bdi>978-0-231-12239-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+the+Origins+of+the+Cold+War%2C+1941%E2%80%931947&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12239-9&rft.aulast=Gaddis&rft.aufirst=John+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitedstatesorig0000gadd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Westad, Odd Arne</a> (2012). <i>Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750</i>. p. 291.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restless+Empire%3A+China+and+the+World+Since+1750&rft.pages=291&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd+Arne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1994" class="citation book cs1">Rummel, Rudolph (1994). <i>Death by Government</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+by+Government&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValentino2005" class="citation book cs1">Valentino, Benjamin A. 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UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Retrieved 16 April 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906133423/http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm">Archived</a> 6 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref_d-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ref_d_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithDavis2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Smith, Joseph; Davis, Simon (2005). <i>The A to Z of the Cold War</i>. A to Z guides. Vol. Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest volume 8 no. 28. <a href="/wiki/Scarecrow_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarecrow Press">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5384-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5384-3"><bdi>978-0-8108-5384-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+the+Cold+War&rft.series=A+to+Z+guides&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5384-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Davis%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akbar2010-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Akbar2010_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkbar2010" class="citation news cs1">Akbar, Arifa (17 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html">"Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 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New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv3006z6k">10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26883-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26883-6"><bdi>978-0-300-26883-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv3006z6k">j.ctv3006z6k</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1348572572">1348572572</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253067190">253067190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+and+Markets%3A+The+Communist+Roots+of+Chinese+Enterprise&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv3006z6k%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv3006z6k&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1348572572&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253067190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26883-6&rft.aulast=Marquis&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Qiao%2C+Kunyuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref_e-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ref_e_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart-LandsbergBurkett2010" class="citation book cs1">Hart-Landsberg, Martin; Burkett, Paul (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinasocialismma00mart"><i>China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle</i></a></span>. 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Brill: 61–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F26669323-04301004">10.1163/26669323-04301004</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/90006244">90006244</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171943719">171943719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Mapping+Time+in+the+Shiji+and+Hanshu+Tables&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-122&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171943719%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F90006244%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F26669323-04301004&rft.aulast=Nylan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%252F26669323-04301004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson" title="Endymion Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Endymion</a> (2018). <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_History:_A_New_Manual" title="Chinese History: A New Manual">Chinese History: A New Manual</a></i> (5th ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Asia_Center" title="Harvard University Asia Center">Harvard University Asia Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9988883-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9988883-0-9"><bdi>978-0-9988883-0-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-9988883-0-9&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuLin1983" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Rukang; Lin, Shenglong (June 1983). "Peking Man". <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <b>248</b> (6): 92–93. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983SciAm.248f..86R">1983SciAm.248f..86R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0683-86">10.1038/scientificamerican0683-86</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24968922">24968922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Peking+Man&rft.volume=248&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=92-93&rft.date=1983-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24968922%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0683-86&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983SciAm.248f..86R&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Rukang&rft.au=Lin%2C+Shenglong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiongHammond2019" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Victor Cunrui; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Hammond_(historian)" title="Ken Hammond (historian)">Hammond, Kenneth J.</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNwDwAAQBAJ"><i>Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-58051-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-58051-3"><bdi>978-0-367-58051-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Imperial+Chinese+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-367-58051-3&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Victor+Cunrui&rft.au=Hammond%2C+Kenneth+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcmNwDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFSanft2019" class="citation">Sanft, Charles. "The Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)". In <a href="#CITEREFXiongHammond2019">Xiong & Hammond (2019)</a>, pp. 12–24.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuPottsPanYao2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zhu, R.X.; Potts, R.; Pan, Y.X.; Yao, H.T; Lü, L.Q.; Zhao, X.; Gao, X.; Chen, L.W.; Gao, F.; Deng, C.L. (December 2008). "Early evidence of the genus <i>Homo</i> in East Asia". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Human_Evolution" title="Journal of Human Evolution">Journal of Human Evolution</a></i>. <b>55</b> (6): 1075–1085. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2008.08.005">10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18842287">18842287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=Early+evidence+of+the+genus+Homo+in+East+Asia&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1075-1085&rft.date=2008-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2008.08.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18842287&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=R.X.&rft.au=Potts%2C+R.&rft.au=Pan%2C+Y.X.&rft.au=Yao%2C+H.T&rft.au=L%C3%BC%2C+L.Q.&rft.au=Zhao%2C+X.&rft.au=Gao%2C+X.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.W.&rft.au=Gao%2C+F.&rft.au=Deng%2C+C.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="no" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">Fairbank, John K.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Denis</a>, eds. (1978–2020). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_China" title="The Cambridge History of China">The Cambridge History of China</a></i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978%2F2020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagley1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bagley" title="Robert Bagley">Bagley, Robert</a> (1999). "Shang Archaeology". In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC"><i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shang+Archaeology&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%3A+From+the+Origins+of+Civilization+to+221+BC&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Bagley&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeightley1999" class="citation book cs1">Keightley, David N. (1999). "The Shang: China's First Historical Dynasty". In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy" title="Edward L. Shaughnessy">Shaughnessy, Edward L.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC"><i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Shang%3A+China%27s+First+Historical+Dynasty&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China%3A+From+the+Origins+of+Civilization+to+221+BC&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Keightley&rft.aufirst=David+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodde1986" class="citation book cs1">Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC"><i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+State+and+Empire+of+Ch%27in&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC%E2%80%93AD+220&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Bodde&rft.aufirst=Derk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA2HKxK5N2sAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yu_Ying-shih" title="Yu Ying-shih">Yu, Ying-shih</a> (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Twitchett" title="Denis Twitchett">Twitchett, Dennis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Loewe" title="Michael Loewe">Loewe, Michael</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC"><i>The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Han+Foreign+Relations&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC%E2%80%93AD+220&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Ying-shih&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA2HKxK5N2sAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Chinese_history" title="Bibliography of Chinese history">Bibliography of Chinese history</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDardess2010" class="citation book cs1">Dardess, John W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IpXzmOuqiegC&q=john+dardess"><i>Governing China, 150–1850</i></a>. Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-311-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-311-9"><bdi>978-1-60384-311-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Governing+China%2C+150%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60384-311-9&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIpXzmOuqiegC%26q%3Djohn%2Bdardess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">Fairbank, John King</a> and Goldman, Merle. <i>China: A New History.</i> 2nd ed. (Harvard UP, 2006). 640 pp.</li> <li>Gernet, Jacques. <i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i> (1996). One-volume survey.</li> <li>Li, Xiaobing, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinaatwaranencyclopedia"><i>China at War: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. (ABC-CLIO, 2012).</li> <li>Mote, Frederick W. <i>Imperial China, 900–1800</i> (Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp. Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties.</li> <li>Perkins, Dorothy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00perk_0"><i>Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture</i></a> (Facts on File, 1999). 662 pp.</li> <li>Roberts, J. A. G. <i>A Concise History of China</i> (Harvard U. Press, 1999). 341 pp.</li> <li>Stanford, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924023258241/page/n4"><i>Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China</i></a> (2nd ed., 1917). Legible color maps.</li> <li>Wright, David Curtis. <i>History of China</i> (2001) 257 pp.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>History of China</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=History+of+China">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=History+of+China&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121129203455/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm">China Knowledge</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Chinaknowledge" title="Chinaknowledge">comprehensive online encyclopedia</a> of China from Ulrich Theobald</li> <li>The <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671">Berkshire Encyclopedia of China</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Reference">Oxford Reference</a> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=4043">China Rediscovers its Own History</a>, a lengthy lecture on Chinese history given by <a href="/wiki/Yu_Ying-shih" title="Yu Ying-shih">Yu Ying-shih</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>History of China</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_of_China" class="extiw" title="c:History of China">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_China" class="extiw" title="b:History of China">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/History_of_China" class="extiw" title="v:History of China">Resources</a></b> from Wikiversity</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/19px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/29px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/38px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Imperial_China" class="extiw" title="voy:Imperial China">Travel guides</a></b> from Wikivoyage</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="China_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China_topics" title="Template:China topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China_topics" title="Template talk:China topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="China_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ancient_China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Imperial_China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Modern_China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taiwan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taiwan_topics" title="Template talk:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taiwan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Taiwan-related_articles" title="Index of Taiwan-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Taiwanese_history" title="Timeline of Taiwanese history">Timeline of Taiwanese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Taiwan" title="Prehistory of Taiwan">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Taiwan" title="List of archaeological sites in Taiwan">archaeological sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Chinese_contact_with_Taiwan" title="Early Chinese contact with Taiwan">Early Chinese contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Middag" title="Kingdom of Middag">Kingdom of Middag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Dutch Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Spanish Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Formosa" title="Republic of Formosa">Republic of Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan under Japanese rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanbi_policy" title="Guanbi policy">Guanbi policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Policy_in_Taiwan%27s_White_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Policy in Taiwan's White Terror">Mandarin policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Taiwan" title="List of beaches in Taiwan">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Taiwan" title="List of cities in Taiwan">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan#Climate" title="Geography of Taiwan">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Taiwan" title="Deforestation in Taiwan">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Taiwan" title="List of earthquakes in Taiwan">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endemic_species_of_Taiwan" title="List of endemic species of Taiwan">Endemic species</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_species_in_Taiwan" title="List of protected species in Taiwan">Protected species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese hot springs">Hot springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Taiwan" title="List of islands of Taiwan">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Taiwan" title="List of lakes of Taiwan">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Taiwan" title="List of mountains in Taiwan">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Taiwan" title="National parks of Taiwan">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Taiwan" title="List of rivers of Taiwan">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_scenic_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of national scenic areas in Taiwan">Scenic areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Taiwan" title="List of volcanoes in Taiwan">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="GovernmentPoliticsEconomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">politics</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Yuan" title="Executive Yuan">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the Republic of China">Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Taiwan" title="Censorship in Taiwan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Taiwan" title="Civil defense in Taiwan">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additional_Articles_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China">Additional Articles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Taiwan" title="Elections in Taiwan">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Taiwan" title="Human rights in Taiwan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Taiwan">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_(Taiwan)" title="National Security Bureau (Taiwan)">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Taiwan" title="Law of Taiwan">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Taiwan" title="Law enforcement in Taiwan">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Taiwan" title="Military history of Taiwan">Military history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_President_(Taiwan)" title="Office of the President (Taiwan)">Office of the President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_to_the_President_(Republic_of_China)" title="Secretary-General to the President (Republic of China)">Secretary-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Vice President of the Republic of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Taiwan" title="List of political parties in Taiwan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Republic_of_China" title="Propaganda in the Republic of China">Propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Taiwan" title="Regions of Taiwan">Regions of Taiwan</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="Administrative divisions of Taiwan">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_municipality_(Taiwan)" title="Special municipality (Taiwan)">Special municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(Taiwan)" class="mw-redirect" title="County (Taiwan)">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_city_(Taiwan)" title="Provincial city (Taiwan)">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="List of administrative divisions of Taiwan">List of administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of metropolitan areas in Taiwan">Metropolitan areas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Political issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Taiwan" title="Conscription in Taiwan">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait relations">Cross-Strait relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taipei" title="Chinese Taipei">Chinese Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_Taiwan" title="North–South divide in Taiwan">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Country_on_Each_Side" title="One Country on Each Side">One Country on Each Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_Taiwanese_identity" title="Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity">Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_non-state-to-state_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Special non-state-to-state relations">Special non-state-to-state relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Agriculture in Taiwan">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Taiwan" title="Aquaculture in Taiwan">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Floriculture in Taiwan">Floriculture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Automotive industry in Taiwan">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Taiwan" title="Banking in Taiwan">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Taiwan" title="List of banks in Taiwan">List of banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_China_(Taiwan)" title="Central Bank of the Republic of China (Taiwan)">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Taiwan" title="List of companies of Taiwan">Companies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_Taiwan" title="List of largest companies in Taiwan">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned enterprises of Taiwan">State-owned enterprises</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Taiwan" title="Defense industry of Taiwan">Defense industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar" title="New Taiwan dollar">Dollar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Taiwan" title="Economic history of Taiwan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Taiwan" title="Energy in Taiwan">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Taiwan" title="Forestry in Taiwan">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_industries_of_Taiwan" title="Maritime industries of Taiwan">Maritime industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Taiwan" title="Mining in Taiwan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Semiconductor industry in Taiwan">Semiconductor industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Stock_Exchange" title="Taiwan Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Miracle" title="Taiwan Miracle">Taiwan Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Taiwan" title="Taxation in Taiwan">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Textile industry in Taiwan">Textile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Taiwan" title="Tourism in Taiwan">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Taiwan" title="Transportation in Taiwan">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Invoice_lottery" title="Uniform Invoice lottery">Uniform Invoice lottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Taiwan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Taiwan">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="National_SymbolsPeopleSocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>National Symbols</li><li>People</li><li>Society</li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="National symbols">National symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Anthem of the Republic of China">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emblem of Taiwan">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">Flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proposed_flags_of_Taiwan" title="Proposed flags of Taiwan">proposed</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Flower_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Flower of the Republic of China">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Seals_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Seals of the Republic of China">Seals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Taiwan" title="Demographics of Taiwan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_people" title="Taiwanese people">Taiwanese people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Taiwanese indigenous peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_Taiwan" title="List of Indigenous peoples of Taiwan">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Taiwanese" title="Han Taiwanese">Hans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoklo_Taiwanese" title="Hoklo Taiwanese">Hoklos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Taiwanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka Taiwanese">Hakkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waishengren" title="Waishengren">Waishengren</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amis_language" title="Amis language">Amis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atayal_language" title="Atayal language">Atayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunun_language" title="Bunun language">Bunun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanakanavu_language" title="Kanakanavu language">Kanakanavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavalan_language" title="Kavalan language">Kavalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiwan_language" title="Paiwan language">Paiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyuma_language" title="Puyuma language">Puyuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukai_language" title="Rukai language">Rukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saaroa_language" title="Saaroa language">Saaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saisiyat_language" title="Saisiyat language">Saisiyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakizaya_language" title="Sakizaya language">Sakizaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seediq_language" title="Seediq language">Seediq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsou_language" title="Tsou language">Tsou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yami_language" title="Yami language">Yami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Taiwan" title="Architecture of Taiwan">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Taiwan" title="Crime in Taiwan">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime_in_Taiwan" title="Organized crime in Taiwan">Organized crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Taiwan" title="Sex trafficking in Taiwan">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Taiwan" title="Healthcare in Taiwan">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Taiwan" title="Prostitution in Taiwan">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Taiwan" title="Public holidays in Taiwan">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Taiwan" title="Public housing in Taiwan">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Taiwan" title="Squatting in Taiwan">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_studies" title="Taiwan studies">Taiwan studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Taiwan" title="Waste management in Taiwan">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_animation" title="Taiwanese animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Taiwan" title="Cinema of Taiwan">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_cuisine" title="Taiwanese cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wine" title="Taiwanese wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_Taiwan" title="Cultural history of Taiwan">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Taiwan" title="Gambling in Taiwan">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glove_puppetry" title="Glove puppetry">Glove puppetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_literature" title="Taiwanese literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Taiwan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Taiwan" title="Music of Taiwan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_opera" title="Taiwanese opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_markets_in_Taiwan" title="Night markets in Taiwan">Night markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Taiwan" title="Smoking in Taiwan">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in Taiwan">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-Beauty" title="T-Beauty">T-Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wave" title="Taiwanese wave">Taiwanese wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea" title="Taiwanese tea">Tea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea_culture" title="Taiwanese tea culture">tea culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Taiwan" title="List of tourist attractions in Taiwan">Tourist attractions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Taiwan" title="Category:Taiwan">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Taiwan" title="Outline of Taiwan">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Asia" title="Template talk:History of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">History of Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain" title="History of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambodia" title="History of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Timor" title="History of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon" title="History of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oman" title="History of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar" title="History of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tajikistan" title="History of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thailand" title="History of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkmenistan" title="History of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uzbekistan" title="History of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong" title="History of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macau" title="History of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" 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