CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Google Scholar - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js skin-theme-clientpref-day mf-expand-sections-clientpref-0 mf-font-size-clientpref-small mw-mf-amc-clientpref-0";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e950b479-c74f-4934-bda3-5dcb580831ed","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Google_Scholar","wgTitle":"Google Scholar","wgCurRevisionId":1258243706,"wgRevisionId":1258243706,"wgArticleId":1520204, "wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Google_Scholar","wgRelevantArticleId":1520204,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFMode":"stable","wgMFAmc":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachActive":false,"wgMFAmcOutreachUserEligible":false,"wgMFLazyLoadImages":true,"wgMFEditNoticesFeatureConflict":false,"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgMFIsSupportedEditRequest":true,"wgMFScriptPath":"", "wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":true,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgSectionTranslationMissingLanguages":[{"lang":"ace","autonym":"Acèh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ady","autonym":"адыгабзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"alt","autonym":"алтай тил","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"am","autonym":"አማርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ami","autonym":"Pangcah","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"an","autonym":"aragonés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ang","autonym":"Ænglisc","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ann","autonym":"Obolo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"anp","autonym":"अंगिका","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ary","autonym":"الدارجة","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"arz","autonym":"مصرى","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"as","autonym":"অসমীয়া","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ast","autonym":"asturianu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"av","autonym":"авар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"avk","autonym":"Kotava","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"awa","autonym": "अवधी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ay","autonym":"Aymar aru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"azb","autonym":"تۆرکجه","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ba","autonym":"башҡортса","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ban","autonym":"Basa Bali","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bar","autonym":"Boarisch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bbc","autonym":"Batak Toba","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bcl","autonym":"Bikol Central","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bdr","autonym":"Bajau Sama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bew","autonym":"Betawi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bho","autonym":"भोजपुरी","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bi","autonym":"Bislama","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bjn","autonym":"Banjar","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"blk","autonym":"ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bm","autonym":"bamanankan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bo","autonym":"བོད་ཡིག","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bpy","autonym":"বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"br","autonym":"brezhoneg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"btm","autonym": "Batak Mandailing","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"bug","autonym":"Basa Ugi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cdo","autonym":"閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ce","autonym":"нохчийн","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ceb","autonym":"Cebuano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ch","autonym":"Chamoru","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"chr","autonym":"ᏣᎳᎩ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"co","autonym":"corsu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cr","autonym":"Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"crh","autonym":"qırımtatarca","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cu","autonym":"словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"cy","autonym":"Cymraeg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dag","autonym":"dagbanli","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dga","autonym":"Dagaare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"din","autonym":"Thuɔŋjäŋ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dsb","autonym":"dolnoserbski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dtp","autonym":"Kadazandusun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"dv","autonym":"ދިވެހިބަސް","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"dz","autonym": "ཇོང་ཁ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ee","autonym":"eʋegbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eml","autonym":"emiliàn e rumagnòl","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"eo","autonym":"Esperanto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fat","autonym":"mfantse","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ff","autonym":"Fulfulde","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fj","autonym":"Na Vosa Vakaviti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fo","autonym":"føroyskt","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fon","autonym":"fɔ̀ngbè","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frp","autonym":"arpetan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"frr","autonym":"Nordfriisk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fur","autonym":"furlan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"fy","autonym":"Frysk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gag","autonym":"Gagauz","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gan","autonym":"贛語","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gcr","autonym":"kriyòl gwiyannen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"glk","autonym":"گیلکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"gn","autonym":"Avañe'ẽ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gom","autonym":"गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gor","autonym": "Bahasa Hulontalo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gpe","autonym":"Ghanaian Pidgin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gu","autonym":"ગુજરાતી","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guc","autonym":"wayuunaiki","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gur","autonym":"farefare","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"guw","autonym":"gungbe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"gv","autonym":"Gaelg","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ha","autonym":"Hausa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hak","autonym":"客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"haw","autonym":"Hawaiʻi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hif","autonym":"Fiji Hindi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hsb","autonym":"hornjoserbsce","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ht","autonym":"Kreyòl ayisyen","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hy","autonym":"հայերեն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"hyw","autonym":"Արեւմտահայերէն","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ia","autonym":"interlingua","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iba","autonym":"Jaku Iban","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ie","autonym":"Interlingue","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ig","autonym":"Igbo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"igl","autonym":"Igala","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"ilo","autonym":"Ilokano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"io","autonym":"Ido","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"is","autonym":"íslenska","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"iu","autonym":"ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jam","autonym":"Patois","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"jv","autonym":"Jawa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kaa","autonym":"Qaraqalpaqsha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kab","autonym":"Taqbaylit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbd","autonym":"адыгэбзэ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kbp","autonym":"Kabɩyɛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kcg","autonym":"Tyap","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kg","autonym":"Kongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kge","autonym":"Kumoring","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ki","autonym":"Gĩkũyũ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kk","autonym":"қазақша","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kl","autonym":"kalaallisut","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"km","autonym":"ភាសាខ្មែរ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kn","autonym":"ಕನ್ನಡ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"koi","autonym":"перем коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"krc","autonym": "къарачай-малкъар","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ks","autonym":"कॉशुर / کٲشُر","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ku","autonym":"kurdî","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kus","autonym":"Kʋsaal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kv","autonym":"коми","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"kw","autonym":"kernowek","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ky","autonym":"кыргызча","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lad","autonym":"Ladino","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lb","autonym":"Lëtzebuergesch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lez","autonym":"лезги","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lg","autonym":"Luganda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"li","autonym":"Limburgs","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lij","autonym":"Ligure","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lld","autonym":"Ladin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lmo","autonym":"lombard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ln","autonym":"lingála","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lo","autonym":"ລາວ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ltg","autonym":"latgaļu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"lv","autonym":"latviešu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mad","autonym":"Madhurâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mai","autonym": "मैथिली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"map-bms","autonym":"Basa Banyumasan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mdf","autonym":"мокшень","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mg","autonym":"Malagasy","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mhr","autonym":"олык марий","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mi","autonym":"Māori","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"min","autonym":"Minangkabau","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mk","autonym":"македонски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mn","autonym":"монгол","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mni","autonym":"ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mnw","autonym":"ဘာသာမန်","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mos","autonym":"moore","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mrj","autonym":"кырык мары","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mt","autonym":"Malti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mwl","autonym":"Mirandés","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"my","autonym":"မြန်မာဘာသာ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"myv","autonym":"эрзянь","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"mzn","autonym":"مازِرونی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nah","autonym":"Nāhuatl","dir": "ltr"},{"lang":"nan","autonym":"閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nap","autonym":"Napulitano","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nb","autonym":"norsk bokmål","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds","autonym":"Plattdüütsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nds-nl","autonym":"Nedersaksies","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ne","autonym":"नेपाली","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"new","autonym":"नेपाल भाषा","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nia","autonym":"Li Niha","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nn","autonym":"norsk nynorsk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nqo","autonym":"ߒߞߏ","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"nr","autonym":"isiNdebele seSewula","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"nso","autonym":"Sesotho sa Leboa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ny","autonym":"Chi-Chewa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"oc","autonym":"occitan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"om","autonym":"Oromoo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"or","autonym":"ଓଡ଼ିଆ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"os","autonym":"ирон","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pa","autonym":"ਪੰਜਾਬੀ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pag","autonym":"Pangasinan" ,"dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pam","autonym":"Kapampangan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pap","autonym":"Papiamentu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcd","autonym":"Picard","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pcm","autonym":"Naijá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pdc","autonym":"Deitsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pms","autonym":"Piemontèis","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"pnb","autonym":"پنجابی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ps","autonym":"پښتو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"pwn","autonym":"pinayuanan","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rm","autonym":"rumantsch","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rn","autonym":"ikirundi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rsk","autonym":"руски","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rue","autonym":"русиньскый","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rup","autonym":"armãneashti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"rw","autonym":"Ikinyarwanda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sa","autonym":"संस्कृतम्","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sah","autonym":"саха тыла","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sat","autonym":"ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sc","autonym":"sardu","dir":"ltr"},{"lang": "sco","autonym":"Scots","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sd","autonym":"سنڌي","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"se","autonym":"davvisámegiella","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sg","autonym":"Sängö","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sgs","autonym":"žemaitėška","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shi","autonym":"Taclḥit","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"shn","autonym":"ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"si","autonym":"සිංහල","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"skr","autonym":"سرائیکی","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"sl","autonym":"slovenščina","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sm","autonym":"Gagana Samoa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"smn","autonym":"anarâškielâ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sn","autonym":"chiShona","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"so","autonym":"Soomaaliga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sr","autonym":"српски / srpski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"srn","autonym":"Sranantongo","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ss","autonym":"SiSwati","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"st","autonym":"Sesotho","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"stq","autonym":"Seeltersk","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"su","autonym":"Sunda", "dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"sw","autonym":"Kiswahili","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"szl","autonym":"ślůnski","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tay","autonym":"Tayal","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tcy","autonym":"ತುಳು","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tdd","autonym":"ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"te","autonym":"తెలుగు","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tet","autonym":"tetun","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"th","autonym":"ไทย","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ti","autonym":"ትግርኛ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tk","autonym":"Türkmençe","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tl","autonym":"Tagalog","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tly","autonym":"tolışi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tn","autonym":"Setswana","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"to","autonym":"lea faka-Tonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tpi","autonym":"Tok Pisin","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"trv","autonym":"Seediq","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ts","autonym":"Xitsonga","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tt","autonym":"татарча / tatarça","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tum","autonym":"chiTumbuka","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tw", "autonym":"Twi","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ty","autonym":"reo tahiti","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"tyv","autonym":"тыва дыл","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"udm","autonym":"удмурт","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"ur","autonym":"اردو","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"ve","autonym":"Tshivenda","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vec","autonym":"vèneto","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vep","autonym":"vepsän kel’","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vls","autonym":"West-Vlams","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vo","autonym":"Volapük","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"vro","autonym":"võro","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wa","autonym":"walon","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"war","autonym":"Winaray","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wo","autonym":"Wolof","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"wuu","autonym":"吴语","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xal","autonym":"хальмг","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xh","autonym":"isiXhosa","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"xmf","autonym":"მარგალური","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yi","autonym":"ייִדיש","dir":"rtl"},{"lang":"yo","autonym":"Yorùbá","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"yue","autonym":"粵語" ,"dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"za","autonym":"Vahcuengh","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zgh","autonym":"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ","dir":"ltr"},{"lang":"zu","autonym":"isiZulu","dir":"ltr"}],"wgSectionTranslationTargetLanguages":["ace","ady","alt","am","ami","an","ang","ann","anp","ar","ary","arz","as","ast","av","avk","awa","ay","az","azb","ba","ban","bar","bbc","bcl","bdr","be","bew","bg","bho","bi","bjn","blk","bm","bn","bo","bpy","br","bs","btm","bug","ca","cdo","ce","ceb","ch","chr","ckb","co","cr","crh","cs","cu","cy","da","dag","de","dga","din","diq","dsb","dtp","dv","dz","ee","el","eml","eo","es","et","eu","fa","fat","ff","fi","fj","fo","fon","fr","frp","frr","fur","fy","gag","gan","gcr","gl","glk","gn","gom","gor","gpe","gu","guc","gur","guw","gv","ha","hak","haw","he","hi","hif","hr","hsb","ht","hu","hy","hyw","ia","iba","ie","ig","igl","ilo","io","is","it","iu","ja","jam","jv","ka","kaa","kab","kbd","kbp","kcg","kg","kge","ki","kk","kl","km","kn","ko","koi","krc","ks" ,"ku","kus","kv","kw","ky","lad","lb","lez","lg","li","lij","lld","lmo","ln","lo","lt","ltg","lv","mad","mai","map-bms","mdf","mg","mhr","mi","min","mk","ml","mn","mni","mnw","mos","mr","mrj","ms","mt","mwl","my","myv","mzn","nah","nan","nap","nb","nds","nds-nl","ne","new","nia","nl","nn","nqo","nr","nso","ny","oc","om","or","os","pa","pag","pam","pap","pcd","pcm","pdc","pl","pms","pnb","ps","pt","pwn","qu","rm","rn","ro","rsk","rue","rup","rw","sa","sah","sat","sc","scn","sco","sd","se","sg","sgs","sh","shi","shn","si","sk","skr","sl","sm","smn","sn","so","sq","sr","srn","ss","st","stq","su","sv","sw","szl","ta","tay","tcy","tdd","te","tet","tg","th","ti","tk","tl","tly","tn","to","tpi","tr","trv","ts","tt","tum","tw","ty","tyv","udm","ur","uz","ve","vec","vep","vi","vls","vo","vro","wa","war","wo","wuu","xal","xh","xmf","yi","yo","yue","za","zgh","zh","zu"],"isLanguageSearcherCXEntrypointEnabled":true,"mintEntrypointLanguages":["ace","ast","azb","bcl","bjn","bh","crh","ff","fon","ig" ,"is","ki","ks","lmo","min","sat","ss","tn","vec"],"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q494817","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false,"wgMinervaPermissions":{"watchable":true,"watch":false},"wgMinervaFeatures":{"beta":false,"donate":true,"mobileOptionsLink":true,"categories":false,"pageIssues":true,"talkAtTop":true,"historyInPageActions":false,"overflowSubmenu":false,"tabsOnSpecials":true,"personalMenu":false,"mainMenuExpanded":false,"echo":true,"nightMode":true},"wgMinervaDownloadNamespaces":[0]};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.styles":"ready", "skins.minerva.content.styles.images":"ready","mediawiki.hlist":"ready","skins.minerva.codex.styles":"ready","skins.minerva.icons":"ready","skins.minerva.amc.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","mobile.init.styles":"ready","ext.relatedArticles.styles":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","site","mediawiki.page.ready","skins.minerva.scripts","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","ext.popups","mobile.init","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.relatedArticles.readMore.bootstrap","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.entrypoints.mffrequentlanguages","ext.cx.entrypoints.languagesearcher.init","mw.externalguidance.init","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.relatedArticles.styles%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.hlist%7Cmobile.init.styles%7Cskins.minerva.amc.styles%7Cskins.minerva.codex.styles%7Cskins.minerva.content.styles.images%7Cskins.minerva.icons%2Cstyles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=minerva"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=minerva"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#eaecf0"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="674"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png/800px-Google_Scholar_home_page.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="449"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png/640px-Google_Scholar_home_page.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="360"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes, minimum-scale=0.25, maximum-scale=5.0"> <meta property="og:title" content="Google Scholar - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="manifest" href="/w/api.php?action=webapp-manifest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Google_Scholar rootpage-Google_Scholar stable issues-group-B skin-minerva action-view skin--responsive mw-mf-amc-disabled mw-mf"><div id="mw-mf-viewport"> <div id="mw-mf-page-center"> <a class="mw-mf-page-center__mask" href="#"></a> <header class="header-container header-chrome"> <div class="minerva-header"> <nav class="navigation-drawer toggle-list view-border-box"> <input type="checkbox" id="main-menu-input" class="toggle-list__checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-labelledby="mw-mf-main-menu-button"> <label role="button" for="main-menu-input" id="mw-mf-main-menu-button" aria-hidden="true" data-event-name="ui.mainmenu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet toggle-list__toggle"> </label> <div id="mw-mf-page-left" class="menu view-border-box"> <ul id="p-navigation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--home" href="/wiki/Main_Page" data-mw="interface"> Home </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--random" href="/wiki/Special:Random" data-mw="interface"> Random </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--nearby" href="/wiki/Special:Nearby" data-event-name="menu.nearby" data-mw="interface"> Nearby </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-personal" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--login" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Google+Scholar" data-event-name="menu.login" data-mw="interface"> Log in </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="pt-preferences" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item skin-minerva-list-item-jsonly"> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--settings" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:MobileOptions&returnto=Google+Scholar" data-event-name="menu.settings" data-mw="interface"> Settings </a> </li> </ul> <ul id="p-donation" class="toggle-list__list"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--donate" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en&utm_key=minerva" data-event-name="menu.donate" data-mw="interface"> Donate </a> </li> </ul> <ul class="hlist"> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--about" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" data-mw="interface"> About Wikipedia </a> </li> <li class="toggle-list-item "> <a class="toggle-list-item__anchor menu__item--disclaimers" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" data-mw="interface"> Disclaimers </a> </li> </ul> </div> <label class="main-menu-mask" for="main-menu-input"></label> </nav> <div class="branding-box"> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page"> <img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </a> </div> <form action="/w/index.php" method="get" class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Google Scholar</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Google_Scholar" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Google+Scholar" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Google Scholar is a freely accessible <a href="/wiki/Web_search_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Web search engine">web search engine</a> that indexes the full text or <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> of <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">scholarly literature</a> across an array of publishing formats and disciplines. Released in <a href="/wiki/Beta_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta release">beta</a> in November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes <a href="/wiki/Peer-reviewed" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-reviewed">peer-reviewed</a> online <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> and books, conference papers, <a href="/wiki/Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="Theses">theses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">preprints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abstract_(summary)" title="Abstract (summary)">abstracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technical_report" title="Technical report">technical reports</a>, and other scholarly literature, including <a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">court opinions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Google_Scholar_Content_Coverage-1">[1]</a> <table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Google Scholar</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Google_Scholar_logo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Google_Scholar_logo.png/300px-Google_Scholar_logo.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Google_Scholar_logo.png/450px-Google_Scholar_logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Google_Scholar_logo.png/600px-Google_Scholar_logo.png 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="128"></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Google_Scholar_home_page.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png/300px-Google_Scholar_home_page.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png/450px-Google_Scholar_home_page.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Google_Scholar_home_page.png/600px-Google_Scholar_home_page.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="618"></a><div class="infobox-caption">Google Scholar home page</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Type of site</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bibliographic_database" title="Bibliographic database">Bibliographic database</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Owner</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">URL</th><td class="infobox-data url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/">scholar.google.com</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Registration</th><td class="infobox-data">Optional</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Launched</th><td class="infobox-data">November 20, 2004; 20 years ago (2004-11-20)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Current status</th><td class="infobox-data category">Active</td></tr></tbody></table> Google Scholar uses a web crawler, or web robot, to identify files for inclusion in the search results.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> For content to be indexed in Google Scholar, it must meet certain specified criteria.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> An earlier statistical estimate published in <a href="/wiki/PLOS_One" title="PLOS One">PLOS One</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a> method estimated approximately 79–90% coverage of all articles published in English with an estimate of 100 million.<a href="#cite_note-nat_22_5_2014-4">[4]</a> This estimate also determined how many online documents were available. Google Scholar has been criticized for not vetting journals and for including <a href="/wiki/Predatory_open_access_publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory open access publishing">predatory journals</a> in its index.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The University of Michigan Library and other libraries whose collections Google scanned for <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> and Google Scholar retained copies of the scans and have used them to create the <a href="/wiki/HathiTrust_Digital_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="HathiTrust Digital Library">HathiTrust Digital Library</a>.<a href="#cite_note-umlibrary-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Features_and_specifications">2 Features and specifications</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Groups_and_access_to_literature">2.1 Groups and access to literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Citation_analysis_and_tools">2.2 Citation analysis and tools</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Related_articles">2.3 Related articles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#US_legal_case_database">2.4 US legal case database</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ranking_algorithm">3 Ranking algorithm</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Limitations_and_criticism">4 Limitations and criticism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Search_engine_optimization_for_Google_Scholar">5 Search engine optimization for Google Scholar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#References">7 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Google Scholar arose out of a discussion between Alex Verstak and <a href="/wiki/Anurag_Acharya" title="Anurag Acharya">Anurag Acharya</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> both of whom were then working on building Google's main web index.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Their goal was to "make the world's problem solvers 10% more efficient"<a href="#cite_note-backchannel2015-11">[11]</a> by allowing easier and more accurate access to scientific knowledge. This goal is reflected in the Google Scholar's advertising slogan "<a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" title="Standing on the shoulders of giants">Stand on the shoulders of giants</a>", which was taken from an idea attributed to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a>, <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" class="extiw" title="q:Isaac Newton">quoted by Isaac Newton</a>, and is a nod to the scholars who have contributed to their fields over the centuries, providing the foundation for new intellectual achievements.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> One of the sources for the texts in Google Scholar is the University of Michigan's print collection.<a href="#cite_note-umlibrary-6">[6]</a> Scholars have gained a range of features over time. In 2006, a citation importing feature was implemented supporting <a href="/wiki/Reference_management_software" title="Reference management software">bibliography managers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/RefWorks" title="RefWorks">RefWorks</a>, <a href="/wiki/RefMan" class="mw-redirect" title="RefMan">RefMan</a>, <a href="/wiki/EndNote" title="EndNote">EndNote</a>, and <a href="/wiki/BibTeX" title="BibTeX">BibTeX</a>. In 2007, Acharya announced that Google Scholar had started a program to digitize and host journal articles in agreement with their publishers, an effort separate from <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, whose scans of older journals do not include the metadata required for identifying specific articles in specific issues.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> removed Scholar from the toolbars on its search pages,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> making it both less easily accessible and less discoverable for users not already aware of its existence. Around this period, sites with similar features such as <a href="/wiki/CiteSeer" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeer">CiteSeer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scirus" title="Scirus">Scirus</a>, and Microsoft <a href="/wiki/Windows_Live_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows Live Academic">Windows Live Academic</a> search were developed. Some of these are now defunct; in 2016, Microsoft launched a new competitor, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Academic" title="Microsoft Academic">Microsoft Academic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> A major enhancement was rolled out in 2012, with the possibility for individual scholars to create personal "Scholar Citations profiles".<a href="#cite_note-profiles2014-16">[16]</a> A feature introduced in November 2013 allows logged-in users to save search results into the "Google Scholar library", a personal collection which the user can search separately and organize by tags.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Via the "metrics" button, it reveals the top journals in a field of interest, and the articles generating these journal's impact can also be accessed. A metrics feature now supports viewing the impact of whole fields of science and academic journals.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Google also included profiles for some posthumous academics, including <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> For several years, the profile for <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> indicated he was as a "professor at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>", with a "verified email at mit.edu".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Features_and_specifications">Features and specifications</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Features and specifications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> Google Scholar allows users to search for digital or physical copies of articles, whether online or in libraries.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> It indexes "full-text journal articles, technical reports, preprints, <a href="/wiki/Thesis_or_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesis or dissertation">theses</a>, books, and other documents, including selected Web pages that are deemed to be 'scholarly.'"<a href="#cite_note-pmc1324783-24">[24]</a> Because many of Google Scholar's search results link to commercial journal articles, most people will be able to access only an abstract and the citation details of an article, and have to pay a fee to access the entire article.<a href="#cite_note-pmc1324783-24">[24]</a> The most relevant results for the searched keywords will be listed first, in order of the author's ranking, the number of references that are linked to it and their relevance to other scholarly literature, and the ranking of the publication that the journal appears in.<a href="#cite_note-gsabout-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groups_and_access_to_literature">Groups and access to literature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Groups and access to literature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Using its "group of" feature, it shows the available links to journal articles. In the 2005 version, this feature provided a link to both subscription-access versions of an article and to free full-text versions of articles; for most of 2006, it provided links to only the publishers' versions. Since December 2006, it has provided links to both published versions and major open access <a href="/wiki/Repository_(academic_publishing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Repository (academic publishing)">repositories</a>, including all those posted on individual faculty web pages and other unstructured sources identified by similarity. On the other hand, Google Scholar does not allow to filter explicitly between <a href="/wiki/Toll_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Toll access">toll access</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">open access</a> resources, a feature offered <a href="/wiki/Unpaywall" class="mw-redirect" title="Unpaywall">Unpaywall</a> and the tools which embed its data, such as <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unpaywall_Journals" class="mw-redirect" title="Unpaywall Journals">Unpaywall Journals</a>, used by libraries to calculate the real costs and value of their collections.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citation_analysis_and_tools">Citation analysis and tools</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Citation analysis and tools" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Through its "cited by" feature, Google Scholar provides access to abstracts of articles that have cited the article being viewed.<a href="#cite_note-gshelp-27">[27]</a> It is this feature in particular that provides the <a href="/wiki/Citation_indexing" class="mw-redirect" title="Citation indexing">citation indexing</a> previously only found in <a href="/wiki/CiteSeer" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeer">CiteSeer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a>. Google Scholar also provides links so that citations can be either copied in various formats or imported into user-chosen <a href="/wiki/Reference_management_software" title="Reference management software">reference managers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Zotero" title="Zotero">Zotero</a>. "Scholar Citations profiles" are public author profiles that are editable by authors themselves.<a href="#cite_note-profiles2014-16">[16]</a> Individuals, logging on through a Google account with a bona fide address usually linked to an academic institution, can now create their own page giving their fields of interest and citations. Google Scholar automatically calculates and displays the individual's total citation count, <a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">h-index</a>, and <a href="/wiki/I10-index" class="mw-redirect" title="I10-index">i10-index</a>. According to Google, "three-quarters of Scholar search results pages ... show links to the authors' public profiles" as of August 2014.<a href="#cite_note-profiles2014-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_articles">Related articles</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Related articles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Through its "Related articles" feature, Google Scholar presents a list of closely related articles, ranked primarily by how similar these articles are to the original result, but also taking into account the relevance of each paper.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="US_legal_case_database">US legal case database</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: US legal case database" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Google Scholar's legal database of US cases is extensive. Users can search and read published opinions of US state appellate and supreme court cases since 1950, US federal district, appellate, tax, and bankruptcy courts since 1923 and US Supreme Court cases since 1791.<a href="#cite_note-gshelp-27">[27]</a> Google Scholar embeds clickable citation links within the case and the How Cited tab allows lawyers to research prior case law and the subsequent citations to the court decision.<a href="#cite_note-gsLegalResearch-29">[29]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Ranking_algorithm">Ranking algorithm</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ranking algorithm" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> While most <a href="/wiki/Academic_databases_and_search_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic databases and search engines">academic databases and search engines</a> allow users to select one factor (e.g. relevance, citation counts, or publication date) to rank results, Google Scholar ranks results with a combined ranking algorithm in a "way researchers do, weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the piece has been cited in other scholarly literature".<a href="#cite_note-gsabout-25">[25]</a> Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on <a href="/wiki/Citation_impact" title="Citation impact">citation counts</a>,<a href="#cite_note-citcount-30">[30]</a> as well as words included in a document's title.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In searches by author or year, the first search results are often highly cited articles, as the number of citations is highly determinant, whereas in keyword searches the number of citations is probably the factor with the most weight, but other factors also participate.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Limitations_and_criticism">Limitations and criticism</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Limitations and criticism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Some searchers found Google Scholar to be of comparable quality and utility to subscription-based databases when looking at citations of articles in some specific journals.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The reviews recognize that its "cited by" feature in particular poses serious competition to <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a>. A study looking at the biomedical field found citation information in Google Scholar to be "sometimes inadequate, and less often updated".<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The coverage of Google Scholar may vary by discipline compared to other general databases.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Google Scholar strives to include as many journals as possible, including <a href="/wiki/Predatory_open_access_publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory open access publishing">predatory journals</a>, which may lack academic rigor. Specialists on predatory journals say that these kinds of journals "have polluted the global scientific record with pseudo-science" and "that Google Scholar dutifully and perhaps blindly includes in its central index."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Google Scholar does not publish a list of journals crawled or publishers included, and the frequency of its updates is uncertain. <a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometric</a> evidence suggests Google Scholar's coverage of the sciences and social sciences is competitive with other academic databases; as of 2017, Scholar's coverage of the arts and humanities has not been investigated empirically and Scholar's utility for disciplines in these fields remains ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Especially early on, some publishers did not allow Scholar to crawl their journals. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a> journals have been included since mid-2007, when Elsevier began to make most of its <a href="/wiki/ScienceDirect" title="ScienceDirect">ScienceDirect</a> content available to Google Scholar and Google's web search.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> However, a 2014 study<a href="#cite_note-nat_22_5_2014-4">[4]</a> estimates that Google Scholar can find almost 90% (approximately 100 million) of all scholarly documents on the Web written in English. Large-scale longitudinal studies have found between 40 and 60 percent of scientific articles are available in full text via Google Scholar links.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Google Scholar puts high weight on citation counts in its ranking algorithm and therefore is being criticized for strengthening the <a href="/wiki/Matthew_effect_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew effect (sociology)">Matthew effect</a>;<a href="#cite_note-citcount-30">[30]</a> as highly cited papers appear in top positions they gain more citations while new papers hardly appear in top positions and therefore get less attention by the users of Google Scholar and hence fewer citations. Google Scholar effect is a phenomenon when some researchers pick and cite works appearing in the top results on Google Scholar regardless of their contribution to the citing publication because they automatically assume these works' credibility and believe that editors, reviewers, and readers expect to see these citations.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Google Scholar has problems identifying publications on the <a href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a> preprint server correctly.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Interpunctuation characters in titles produce wrong search results, and authors are assigned to wrong papers, which leads to erroneous additional search results. Some search results are even given without any comprehensible reason.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Google Scholar is vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Spam_(electronic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spam (electronic)">spam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-spam-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-gamingscholar-45">[45]</a> Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto-von-Guericke_University_Magdeburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg">Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg</a> demonstrated that citation counts on Google Scholar can be manipulated and complete non-sense articles created with <a href="/wiki/SCIgen" title="SCIgen">SCIgen</a> were indexed within Google Scholar.<a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[46]</a> These researchers concluded that citation counts from Google Scholar should be used with care, especially when used to calculate performance metrics such as the <a href="/wiki/H-index" title="H-index">h-index</a> or <a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">impact factor</a>, which is in itself a poor predictor of article quality.<a href="#cite_note-Brembs_2018-47">[47]</a> Google Scholar started computing an h-index in 2012 with the advent of individual Scholar pages. Several downstream packages like Harzing's Publish or Perish also use its data.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The practicality of manipulating h-index calculators by <a href="/wiki/Spoofing_attack" title="Spoofing attack">spoofing</a> Google Scholar was demonstrated in 2010 by Cyril Labbe from <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier_University" title="Joseph Fourier University">Joseph Fourier University</a>, who managed to rank "Ike Antkare" ahead of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> by means of a large set of <a href="/wiki/SCIgen" title="SCIgen">SCIgen</a>-produced documents citing each other (effectively an academic <a href="/wiki/Link_farm" title="Link farm">link farm</a>).<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> As of 2010, Google Scholar was not able to <a href="/wiki/Shepardize" class="mw-redirect" title="Shepardize">shepardize</a> case law, as <a href="/wiki/LexisNexis" title="LexisNexis">Lexis</a> could.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Unlike other indexes of academic work such as <a href="/wiki/Scopus" title="Scopus">Scopus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Science" title="Web of Science">Web of Science</a>, Google Scholar does not maintain an <a href="/wiki/Application_Programming_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application Programming Interface">Application Programming Interface</a> that may be used to automate data retrieval. Use of web scrapers to obtain the contents of search results is also severely restricted by the implementation of CAPTCHAs. Google Scholar does not display or export <a href="/wiki/Digital_Object_Identifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Object Identifiers">Digital Object Identifiers</a> (DOIs),<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> a de facto standard implemented by all major academic publishers to uniquely identify and refer to individual pieces of academic work.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Search_engine_optimization_for_Google_Scholar">Search engine optimization for Google Scholar</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Search engine optimization for Google Scholar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <a href="/wiki/Search_engine_optimization" title="Search engine optimization">Search engine optimization</a> (SEO) for traditional web search engines such as <a href="/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google</a> has been popular for many years. For several years, SEO has also been applied to academic search engines such as Google Scholar.<a href="#cite_note-:1-53">[53]</a> SEO for <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">academic articles</a> is also called "academic search engine optimization" (ASEO) and defined as "the creation, publication, and modification of scholarly literature in a way that makes it easier for academic search engines to both crawl it and index it".<a href="#cite_note-:1-53">[53]</a> ASEO has been adopted by several organizations, among them <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> OpenScience,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mendeley" title="Mendeley">Mendeley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> and <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE Publishing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> to optimize their articles' rankings in Google Scholar. ASEO has negatives.<a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[46]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines" title="List of academic databases and search engines">List of academic databases and search engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-access_repository" title="Open-access repository">Open-access repository</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Google_Scholar_Content_Coverage-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Google_Scholar_Content_Coverage_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/intl/us/scholar/help.html#coverage">"Search Tips: Content Coverage"</a>. Google Scholar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160923214505/https://scholar.google.com/intl/us/scholar/help.html#coverage">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Scholar&rft.atitle=Search+Tips%3A+Content+Coverage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fintl%2Fus%2Fscholar%2Fhelp.html%23coverage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/inclusion.html#crawl">"Google Scholar Help"</a>. scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2021-09-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar+Help&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fintl%2Fen%2Fscholar%2Finclusion.html%23crawl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/inclusion.html#indexing">"Google Scholar Help"</a>. scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2021-09-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar+Help&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fintl%2Fen%2Fscholar%2Finclusion.html%23indexing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nat_22_5_2014-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nat_22_5_2014_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_22_5_2014_4-1">b</a> Trend Watch (2014) <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> 509(7501), 405 – discussing Madian Khabsa and C Lee Giles (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0093949">The Number of Scholarly Documents on the Public Web</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140830124816/http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0093949">Archived</a> 2014-08-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/PLOS_One" title="PLOS One">PLOS One</a> 9, e93949. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolata2017" class="citation news cs1">Kolata, Gina (30 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/30/science/predatory-journals-academics.html">"Many Academics Are Eager to Publish in Worthless Journals"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171108014011/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/30/science/predatory-journals-academics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Many+Academics+Are+Eager+to+Publish+in+Worthless+Journals&rft.date=2017-10-30&rft.aulast=Kolata&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F10%2F30%2Fscience%2Fpredatory-journals-academics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-umlibrary-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-umlibrary_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-umlibrary_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.lib.umich.edu/files/services/mdp/faq.pdf">"UM Library/Google Digitization Partnership FAQ, August 2005"</a> (PDF). University of Michigan Library. August 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922011914/https://apps.lib.umich.edu/files/services/mdp/faq.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2021-04-30. <q>[T]he University of Michigan's work with Google encompasses several activities and Google products (e.g., Google Scholar).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UM+Library%2FGoogle+Digitization+Partnership+FAQ%2C+August+2005&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Library&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.lib.umich.edu%2Ffiles%2Fservices%2Fmdp%2Ffaq.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennifer_Howard2017" class="citation web cs1">Jennifer Howard (10 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edsurge.com/news/2017-08-10-what-happened-to-google-s-effort-to-scan-millions-of-university-library-books">"What Happened to Google's Effort to Scan Millions of University Library Books?"</a>. EdSurge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170810204507/https://www.edsurge.com/news/2017-08-10-what-happened-to-google-s-effort-to-scan-millions-of-university-library-books">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2021-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Happened+to+Google%27s+Effort+to+Scan+Millions+of+University+Library+Books%3F&rft.pub=EdSurge&rft.date=2017-08-10&rft.au=Jennifer+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edsurge.com%2Fnews%2F2017-08-10-what-happened-to-google-s-effort-to-scan-millions-of-university-library-books&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles2005" class="citation journal cs1">Giles, J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F438554a">"Science in the web age: Start your engines"</a>. Nature. 438 (7068): 554–55. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.438..554G">2005Natur.438..554G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F438554a">10.1038/438554a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16319857">16319857</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4432132">4432132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Science+in+the+web+age%3A+Start+your+engines&rft.volume=438&rft.issue=7068&rft.pages=554-55&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F438554a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4432132%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16319857&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.438..554G&rft.aulast=Giles&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F438554a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes,_Tracey2006" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, Tracey (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/librariancenter/articles/0612_01.html">"An interview with Anurag Acharya, Google Scholar lead engineer"</a>. Google Librarian Central. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100301092347/http://www.google.com/librariancenter/articles/0612_01.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-01. Retrieved 2016-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Librarian+Central&rft.atitle=An+interview+with+Anurag+Acharya%2C+Google+Scholar+lead+engineer&rft.date=2006-12&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Tracey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Flibrariancenter%2Farticles%2F0612_01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssisi,_Francis_C.2005" class="citation web cs1">Assisi, Francis C. (3 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110608194910/http://www.indolink.com/SciTech/fr010305-075445.php">"Anurag Acharya Helped Google's Scholarly Leap"</a>. INDOlink. Archived from the original on 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2007-04-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anurag+Acharya+Helped+Google%27s+Scholarly+Leap&rft.pub=INDOlink&rft.date=2005-01-03&rft.au=Assisi%2C+Francis+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indolink.com%2FSciTech%2Ffr010305-075445.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-backchannel2015-11"><a href="#cite_ref-backchannel2015_11-0">^</a> Steven Levy (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/backchannel/the-gentleman-who-made-scholar-d71289d9a82d">The gentleman who made Scholar</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201118134101/https://medium.com/backchannel/the-gentleman-who-made-scholar-d71289d9a82d">Archived</a> 2020-11-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "Backchannel" on Medium. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozear2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rozear, Hannah (2009). "Where Google Scholar stands on art: an evaluation of content coverage in online databases". <a href="/wiki/Art_Libraries_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Art Libraries Journal">Art Libraries Journal</a>. 34 (2): 21–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0307472200015844">10.1017/S0307472200015844</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163504762">163504762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Libraries+Journal&rft.atitle=Where+Google+Scholar+stands+on+art%3A+an+evaluation+of+content+coverage+in+online+databases&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=21-25&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0307472200015844&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163504762%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rozear&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuint,_Barbara2007" class="citation web cs1">Quint, Barbara (August 27, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/nbReader.asp?ArticleId=37309">"Changes at Google Scholar: A Conversation With Anurag Acharya"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Information_Today" title="Information Today">Information Today</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110326003109/http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/nbReader.asp?ArticleId=37309">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Changes+at+Google+Scholar%3A+A+Conversation+With+Anurag+Acharya&rft.pub=Information+Today&rft.date=2007-08-27&rft.au=Quint%2C+Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsbreaks.infotoday.com%2FnbReader.asp%3FArticleId%3D37309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadrigal,_Alexis_C.2012" class="citation web cs1">Madrigal, Alexis C. (3 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/20-services-google-thinks-are-more-important-than-google-scholar/255420/">"20 Services Google Thinks Are More Important Than Google Scholar"</a>. Atlantic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031203410/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/20-services-google-thinks-are-more-important-than-google-scholar/255420/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=20+Services+Google+Thinks+Are+More+Important+Than+Google+Scholar&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=2012-04-03&rft.au=Madrigal%2C+Alexis+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2012%2F04%2F20-services-google-thinks-are-more-important-than-google-scholar%2F255420%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-MartínThelwallOrduna-MaleaDelgado_López-Cózar2021" class="citation journal cs1">Martín-Martín, Alberto; Thelwall, Mike; Orduna-Malea, Enrique; Delgado López-Cózar, Emilio (January 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03690-4">"Google Scholar, Microsoft Academic, Scopus, Dimensions, Web of Science, and OpenCitations' COCI: a multidisciplinary comparison of coverage via citations"</a>. Scientometrics. 126 (1): 871–906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11192-020-03690-4">10.1007/s11192-020-03690-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1588-2861">1588-2861</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7505221">7505221</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32981987">32981987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientometrics&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar%2C+Microsoft+Academic%2C+Scopus%2C+Dimensions%2C+Web+of+Science%2C+and+OpenCitations%27+COCI%3A+a+multidisciplinary+comparison+of+coverage+via+citations&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=871-906&rft.date=2021-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7505221%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1588-2861&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32981987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11192-020-03690-4&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn-Mart%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft.au=Thelwall%2C+Mike&rft.au=Orduna-Malea%2C+Enrique&rft.au=Delgado+L%C3%B3pez-C%C3%B3zar%2C+Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs11192-020-03690-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-profiles2014-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-profiles2014_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-profiles2014_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-profiles2014_16-2">c</a> Alex Verstak: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://googlescholar.blogspot.ch/2014/08/fresh-look-of-scholar-profiles.html">Fresh Look of Scholar Profiles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092736/http://googlescholar.blogspot.ch/2014/08/fresh-look-of-scholar-profiles.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Google Scholar Blog, August 21, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> James Connor: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://googlescholar.blogspot.de/2013/11/google-scholar-library.html">Google Scholar Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104233/http://googlescholar.blogspot.de/2013/11/google-scholar-library.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Google Scholar Blog, November 19, 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OCYy1o4AAAAJ">"International Journal of Internet Science – Google Scholar Citations"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513012025/http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OCYy1o4AAAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-05-13. Retrieved 2014-08-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Journal+of+Internet+Science+%E2%80%93+Google+Scholar+Citations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fcitations%3Fuser%3DOCYy1o4AAAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qc6CJjYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">"Albert Einstein"</a>. scholar.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Albert+Einstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fcitations%3Fuser%3Dqc6CJjYAAAAJ%26hl%3Den%26oi%3Dao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=B7vSqZsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">"Richard Feynman"</a>. scholar.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Richard+Feynman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fcitations%3Fuser%3DB7vSqZsAAAAJ%26hl%3Den%26oi%3Dao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=6tmn5WoAAAAJ&hl=en">"Isaac Newton"</a>. scholar.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Isaac+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fcitations%3Fuser%3D6tmn5WoAAAAJ%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/61689/an-academic-who-died-over-70-years-ago-still-has-google-scholar-profile-with-ver">"An academic who died over 70 years ago still has Google Scholar profile with verified email. How can this be?"</a>. Academia Stack Exchange.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Academia+Stack+Exchange&rft.atitle=An+academic+who+died+over+70+years+ago+still+has+Google+Scholar+profile+with+verified+email.+How+can+this+be%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademia.stackexchange.com%2Fquestions%2F61689%2Fan-academic-who-died-over-70-years-ago-still-has-google-scholar-profile-with-ver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/librarylinks.html">"Google Scholar Library Links"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513185151/http://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/librarylinks.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-05-13. Retrieved 2016-05-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Google+Scholar+Library+Links&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fintl%2Fen%2Fscholar%2Flibrarylinks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmc1324783-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmc1324783_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmc1324783_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVine2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vine, Rita (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1324783">"Google Scholar"</a>. Journal of the Medical Library Association. 94 (1): 97–99. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1324783">1324783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Medical+Library+Association&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-99&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1324783%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.aulast=Vine&rft.aufirst=Rita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1324783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gsabout-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gsabout_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gsabout_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar/about.html">"About Google Scholar"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130226210812/http://scholar.google.com/scholar/about.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-02-26. Retrieved 2010-07-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Google+Scholar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenise_Wolfe2020" class="citation web cs1">Denise Wolfe (2020-04-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.buffalo.edu/news/2020/04/07/suny-negotiates-new-modified-agreement-with-elsevier/">"SUNY Negotiates New, Modified Agreement with Elsevier - Libraries News Center University at Buffalo Libraries"</a>. library.buffalo.edu. <a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo" title="University at Buffalo">University at Buffalo</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201206111125/https://library.buffalo.edu/news/2020/04/07/suny-negotiates-new-modified-agreement-with-elsevier/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-12-06. Retrieved 2020-04-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=library.buffalo.edu&rft.atitle=SUNY+Negotiates+New%2C+Modified+Agreement+with+Elsevier+-+Libraries+News+Center+University+at+Buffalo+Libraries&rft.date=2020-04-07&rft.au=Denise+Wolfe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.buffalo.edu%2Fnews%2F2020%2F04%2F07%2Fsuny-negotiates-new-modified-agreement-with-elsevier%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gshelp-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gshelp_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gshelp_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/intl/en/scholar/help.html">"Google Scholar Help"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180810105246/https://scholar.google.co.uk/intl/en/scholar/help.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-08-10. Retrieved 2017-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Google+Scholar+Help&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.co.uk%2Fintl%2Fen%2Fscholar%2Fhelp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/08/exploring-scholarly-neighborhood.html">"Exploring the scholarly neighborhood"</a>. Official Google Blog. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210212072041/https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2006/08/exploring-scholarly-neighborhood.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-02-12. Retrieved 2021-02-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+Google+Blog&rft.atitle=Exploring+the+scholarly+neighborhood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgoogleblog.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F08%2Fexploring-scholarly-neighborhood.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gsLegalResearch-29"><a href="#cite_ref-gsLegalResearch_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreiling2011" class="citation web cs1">Dreiling, Geri (May 11, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lawyertechreview.com/2011/how-to-use-google-scholar-for-legal-research/">"How to Use Google Scholar for Legal Research"</a>. Lawyer Tech Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402075514/http://lawyertechreview.com/2011/how-to-use-google-scholar-for-legal-research/">Archived</a> from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved June 7, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+Use+Google+Scholar+for+Legal+Research&rft.pub=Lawyer+Tech+Review&rft.date=2011-05-11&rft.aulast=Dreiling&rft.aufirst=Geri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawyertechreview.com%2F2011%2Fhow-to-use-google-scholar-for-legal-research%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-citcount-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-citcount_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-citcount_30-1">b</a> Jöran Beel and Bela Gipp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181215175040/http://www.sciplore.org/publications/2009-Google_Scholar's_Ranking_Algorithm_--_An_Introductory_Overview_--_preprint.pdf">Google Scholar's Ranking Algorithm: An Introductory Overview</a>. In Birger Larsen and Jacqueline Leta, editors, Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Scientometrics and Informetrics (ISSI'09), vol. 1, pp. 230–41, Rio de Janeiro, July 2009. International Society for Scientometrics and Informetrics. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2175-1935">2175-1935</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeelGipp2009" class="citation book cs1">Beel, J.; Gipp, B. (2009). "Google Scholar's ranking algorithm: The impact of citation counts (An empirical study)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808212756/http://www.beel.org/files/papers/2009-Google_Scholar%27s_Ranking_Algorithm_-_The_Impact_of_Citation_Counts_--_preprint%20aseotest333.pdf">2009 Third International Conference on Research Challenges in Information Science</a> (PDF). pp. 439–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FRCIS.2009.5089308">10.1109/RCIS.2009.5089308</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-2864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-2864-9"><bdi>978-1-4244-2864-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:843045">843045</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://beel.org/files/papers/2009-Google_Scholar%27s_Ranking_Algorithm_-_The_Impact_of_Citation_Counts_--_preprint%20aseotest333.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 8, 2017. Retrieved 2019-12-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar%27s+ranking+algorithm%3A+The+impact+of+citation+counts+%28An+empirical+study%29&rft.btitle=2009+Third+International+Conference+on+Research+Challenges+in+Information+Science&rft.pages=439-46&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A843045%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FRCIS.2009.5089308&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-2864-9&rft.aulast=Beel&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Gipp%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbeel.org%2Ffiles%2Fpapers%2F2009-Google_Scholar%2527s_Ranking_Algorithm_-_The_Impact_of_Citation_Counts_--_preprint%2520aseotest333.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoviraGuerrero-SoléCodina2018" class="citation journal cs1">Rovira, Cristòfol; Guerrero-Solé, Frederic; Codina, Lluís (2018-06-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://revista.profesionaldelainformacion.com/index.php/EPI/article/view/epi.2018.may.09">"Received citations as a main SEO factor of Google Scholar results ranking"</a>. Profesional de la Información. 27 (3): 559–569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3145%2Fepi.2018.may.09">10.3145/epi.2018.may.09</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10230%2F34957">10230/34957</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1699-2407">1699-2407</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210113132434/https://revista.profesionaldelainformacion.com/index.php/EPI/article/view/epi.2018.may.09">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2020-12-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Profesional+de+la+Informaci%C3%B3n&rft.atitle=Received+citations+as+a+main+SEO+factor+of+Google+Scholar+results+ranking&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=559-569&rft.date=2018-06-18&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10230%2F34957&rft.issn=1699-2407&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3145%2Fepi.2018.may.09&rft.aulast=Rovira&rft.aufirst=Crist%C3%B2fol&rft.au=Guerrero-Sol%C3%A9%2C+Frederic&rft.au=Codina%2C+Llu%C3%ADs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frevista.profesionaldelainformacion.com%2Findex.php%2FEPI%2Farticle%2Fview%2Fepi.2018.may.09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer,_KathleenBakkalbasi,_Nisa2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bauer, Kathleen; Bakkalbasi, Nisa (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlib.org/dlib/september05/bauer/09bauer.html">"An Examination of Citation Counts in a New Scholarly Communication Environment"</a>. D-Lib Magazine. 11 (9). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1045%2Fseptember2005-bauer">10.1045/september2005-bauer</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110408225520/http://www.dlib.org/dlib/september05/bauer/09bauer.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-04-08. Retrieved 2006-08-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D-Lib+Magazine&rft.atitle=An+Examination+of+Citation+Counts+in+a+New+Scholarly+Communication+Environment&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1045%2Fseptember2005-bauer&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Bakkalbasi%2C+Nisa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdlib.org%2Fdlib%2Fseptember05%2Fbauer%2F09bauer.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><noscript><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 9px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" data-alt="Open access icon" data-width="9" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkarniAzizShamsBusse2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kulkarni, A. V.; Aziz, B.; Shams, I.; Busse, J. W. (2009). "Comparisons of Citations in Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar for Articles Published in General Medical Journals". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 302 (10): 1092–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2009.1307">10.1001/jama.2009.1307</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19738094">19738094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA%3A+The+Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association&rft.atitle=Comparisons+of+Citations+in+Web+of+Science%2C+Scopus%2C+and+Google+Scholar+for+Articles+Published+in+General+Medical+Journals&rft.volume=302&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1092-96&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.2009.1307&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19738094&rft.aulast=Kulkarni&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rft.au=Aziz%2C+B.&rft.au=Shams%2C+I.&rft.au=Busse%2C+J.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalagasPitsouniMalietzisPappas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Falagas, M. E.; Pitsouni, E. I.; Malietzis, G. A.; Pappas, G. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.07-9492LSF">"Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar: Strengths and weaknesses"</a>. The FASEB Journal. 22 (2): 338–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.07-9492LSF">10.1096/fj.07-9492LSF</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17884971">17884971</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:303173">303173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+FASEB+Journal&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+PubMed%2C+Scopus%2C+Web+of+Science%2C+and+Google+Scholar%3A+Strengths+and+weaknesses&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=338-42&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A303173%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17884971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1096%2Ffj.07-9492LSF&rft.aulast=Falagas&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rft.au=Pitsouni%2C+E.+I.&rft.au=Malietzis%2C+G.+A.&rft.au=Pappas%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1096%252Ffj.07-9492LSF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKousha,_K.Thelwall,_M.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kousha, K.; Thelwall, M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.rclis.org/7641/1/google.pdf">"Google Scholar citations and Google Web/URL citations: A multi-discipline exploratory analysis"</a> (PDF). Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 57 (6): 1055–65. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JASIS..58.1055K">2007JASIS..58.1055K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasi.20584">10.1002/asi.20584</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200929004706/http://eprints.rclis.org/7641/1/google.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-29. Retrieved 2019-12-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Society+for+Information+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar+citations+and+Google+Web%2FURL+citations%3A+A+multi-discipline+exploratory+analysis&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1055-65&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasi.20584&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007JASIS..58.1055K&rft.au=Kousha%2C+K.&rft.au=Thelwall%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.rclis.org%2F7641%2F1%2Fgoogle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeall2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Beall" title="Jeffrey Beall">Beall, Jeffrey</a> (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141107175135/http://scholarlyoa.com/2014/11/04/google-scholar-is-filled-with-junk-science/">"Google Scholar is Filled with Junk Science"</a>. Scholarly Open Access. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarlyoa.com/2014/11/04/google-scholar-is-filled-with-junk-science/">the original</a> on 2014-11-07. Retrieved 2014-11-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scholarly+Open+Access&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar+is+Filled+with+Junk+Science&rft.date=2014-11&rft.aulast=Beall&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarlyoa.com%2F2014%2F11%2F04%2Fgoogle-scholar-is-filled-with-junk-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFagan2017" class="citation journal cs1">Fagan, Jody (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ital.corejournals.org/index.php/ital/article/download/9718/pdf">"An evidence-based review of academic web search engines, 2014–2016: Implications for librarians' practice and research agenda"</a>. Information Technology and Libraries. 36 (2): 7–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6017%2Fital.v36i2.9718">10.6017/ital.v36i2.9718</a>. Retrieved 2019-12-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Technology+and+Libraries&rft.atitle=An+evidence-based+review+of+academic+web+search+engines%2C+2014%E2%80%932016%3A+Implications+for+librarians%27+practice+and+research+agenda&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-47&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6017%2Fital.v36i2.9718&rft.aulast=Fagan&rft.aufirst=Jody&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fital.corejournals.org%2Findex.php%2Fital%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F9718%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrantley,_Peter2007" class="citation web cs1">Brantley, Peter (3 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080421014001/http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2007/07/science-directly-into-google.html">"Science Direct-ly into Google"</a>. O'Reilly Radar. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2007/07/science-directly-into-google.html">the original</a> on 21 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=O%27Reilly+Radar&rft.atitle=Science+Direct-ly+into+Google&rft.date=2007-07-03&rft.au=Brantley%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fradar.oreilly.com%2Farchives%2F2007%2F07%2Fscience-directly-into-google.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-MartínOrduña-MaleaAyllónDelgado_López-Cózar2014" class="citation arxiv cs1">Martín-Martín, Alberto; Orduña-Malea, Enrique; Ayllón, Juan Manuel; Delgado López-Cózar, Emilio (2014-10-30). "Does Google Scholar contain all highly cited documents (1950–2013)?". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.8464">1410.8464</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.DL">cs.DL</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Does+Google+Scholar+contain+all+highly+cited+documents+%281950%E2%80%932013%29%3F&rft.date=2014-10-30&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1410.8464&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn-Mart%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft.au=Ordu%C3%B1a-Malea%2C+Enrique&rft.au=Ayll%C3%B3n%2C+Juan+Manuel&rft.au=Delgado+L%C3%B3pez-C%C3%B3zar%2C+Emilio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerenko,_A.Dumay,_J.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Serenko, A.; Dumay, J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Dumay_CitationClassics2.pdf">"Citation classics published in knowledge management journals. Part II: Studying research trends and discovering the Google Scholar Effect"</a> (PDF). Journal of Knowledge Management. 19 (6): 1335–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FJKM-02-2015-0086">10.1108/JKM-02-2015-0086</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151001124153/http://aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Dumay_CitationClassics2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-01. Retrieved 2015-09-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Knowledge+Management&rft.atitle=Citation+classics+published+in+knowledge+management+journals.+Part+II%3A+Studying+research+trends+and+discovering+the+Google+Scholar+Effect&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1335-55&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FJKM-02-2015-0086&rft.au=Serenko%2C+A.&rft.au=Dumay%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faserenko.com%2Fpapers%2FSerenko_Dumay_CitationClassics2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacso,_Peter2009" class="citation journal cs1">Jacso, Peter (24 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607104842/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6698580.html?q=jacso">"Google Scholar's Ghost Authors, Lost Authors, and Other Problems"</a>. Library Journal. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6698580.html?q=jacso">the original</a> on 7 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Journal&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar%27s+Ghost+Authors%2C+Lost+Authors%2C+and+Other+Problems&rft.date=2009-09-24&rft.au=Jacso%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraryjournal.com%2Farticle%2FCA6698580.html%3Fq%3Djacso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPéter_Jacsó2010" class="citation journal cs1">Péter Jacsó (2010). "Metadata mega mess in Google Scholar". Online Information Review. 34: 175–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F14684521011024191">10.1108/14684521011024191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Online+Information+Review&rft.atitle=Metadata+mega+mess+in+Google+Scholar&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=175-91&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14684521011024191&rft.au=P%C3%A9ter+Jacs%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-spam-44"><a href="#cite_ref-spam_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181130030404/http://www.sciplore.org/publications/2010-On_the_Robustness_of_Google_Scholar_against_Spam--preprint.pdf">"On the Robustness of Google Scholar against Spam"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+the+Robustness+of+Google+Scholar+against+Spam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20181130030404%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciplore.org%2Fpublications%2F2010-On_the_Robustness_of_Google_Scholar_against_Spam--preprint.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gamingscholar-45"><a href="#cite_ref-gamingscholar_45-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarlyoa.com/2015/01/20/did-a-romanian-researcher-successfully-game-google-scholar-to-raise-his-citation-count/">Scholarly Open Access – Did A Romanian Researcher Successfully Game Google Scholar to Raise his Citation Count?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150122224124/http://scholarlyoa.com/2015/01/20/did-a-romanian-researcher-successfully-game-google-scholar-to-raise-his-citation-count/">Archived</a> 2015-01-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeel,_JoeranGipp,_Bela2010" class="citation journal cs1">Beel, Joeran; Gipp, Bela (December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/31020/Beel_0-285754.pdf">"Academic search engine spam and google scholar's resilience against it"</a> (PDF). Journal of Electronic Publishing. 13 (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2F3336451.0013.305">10.3998/3336451.0013.305</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201001120520/https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/31020/Beel_0-285754.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-10-01. Retrieved 2019-12-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Electronic+Publishing&rft.atitle=Academic+search+engine+spam+and+google+scholar%27s+resilience+against+it&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2F3336451.0013.305&rft.au=Beel%2C+Joeran&rft.au=Gipp%2C+Bela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkops.uni-konstanz.de%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F31020%2FBeel_0-285754.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brembs_2018-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Brembs_2018_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrembs2018" class="citation journal cs1">Brembs B (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5826185">"Prestigious Science Journals Struggle to Reach Even Average Reliability"</a>. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 12: 37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2018.00037">10.3389/fnhum.2018.00037</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5826185">5826185</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29515380">29515380</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Prestigious+Science+Journals+Struggle+to+Reach+Even+Average+Reliability&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5826185%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29515380&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2018.00037&rft.aulast=Brembs&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5826185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harzing.com/resources/publish-or-perish">"Publish or Perish"</a>. Anne-Wil Harzing.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210111194425/https://harzing.com/resources/publish-or-perish">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2013-06-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Publish+or+Perish&rft.pub=Anne-Wil+Harzing.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharzing.com%2Fresources%2Fpublish-or-perish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabbe,_Cyril2010" class="citation web cs1">Labbe, Cyril (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rr.liglab.fr/research_report/RR-LIG-008.pdf">"Ike Antkare one of the great stars in the scientific firmament"</a> (PDF). Laboratoire d'Informatique de Grenoble RR-LIG-2008 (technical report). <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fourier_University" title="Joseph Fourier University">Joseph Fourier University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130402153925/http://rr.liglab.fr/research_report/RR-LIG-008.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2011-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Laboratoire+d%27Informatique+de+Grenoble+RR-LIG-2008+%28technical+report%29&rft.atitle=Ike+Antkare+one+of+the+great+stars+in+the+scientific+firmament&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Labbe%2C+Cyril&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frr.liglab.fr%2Fresearch_report%2FRR-LIG-008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenn2010" class="citation journal cs1">Benn, Oliver (March 9, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nonpublication.com/benn.pdf">"Is Google Scholar a Worthy Adversary?"</a> (PDF). The Recorder. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520101811/http://nonpublication.com/benn.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 20, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Recorder&rft.atitle=Is+Google+Scholar+a+Worthy+Adversary%3F&rft.date=2010-03-09&rft.aulast=Benn&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnonpublication.com%2Fbenn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallMerčunRisseDuchateau2020" class="citation conference cs1">Hall, Mark; Merčun, Tanja; Risse, Thomas; Duchateau, Fabien (August 25–27, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O-_3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">Digital Libraries for Open Knowledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Theory_and_Practice_of_Digital_Libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries">International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54956-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-54956-5"><bdi>978-3-030-54956-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=International+Conference+on+Theory+and+Practice+of+Digital+Libraries&rft.atitle=Digital+Libraries+for+Open+Knowledge&rft.pages=104&rft.date=2020-08-25%2F2020-08-27&rft.isbn=978-3-030-54956-5&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Mer%C4%8Dun%2C+Tanja&rft.au=Risse%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Duchateau%2C+Fabien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO-_3DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartín-MartínThelwallOrduna‑MaleaLópez‑Cózar2020" class="citation journal cs1">Martín-Martín, Alberto; Thelwall, Mike; Orduna‑Malea, Enrique; López‑Cózar, Emilio Delgado (2020-09-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7505221">"Google Scholar, Microsoft Academic, Scopus, Dimensions, Web of Science, and OpenCitations' COCI: a multidisciplinary comparison of coverage via citations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientometrics_(journal)" title="Scientometrics (journal)">Scientometrics</a>. 126 (1): 871–906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11192-020-03690-4">10.1007/s11192-020-03690-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7505221">7505221</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32981987">32981987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientometrics&rft.atitle=Google+Scholar%2C+Microsoft+Academic%2C+Scopus%2C+Dimensions%2C+Web+of+Science%2C+and+OpenCitations%27+COCI%3A+a+multidisciplinary+comparison+of+coverage+via+citations&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=871-906&rft.date=2020-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7505221%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32981987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11192-020-03690-4&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADn-Mart%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft.au=Thelwall%2C+Mike&rft.au=Orduna%E2%80%91Malea%2C+Enrique&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez%E2%80%91C%C3%B3zar%2C+Emilio+Delgado&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7505221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeelGippWilde2010" class="citation journal cs1">Beel, Jöran; Gipp, Bela; Wilde, Erik (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.docear.org/papers/Academic%20Search%20Engine%20Optimization%20(ASEO)%20--%20preprint.pdf">"Academic Search Engine Optimization (ASEO)"</a> (PDF). Journal of Scholarly Publishing. 41 (2): 176–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fjsp.41.2.176">10.3138/jsp.41.2.176</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1913416">1913416</a>. Retrieved 2019-12-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Scholarly+Publishing&rft.atitle=Academic+Search+Engine+Optimization+%28ASEO%29&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=176-90&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2Fjsp.41.2.176&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1913416%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Beel&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6ran&rft.au=Gipp%2C+Bela&rft.au=Wilde%2C+Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.docear.org%2Fpapers%2FAcademic%2520Search%2520Engine%2520Optimization%2520%28ASEO%29%2520--%2520preprint.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elsevier.com/connect/get-found-optimize-your-research-articles-for-search-engines">"Get found – optimize your research articles for search engines"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191023162828/https://www.elsevier.com/connect/get-found-optimize-your-research-articles-for-search-engines">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-23. Retrieved 2017-01-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Get+found+%E2%80%93+optimize+your+research+articles+for+search+engines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elsevier.com%2Fconnect%2Fget-found-optimize-your-research-articles-for-search-engines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openscience.com/optimize-academic-articles-search-engines/">"Why and how should you optimize academic articles for search engines?"</a>. 9 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330150008/https://openscience.com/optimize-academic-articles-search-engines/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-30. Retrieved 2017-01-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+and+how+should+you+optimize+academic+articles+for+search+engines%3F&rft.date=2014-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenscience.com%2Foptimize-academic-articles-search-engines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.mendeley.com/2010/11/29/market-and-publish-or-perish/">"Academic SEO – Market (And Publish) or Perish"</a>. 2010-11-29. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191023162827/https://blog.mendeley.com/2010/11/29/market-and-publish-or-perish/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-23. Retrieved 2017-01-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Academic+SEO+%E2%80%93+Market+%28And+Publish%29+or+Perish&rft.date=2010-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.mendeley.com%2F2010%2F11%2F29%2Fmarket-and-publish-or-perish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/help-readers-find-your-article">"Help Readers Find Your Article"</a>. 2015-05-19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190927033537/https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/help-readers-find-your-article">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-27. Retrieved 2017-01-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Help+Readers+Find+Your+Article&rft.date=2015-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fus.sagepub.com%2Fen-us%2Fnam%2Fhelp-readers-find-your-article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoogle+Scholar" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li>Jensenius, F., Htun, M., Samuels, D., Singer, D., Lawrence, A., & Chwe, M. (2018). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://malahtun.files.wordpress.com/2018/06/googlescholar2018_post_print.pdf">The Benefits and Pitfalls of Google Scholar</a>" PS: Political Science & Politics, 51(4), 820–824.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Google_Scholar" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 22px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="22" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/60px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/80px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a> has the properties: <ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/4px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="4" height="4" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="460"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 4px;height: 4px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/4px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="4" data-height="4" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/6px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Property_talk:P1960" class="extiw" title="d:Property talk:P1960">Google Scholar author ID (P1960)</a> (see <a class="external text" href="https://query.wikidata.org/embed.html#SELECT%20%3FWikidata_item_%20%3FWikidata_item_Label%20%3Fvalue%20%3FvalueLabel%20%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20%23Show%20data%20in%20this%20order%0A%7B%0A%09%3FWikidata_item_%20wdt%3AP1960%20%3Fvalue%20.%20%23Collecting%20all%20items%20which%20have%20P1960%20data%2C%20from%20whole%20Wikidata%20item%20pages%0A%09OPTIONAL%20%7B%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20schema%3Aabout%20%3FWikidata_item_%3B%20schema%3AisPartOf%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2F%3E%20.%7D%20%23If%20collected%20item%20has%20link%20to%20English%20Wikipedia%2C%20show%20that%0A%09SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22en%22%20%20%7D%20%23Show%20label%20in%20this%20language.%20%22en%22%20is%20English.%20%20%20%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%201000">uses</a>)</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/4px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="4" height="4" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="460"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 4px;height: 4px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/4px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="4" data-height="4" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/6px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg/8px-Disc_Plain_blue_dark.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Property_talk:P4028" class="extiw" title="d:Property talk:P4028">Google Scholar paper ID (P4028)</a> (see <a class="external text" href="https://query.wikidata.org/embed.html#SELECT%20%3FWikidata_item_%20%3FWikidata_item_Label%20%3Fvalue%20%3FvalueLabel%20%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20%23Show%20data%20in%20this%20order%0A%7B%0A%09%3FWikidata_item_%20wdt%3AP4028%20%3Fvalue%20.%20%23Collecting%20all%20items%20which%20have%20P4028%20data%2C%20from%20whole%20Wikidata%20item%20pages%0A%09OPTIONAL%20%7B%3FEnglish_Wikipedia_article%20schema%3Aabout%20%3FWikidata_item_%3B%20schema%3AisPartOf%20%3Chttps%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2F%3E%20.%7D%20%23If%20collected%20item%20has%20link%20to%20English%20Wikipedia%2C%20show%20that%0A%09SERVICE%20wikibase%3Alabel%20%7B%20bd%3AserviceParam%20wikibase%3Alanguage%20%22en%22%20%20%7D%20%23Show%20label%20in%20this%20language.%20%22en%22%20is%20English.%20%20%20%0A%7D%0ALIMIT%201000">uses</a>)</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/">Official website</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q494817#P856" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><noscript><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 10px;height: 10px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" data-alt="Edit this at Wikidata" data-width="10" data-height="10" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.googleblog.com/">Google Scholar Blog</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&oldid=1258243706">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&oldid=1258243706</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 18 November 2024, at 22:42 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A_(%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%84)" title="الباحث العلمي (جوجل) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الباحث العلمي (جوجل)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="গুগল স্কলার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গুগল স্কলার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Google Наука – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Google Наука" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Acad%C3%A8mic" title="Google Acadèmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Google Acadèmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Acad%C3%A9mico" title="Google Académico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Google Académico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1" title="گوگل اسکالر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گوگل اسکالر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EA%B8%80_%ED%95%99%EC%88%A0_%EA%B2%80%EC%83%89" title="구글 학술 검색 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구글 학술 검색" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0" title="गूगल स्कॉलर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गूगल स्कॉलर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_znalac" title="Google znalac – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Google znalac" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cendekia" title="Google Cendekia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Google Cendekia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%95%D7%92%D7%9C_%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A8" title="גוגל סקולר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גוגל סקולר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Tud%C3%B3s" title="Google Tudós – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Google Tudós" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BE_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%BC" title="ഗൂഗിൾ സ്കോളർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗൂഗിൾ സ്കോളർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0" title="गूगल स्कॉलर – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गूगल स्कॉलर" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_Google" title="Академия Google – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Академия Google" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_scholar" title="Google scholar – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Google scholar" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%88%DA%AF%DA%B5_%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="گووگڵ سکۆلار – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گووگڵ سکۆلار" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="கூகுள் இசுகாலர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கூகுள் இசுகாலர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8_Google" title="Академияи Google – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Академияи Google" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Akademik" title="Google Akademik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Google Akademik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Google Scholar" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E6%90%9C%E7%B4%A2" title="Google学术搜索 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="Google学术搜索" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 November 2024, at 22:42 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-terms-use"><a href="https://foundation.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a></li> <li id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Scholar&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-bmh6q","wgBackendResponseTime":199,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.889","walltime":"1.127","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5264,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":298508,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":4920,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":2,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":228417,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 868.353 1 -total"," 46.52% 403.969 1 Template:Reflist"," 19.55% 169.733 29 Template:Cite_web"," 14.90% 129.391 1 Template:Google_LLC"," 11.90% 103.344 18 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.62% 92.208 1 Template:Infobox_website"," 9.65% 83.783 1 Template:Infobox"," 7.92% 68.797 2 Template:Sister_project"," 7.12% 61.814 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.06% 61.316 2 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.492","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8076250,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lt4nx","timestamp":"20241122140937","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Google Scholar","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Scholar","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q494817","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q494817","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-02-18T07:51:10Z","dateModified":"2024-11-18T22:42:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c1\/Google_Scholar_home_page.png","headline":"academic search service by Google"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>