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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permo-Triassic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurassic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurassic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Jurassic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurassic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cretaceous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cretaceous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Cretaceous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cretaceous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleogene_and_Neogene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleogene_and_Neogene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Paleogene and Neogene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleogene_and_Neogene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quaternary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaternary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Quaternary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaternary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Topography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Topography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Topography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Topography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Pennines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pennines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The Pennines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pennines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Yorkshire_Coalfield" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Yorkshire_Coalfield"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The Yorkshire Coalfield</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Yorkshire_Coalfield-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Magnesian_Limestone_Belt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Magnesian_Limestone_Belt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The Magnesian Limestone Belt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Magnesian_Limestone_Belt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Vales_of_Mowbray_and_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Vales_of_Mowbray_and_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The Vales of Mowbray and York</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Vales_of_Mowbray_and_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_North_York_Moors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_North_York_Moors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The North York Moors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_North_York_Moors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Vale_of_Pickering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Vale_of_Pickering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>The Vale of Pickering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Vale_of_Pickering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Yorkshire_Wolds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Yorkshire_Wolds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>The Yorkshire Wolds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Yorkshire_Wolds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holderness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holderness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Holderness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holderness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Humberhead_Levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Humberhead_Levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>The Humberhead Levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Humberhead_Levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest_in_Yorkshire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest_in_Yorkshire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Yorkshire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geological_Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest_in_Yorkshire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a></div> <p> The <b>Geology of Yorkshire</b> in northern <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> shows a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which their rocks were formed. The rocks of the Pennine chain of hills in the west are of Carboniferous origin whilst those of the central vale are Permo-Triassic. The <a href="/wiki/North_York_Moors" title="North York Moors">North York Moors</a> in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_Wolds" title="Yorkshire Wolds">Yorkshire Wolds</a> to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands. The plain of <a href="/wiki/Holderness" title="Holderness">Holderness</a> and the Humberhead levels both owe their present form to the Quaternary ice ages. The strata become gradually younger from west to east.<sup id="cite_ref-pen_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-east_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of Yorkshire presents heavily glaciated scenery as few places escaped the direct or indirect impact of the great ice sheets as they first advanced and then retreated during the last ice age. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yorksgeology.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Yorksgeology.jpg/350px-Yorksgeology.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Yorksgeology.jpg/525px-Yorksgeology.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Yorksgeology.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>A simplified geology of Yorkshire</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_evolution_of_the_landscape">The evolution of the landscape</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The evolution of the landscape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Carboniferous">Pre-Carboniferous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-Carboniferous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oldest rocks in Yorkshire are represented by a number of small <a href="/wiki/Inlier" class="mw-redirect" title="Inlier">inliers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a> areas along the southern margin of the <a href="/wiki/Askrigg_Block" title="Askrigg Block">Askrigg Block</a> to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Craven_Fault_System" title="Craven Fault System">Craven faults</a>. This Ingletonian group of folded and cleaved mudstones and sandstones is of disputed age but fossils equate them with the Lower Skiddaw Group of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a> which are <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rocks were laid down when the area was part of the <a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a> land mass and was positioned about 30° south of the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the Ordovician period the Avalonian land mass had collided with <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a> and this event caused a marine regression which was exacerbated by a worldwide drop in sea level caused by a period of glaciation.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> period Avalonia and Baltica moved rapidly towards <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> at a position about 20° south of the equator. The <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_Ocean" title="Iapetus Ocean">Iapetus Ocean</a> which lay between them was closed. Inliers of the Silurian rocks which were formed at this time occur at <a href="/wiki/Cross_Fell" title="Cross Fell">Cross Fell</a>, adjacent to the Pennine Fault, and at <a href="/wiki/Horton_in_Ribblesdale" title="Horton in Ribblesdale">Horton in Ribblesdale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austwick" title="Austwick">Austwick</a>, north of the <a href="/wiki/Craven_Fault_System" title="Craven Fault System">Craven Fault System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the following <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period the land area which is now Yorkshire was in a continental, inland, phase of deposition. There are no proven remaining Devonian deposits in the Yorkshire area and the Carboniferous rocks lie <a href="/wiki/Lithostratigraphy#Stratigraphic_relationship" title="Lithostratigraphy">unconformably</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paleozoic_footer" title="Template talk:Paleozoic footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paleozoic_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paleozoic footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Paleozoic_Era27" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;border: none;;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terreneuvian" title="Terreneuvian">Terreneuvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_2" title="Cambrian Series 2">Series 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaolingian" title="Miaolingian">Miaolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furongian" title="Furongian">Furongian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ordovician">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Llandovery_Epoch" title="Llandovery Epoch">Llandovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Epoch" title="Wenlock Epoch">Wenlock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Epoch" title="Ludlow Epoch">Ludlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pridoli_Epoch" title="Pridoli Epoch">Pridoli</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" title="Middle Devonian">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(153,192,141); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Cisuralian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Lopingian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Carboniferous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thornton_Force.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Thornton_Force.jpg/220px-Thornton_Force.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Thornton_Force.jpg/330px-Thornton_Force.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Thornton_Force.jpg/440px-Thornton_Force.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>At Thornton Force the Carboniferous strata lie unconformably on older strata</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> deposits were laid down on and between large pre-existing land blocks and intervening troughs. The blocks are known as the Askrigg and Alston blocks. These upstanding areas and the troughs between were actively subsiding into shallow seas which were the result of a global rise in sea levels. These seas contained high levels of calcium carbonate and calcium forming fossils. There are areas of reef deposition around the blocks where the seas were temporarily shallower.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land mass was by now astride the equator. The bordering seas began to be periodically invaded by <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a> formed by rivers flowing from the adjacent higher ground. The sand of the deltas became the <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Grit" title="Millstone Grit">Millstone Grits</a> of the Yorkshire Pennines.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The climate then became humid and the delta areas started to support <a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">swamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rain_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical rain forest">tropical rain forests</a>. These deltas changed size and shape frequently and were regularly inundated by the sea. They would eventually form the numerous <a href="/wiki/Coal_seam" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal seam">coal seams</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Coal_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal Measures">Coal Measures</a> sandstones.<sup id="cite_ref-pen_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Variscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Variscan">Variscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a> occurred towards the end of the Carboniferous period as the former <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gondwanaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gondwanaland">Gondwanaland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euramerica" class="mw-redirect" title="Euramerica">Euramerica</a> collided to form the single supercontinent of <a href="/wiki/Pangea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangea">Pangea</a>. The seas between the land masses were closed up and fold mountain ranges were formed along the closure line in many areas. The area of Britain was uplifted and fault lines developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permo-Triassic">Permo-Triassic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Permo-Triassic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Yorkshire lay in the arid hinterland of Pangea, between 20° and 30° north of the equator. The rocks of this period are dominated by red desert sandstones. The area which is now beneath the North Sea was a dry area of subsidence which was filled with a great thickness of wind-blown sands. Later a marine transgression from the north established a shallow saline sea which produced a thickness of <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and significant evaporite deposits as it dried up.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Zechstein_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Zechstein Sea">Zechstein Sea</a> had completely evaporated by the end of the Permian. At the end of the Permian 95 per cent of animals and plants throughout the world became extinct. During the following Triassic period a hot and mainly arid climate continued but with flash floods from the south which deposited pebble beds in the mainly wind-deposited Sherwood sandstones. Another mass extinction at the end of this period saw 80 per cent of species disappear from earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the Triassic the <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian" title="Rhaetian">Rhaetic</a> ocean spread its shallow waters over the deserts to start the Jurassic period.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Triassic_Period28" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 2.7em; border-color: rgb(129,43,146);"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Triassic_footer" title="Template:Triassic footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Triassic_footer" title="Template talk:Triassic footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Triassic_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Triassic footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Triassic_Period28" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;border: none;;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Triassic" title="Early Triassic">Lower/Early Triassic</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle Triassic</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Triassic" title="Late Triassic">Upper/Late Triassic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Induan" title="Induan">Induan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olenekian" title="Olenekian">Olenekian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisian" title="Anisian">Anisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladinian" title="Ladinian">Ladinian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(129,43,146); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnian" title="Carnian">Carnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norian" title="Norian">Norian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhaetian" title="Rhaetian">Rhaetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jurassic">Jurassic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Jurassic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg/220px-Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg/330px-Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg/440px-Spaunton_Quarry_Yorkshire_Coralline_Oolite_Formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Coralline Oolite Formation (Upper Jurassic, Oxfordian) in Spaunton Quarry, Yorkshire.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG/220px-Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG/330px-Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG/440px-Ravenswick_Quarry_Malton_Oolite.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Malton Oolite (Upper Jurassic, Oxfordian) in Ravenswick Quarry, Yorkshire.</figcaption></figure> <p>A shallow epicontinental sea, normally less than 100m deep, spread over the British area during this period. Britain at this time lay between 30° and 40° north of the equator. However, the Pennines, along with parts of Wales and Scotland were probably above sea level for most of the time. During the early and middle Jurassic an area of uplift around Market Weighton affected the way that sediments were deposited causing thinner bands of Jurassic rocks to be formed immediately north and south of the uplifted block. </p><p>The main area of Jurassic deposition in Yorkshire was the North York Moors. </p> <ul><li><b>Lower Jurassic</b> At the beginning of the Jurassic period shales, clays and thin limestones and sandstones were deposited in a shallow sea. These deposits are many metres thick and include layers of ironstone of various thicknesses and the rocks from which alum is extracted.</li> <li><b>Middle Jurassic</b> A period of gradual uplift happened when mudstone and sandstone were deposited on a low-lying coastal plain crossed by large rivers. Occasionally this land area was inundated by the sea and at these times calcareous rocks containing marine fossils were deposited. These are the <a href="/wiki/Ravenscar_Group" title="Ravenscar Group">Ravenscar Group</a> of rocks. The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Clay" title="Oxford Clay">Oxford Clay</a> was deposited at the end of this era.</li> <li><b>Upper Jurassic</b> Towards the end of the Jurassic period the land again sank beneath the sea. At first the sea was shallow and calcareous sandstones and limestones were deposited. These are the <a href="/wiki/Corallian_Limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Corallian Limestone">Corallian rocks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tabular_Hills" title="Tabular Hills">Tabular Hills</a> towards the south of the area. Overlying the Corallian rocks is the <a href="/wiki/Kimmeridge_Clay" title="Kimmeridge Clay">Kimmeridge Clay</a> which underlies the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_Pickering" title="Vale of Pickering">Vale of Pickering</a> but this is not exposed on the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Marine conditions continued into the Cretaceous period in the Yorkshire area.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurassic_Period28" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 2.7em; border-color: rgb(52,178,201);"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurassic_footer" title="Template:Jurassic footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurassic_footer" title="Template talk:Jurassic footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jurassic_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jurassic footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jurassic_Period28" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;border: none;;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Lower/Early Jurassic</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Jurassic" title="Middle Jurassic">Middle Jurassic</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Upper/Late Jurassic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hettangian" title="Hettangian">Hettangian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinemurian" title="Sinemurian">Sinemurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliensbachian" title="Pliensbachian">Pliensbachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toarcian" title="Toarcian">Toarcian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aalenian" title="Aalenian">Aalenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajocian" title="Bajocian">Bajocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathonian" title="Bathonian">Bathonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callovian" title="Callovian">Callovian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(52,178,201); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxfordian_(stage)" title="Oxfordian (stage)">Oxfordian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmeridgian" title="Kimmeridgian">Kimmeridgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tithonian" title="Tithonian">Tithonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cretaceous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Cretaceous period lasted for 80 million years. It was during this time that the North Atlantic was formed as North America and Europe drifted apart. To the north of the Market Weighton block only small amounts of deposit were laid down in the early part of the Cretaceous. These were the Speeton clays which are 100m thick and lie directly on the Jurassic deposits at Filey Bay. Above this clay is a 14m thick layer of red chalk coloured by impurities washing from the land. Later in the Cretaceous seawater covered the whole of southern Britain and deposited a layer of chalk up to 550m thick forming a great swathe from Flamborough Head to the Channel coast. At the end of the Cretaceous period there was another mass extinction of life with 75 per cent of all life becoming extinct, including the dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cretaceous_Period32" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 2.7em; border-color: rgb(127,198,78);"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cretaceous_footer" title="Template:Cretaceous footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cretaceous_footer" title="Template talk:Cretaceous footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cretaceous_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cretaceous footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cretaceous_Period32" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous Period</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;border: none;;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(127,198,78); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Lower/Early Cretaceous</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 0 2px 2px 2px; border-color:rgb(127,198,78); text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Upper/Late Cretaceous</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(127,198,78); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berriasian" title="Berriasian">Berriasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauterivian" title="Hauterivian">Hauterivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barremian" title="Barremian">Barremian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptian" title="Aptian">Aptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albian" title="Albian">Albian</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;background-color: #ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width: 2px 0 0 0; border-color:rgb(127,198,78); text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cenomanian" title="Cenomanian">Cenomanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turonian" title="Turonian">Turonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniacian" title="Coniacian">Coniacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santonian" title="Santonian">Santonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campanian" title="Campanian">Campanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian" title="Maastrichtian">Maastrichtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleogene_and_Neogene">Paleogene and Neogene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Paleogene and Neogene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>, the British land mass drifted northwards from 40°N to its present latitude. It was also moved eastwards by the widening of the Atlantic Ocean and there was violent volcanic activity over north west Britain. It was in this period that the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Dyke" title="Cleveland Dyke">Cleveland Dyke</a> was formed, originating from volcanic activity near the Scottish island of <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Mull" title="Isle of Mull">Mull</a>. The highlands and lowlands of Britain assumed their present relative positions by the late Neogene, about 2 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quaternary">Quaternary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Quaternary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Towards the end of the Tertiary period there were repeated cycles of warmer and cooler climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each cycle had a period of about 10,000 years and they became more pronounced in the last two million years. Seventeen cycles of cold and <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> climate are recognised in Britain with three positive episodes of actual <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a> being confirmed. The latest glacial episode destroyed much of the evidence for former ones but traces do exist. On each occasion ice fields formed on the higher land and sent glaciers down the main valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-pen_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was scouring of material from the valley sides by the glaciers and this was deposited on lower ground as the ice retreated when the climate became warmer. In Yorkshire the higher land of the North York Moors stood proud of the glaciers, the Pennine valleys show classic glacial features and there was abundant deposition in the Vale of York and Holderness as the ice melted.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Toghill_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topography">Topography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Topography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_peaks_in_the_Yorkshire_Dales" title="List of peaks in the Yorkshire Dales">List of peaks in the Yorkshire Dales</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg/350px-Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg/525px-Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg/700px-Yorkshire-Subregions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1781" data-file-height="1445" /></a><figcaption>The topography of Yorkshire</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pennines">The Pennines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Pennines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg/220px-Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg/330px-Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg/440px-Limestone_pavement_above_Malham_Cove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Limestone pavement above <a href="/wiki/Malham_Cove" title="Malham Cove">Malham Cove</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pennines" title="Pennines">Pennines</a> form an <a href="/wiki/Anticline" title="Anticline">anticline</a> which extends in a north–south direction, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Grit" title="Millstone Grit">Millstone Grit</a> and the underlying <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a>. The limestone is exposed at the surface to the north of the range in the <a href="/wiki/North_Pennines" title="North Pennines">North Pennines</a> AONB.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_Dales" title="Yorkshire Dales">Yorkshire Dales</a> this limestone exposure has led to the formation of large cave systems and watercourses, known as "gills" and "pots". These potholes are more prevalent on the eastern side and are amongst the largest in England; notable examples are the chasms of <a href="/wiki/Gaping_Gill" title="Gaping Gill">Gaping Gill</a>, which is over 350 ft (107 m) deep and <a href="/wiki/Rowten_Pot" title="Rowten Pot">Rowten Pot</a>, which is 365 ft (111 m) deep. The presence of limestone has also led to some unusual geological formations in the region, such as the <a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavements</a> of the Yorkshire Pennines. Between the Northern and Southern areas of exposed limestone, between Skipton and the Peak, lies a narrow belt of gritstone country. Here the shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied by moors and peat-mosses with the higher ground being uncultivable and barely fit for pastures.<sup id="cite_ref-pen_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pen-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The landscape of the Pennines is generally upland areas of high <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moorland</a> indented by the more fertile valleys of the region's various rivers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Yorkshire_Coalfield">The Yorkshire Coalfield</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Yorkshire Coalfield"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_Yorkshire_Coalfield" title="South Yorkshire Coalfield">South Yorkshire Coalfield</a></div> <p>The coalfield area is underlain by <a href="/wiki/Coal_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal Measures">Coal Measures</a> which consist mainly of mudstone with beds of sandstone and many seams of <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>. The sandstones resist erosion so they form a recurring pattern of escarpments that stand out from the shallow mudstone floors of the valleys. The major rivers crossing the area have carved broad valleys which have been glaciated and are floored by fertile alluvial deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Magnesian_Limestone_Belt">The Magnesian Limestone Belt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Magnesian Limestone Belt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Magnesian_Limestone" title="Magnesian Limestone">Magnesian Limestone</a> belt forms a narrow north–south oriented strip of undulating land on the eastern edge of the Pennines overlooking the Vale of York. The <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">magnesian limestone</a> deposits were laid down in an evaporating inland sea in the Permian period.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are made up of a lower layer of <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">dolomite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, which form the dominant landscape feature, overlain by red mudstone with <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>. The upper layer is made of a similar sequence. There are numerous swallow holes caused by the underground dissolution of limestone and gypsum.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sequence can be seen clearly where it is cut by rivers in the <a href="/wiki/River_Nidd" title="River Nidd">Nidd</a> gorge at <a href="/wiki/Knaresborough" title="Knaresborough">Knaresborough</a>, the <a href="/wiki/River_Wharfe" title="River Wharfe">Wharfe</a> valley at <a href="/wiki/Wetherby" title="Wetherby">Wetherby</a> and the <a href="/wiki/River_Don,_South_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="River Don, South Yorkshire">Don</a> gorge near <a href="/wiki/Doncaster" title="Doncaster">Doncaster</a>. The York and Escrick glacial moraines swing north and merge north of Wetherby to cover the magnesian limestone with glacial deposits. In the <a href="/wiki/Bedale" title="Bedale">Bedale</a> area and northwards, these deposits are so extensive as to mask the limestone topography. South of Wetherby there is only a thin layer of glacial deposits overlying the limestone. The soils here are from the limestone and clay deposits and are generally very fertile. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Vales_of_Mowbray_and_York">The Vales of Mowbray and York</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Vales of Mowbray and York"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beneath the drift deposits of the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_York" title="Vale of York">Vale of York</a> lie <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> sandstone and mudstone, and lower <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> mudstone but these are completely masked by the surface deposits. These deposits include glacial till, sand and gravel and both terminal and recessional moraines left by receding ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The Escrick moraine extends across the vale from west to east and the York moraine, 8 miles further north, forms a similar curving ridge from York eastwards to Sand Hutton. To the north of these ridges are deposits of clay, sand and gravel left by a glacial lake. There are also areas of river alluvium consisting of clay, silt and sand deposited by the main rivers and streams.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_North_York_Moors">The North York Moors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The North York Moors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYMGmap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NYMGmap.jpg/400px-NYMGmap.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NYMGmap.jpg/600px-NYMGmap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/NYMGmap.jpg/800px-NYMGmap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3440" data-file-height="2181" /></a><figcaption>Simplified geology of the North York Moors</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_North_York_Moors_National_Park" title="Geology of North York Moors National Park">Geology of North York Moors National Park</a></div> <p>The geology of the <a href="/wiki/North_York_Moors" title="North York Moors">North York Moors</a> is dominated by rocks of the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period. They were mostly laid down in tropical seas 205 to 142 million years ago. Fluctuations in sea level produced different rock types varying from shales to sandstones and limestones derived from coral. These marine and delta deposited rocks are superbly exposed on the Yorkshire coast from Staithes to Filey.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYMprofile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/NYMprofile.jpg/300px-NYMprofile.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/NYMprofile.jpg/450px-NYMprofile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/NYMprofile.jpg/600px-NYMprofile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1688" data-file-height="883" /></a><figcaption>A cross section of the geology of the North York Moors</figcaption></figure> <p>Subsequently, about 30 million years ago, the land was uplifted and tilted towards the south by earth movements. The upper layers of rock were eroded away and the older rocks were exposed in places. Because of the tilt the oldest rocks became exposed in the north. These are the bands of shales and ironstones on the northern scarp of the moors and Cleveland Hills. The middle layers form the sandstones of the high moors and the youngest layers of limestone form the tabular hills. In the dales where the rivers have cut through the younger rocks there are also exposures of older shales, ironstone and sandstone. Rosedale is an example of this.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg/220px-Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg/330px-Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Boulby_Cliff_-_geograph.org.uk_-_136308.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> strata of Boulby Cliff</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> period, the last 2 million years, the area has experienced a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciations</a>. The most recent glaciation, the <a href="/wiki/Devensian" class="mw-redirect" title="Devensian">Devensian</a>, ended about 10,000 years ago. The higher parts of the North York Moors were not covered by the ice sheets but glaciers flowed southwards on either side of the higher land mass. </p><p>As the climate became warmer at the end of the ice age the snowfields on the moors began to melt. The meltwater was unable to escape northwards, westwards or eastwards because it was blocked by ice. Huge torrents of water were forced southwards. Water from the Esk valley area flowed southwards gouging out the deep Newtondale valley as it went. Water from the moors formed a vast lake in the area of the Vale of Pickering. Eventually this lake filled its basin and then overflowed at the lowest point which was at Kirkham. Here it cut the steep sided Kirkham gorge. When the glacier finally retreated they left deep deposits of boulder clay and glacial alluvium behind. The boulder clay blocked the eastern end of the Vale of Pickering causing a permanent deviation in the course of the River Derwent. Alluvium from the glaciers covers many areas to the north of the moors and in the Esk valley<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Vale_of_Pickering">The Vale of Pickering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The Vale of Pickering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The site of the post glacial <a href="/wiki/Lake_Pickering" title="Lake Pickering">Lake Pickering</a>, the vale has a predominantly level topography covered by glacial drift deposits, with some rolling low ground on boulder clay and moraines in the far east. The underlying Jurassic sandstones and mudstones have little direct influence upon the landscape. There are minor outliers of <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> limestone in places at the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Howardian_Hills" title="Howardian Hills">Howardian Hills</a> and the North York Moors, and there is some eroded chalk from the Wolds mixed with sands at the base of the Wolds in the south-east. There are springs associated with calcareous aquifers in places on the periphery of the vale.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Yorkshire_Wolds">The Yorkshire Wolds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Yorkshire Wolds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg/220px-Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg/330px-Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg/440px-Flamborough_Head_-_geograph.org.uk_-_53865.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> chalk cliffs at Flamborough Head</figcaption></figure> <p>The hills are formed from <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>, and make an arc from the <a href="/wiki/Humber" title="Humber">Humber</a> estuary west of <a href="/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull" title="Kingston upon Hull">Kingston upon Hull</a> up to the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> coast between <a href="/wiki/Bridlington" title="Bridlington">Bridlington</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scarborough,_North_Yorkshire" title="Scarborough, North Yorkshire">Scarborough</a>. Here they rise up to form cliffs, most notably at <a href="/wiki/Flamborough_Head" title="Flamborough Head">Flamborough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bempton_Cliffs" title="Bempton Cliffs">Bempton Cliffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filey" title="Filey">Filey</a>; Flamborough Headland is designated a <a href="/wiki/Heritage_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Heritage Coast">Heritage Coast</a>. On the other side of the Humber, the chalk formations continue as the <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire_Wolds" title="Lincolnshire Wolds">Lincolnshire Wolds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the area takes the form of an elevated, gently rolling plateau, cut by numerous deep, steep-sided, flat-bottomed valleys of glacial origin. The chalk formation of the hills provides exceptionally good drainage, with the result that most of these valleys are dry; indeed, surface water is quite scarce throughout the Wolds. Typically the valleys are hard to see from above, creating the visual impression that the landscape is much flatter than is actually the case.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayner_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holderness">Holderness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Holderness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aldbrough_(Mount_Pleasant)_No_Parking!_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg/220px-Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg/330px-Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg/440px-Aldbrough_%28Mount_Pleasant%29_No_Parking%21_-_geograph.org.uk_-_239850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Aldbrough, Holderness. Coastal erosion.</figcaption></figure> <p>Geologically, Holderness is underlain by <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> Chalk but in most places it is so deeply buried beneath glacial deposits that it has no influence on the landscape. The landscape is dominated by deposits of till, boulder clays and glacial lake clays. These were deposited during the <a href="/wiki/Devensian" class="mw-redirect" title="Devensian">Devensian</a> glaciation. The glacial deposits form a more or less continuous lowland plain which has some peat filled depressions (known locally as meres) which mark the presence of former lake beds. There are other glacial landscape features such as <a href="/wiki/Drumlin" title="Drumlin">drumlin</a> mounds, ridges and kettle holes scattered throughout the area.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The well-drained glacial deposits provide fertile soils that can support intensive arable cultivation. Fields are generally large and bounded by drainage ditches. There is very little woodland in the area and this leads to a landscape that is essentially rural but very flat and exposed. The coast is subject to rapid marine erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Humberhead_Levels">The Humberhead Levels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Humberhead Levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg/220px-Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg/330px-Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg/440px-Footpath_Through_the_Humberhead_Peatlands_-_geograph.org.uk_-_645204.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A footpath through the Humberhead nature reserve</figcaption></figure> <p>During the last ice age, a glacier extended across this area almost to where Doncaster now is. The main glacial front was at Escrick where the Escrick moraine marks its position. This formed the northern limit of an extensive lake, <a href="/wiki/Humberhead_Levels#Glacial_Lake_Humber" title="Humberhead Levels">Glacial Lake Humber</a>, which was impounded by the blocking of the <a href="/wiki/Humber_Gap" title="Humber Gap">Humber Gap</a> by another ice front. Later the lake was filled with clay sediments which are up to 20 metres thick in some places. These clay sediments are locally overlain by peat deposits forming raised mires. At the base of the peat layers can be found the remains of a buried forest.<sup id="cite_ref-east_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-east-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JCA_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JCA-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geological_Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest_in_Yorkshire">Geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Yorkshire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Yorkshire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_SSSIs_in_North_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of SSSIs in North Yorkshire">List of SSSIs in North Yorkshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_SSSIs_in_South_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of SSSIs in South Yorkshire">South Yorkshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_SSSIs_in_West_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of SSSIs in West Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_SSSIs_in_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="List of SSSIs in East Riding of Yorkshire">East Riding of Yorkshire</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="200">Site name </th> <th width="100">Grid ref </th> <th width="250">Geological feature<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Millington Wood and Pastures </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.979578_N_0.705398_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SE850545</a></span> </td> <td>Dry chalk valleys </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rifle Butts Quarry </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.871843_N_0.635720_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SE898426</a></span> </td> <td>Cretaceous red chalk </td></tr> <tr> <td>Withow Gap, Skipsea </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.973931_N_0.197835_W_region:GB_scale:25000">TA183546</a></span> </td> <td>Glacial lake deposits </td></tr> <tr> <td>Flamborough Head </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.995787_N_0.216724_W_region:GB_scale:25000">TA170570</a></span> </td> <td>Upper Cretaceous chalk cliffs </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malham – Arncliffe </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=54.100629_N_2.123830_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SD920672</a></span> </td> <td>Carboniferous limestone weathering </td></tr> <tr> <td>Robin Hood's Bay </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=54.460469_N_0.549879_W_region:GB_scale:25000">NZ941082</a></span> </td> <td>Jurassic strata </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Newton_Dale" title="Newton Dale">Newtondale</a> </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=54.312517_N_0.741086_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SE820915</a></span> </td> <td>Glacial overflow channel </td></tr> <tr> <td>Micklefield Quarry </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.786917_N_1.324547_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SE446325</a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">Magnesian limestone</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Elmsall Quarry </td> <td align="center"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion" style="white-space: nowrap"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Geology_of_Yorkshire&params=53.598743_N_1.270131_W_region:GB_scale:25000">SE484116</a></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">Magnesian limestone</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pen-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pen_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pen_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pen_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pen_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsTrotter1954" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, W.; Trotter, F. M. (1954). "The Pennines and Adjacent Areas". <i>British Regional Geology</i> (3rd ed.). London: HMSO. Natural Environment Research Council.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Regional+Geology&rft.atitle=The+Pennines+and+Adjacent+Areas&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Trotter%2C+F.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-east-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-east_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKentGaunt1980" class="citation book cs1">Kent, Sir Peter; Gaunt, G. D. (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britishregionalg0000kent"><i>Eastern England from the Tees to the Wash</i></a></span>. British Regional Geology (2nd ed.). London: HMSO. Natural Environment Research Council. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-884121-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-11-884121-1"><bdi>0-11-884121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+England+from+the+Tees+to+the+Wash&rft.place=London&rft.series=British+Regional+Geology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=HMSO.+Natural+Environment+Research+Council&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-11-884121-1&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Sir+Peter&rft.au=Gaunt%2C+G.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritishregionalg0000kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rayner-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayner_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaynerHemingway1974" class="citation journal cs1">Rayner, D. H.; Hemingway, J. E., eds. (1974). "The Geology and Mineral Resources Of Yorkshire". <i>Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society</i>. Leeds: Yorkshire Geological Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Yorkshire+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=The+Geology+and+Mineral+Resources+Of+Yorkshire&rft.date=1974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Toghill-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toghill_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFToghill2000" class="citation book cs1">Toghill, Peter (2000). <i>The Geology of Britain: An Introduction</i>. Shrewsbury: Swan Hill Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85310-890-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85310-890-1"><bdi>1-85310-890-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geology+of+Britain%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Shrewsbury&rft.pub=Swan+Hill+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85310-890-1&rft.aulast=Toghill&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStaniforth1993" class="citation book cs1">Staniforth, Alan (1993). <i>Geology of the North York Moors</i>. Helmsley: North York Moors National Park Information Service. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907480-21-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-907480-21-7"><bdi>0-907480-21-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+of+the+North+York+Moors&rft.place=Helmsley&rft.pub=North+York+Moors+National+Park+Information+Service&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-907480-21-7&rft.aulast=Staniforth&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/landscape/englands/character/areas/vale_of_york.aspx">"The Vale of York"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Natural England<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Vale+of+York&rft.pub=Natural+England&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturalengland.org.uk%2Fourwork%2Flandscape%2Fenglands%2Fcharacter%2Fareas%2Fvale_of_york.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOsbornBowden2005" class="citation book cs1">Osborn, Roger; Bowden, Alistair (2005). <i>The Dinosaur Coast</i>. Helmsley: North York Moors National Park. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907480-88-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-907480-88-8"><bdi>0-907480-88-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dinosaur+Coast&rft.place=Helmsley&rft.pub=North+York+Moors+National+Park&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-907480-88-8&rft.aulast=Osborn&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Bowden%2C+Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSprattHarrison1989" class="citation book cs1">Spratt, D. A.; Harrison (1989). <i>The North York Moors Landscape Heritage</i>. Helmsley, Yorkshire: North York Moors National Park. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907480-58-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-907480-58-6"><bdi>0-907480-58-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+North+York+Moors+Landscape+Heritage&rft.place=Helmsley%2C+Yorkshire&rft.pub=North+York+Moors+National+Park&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-907480-58-6&rft.aulast=Spratt&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Harrison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170111063316/http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/science/natural/profiles/naProfile20.pdf">"The Plain of Holderness Natural Area Profile"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 1977. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/science/natural/profiles/naProfile20.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Plain+of+Holderness+Natural+Area+Profile&rft.date=1977&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk%2Fscience%2Fnatural%2Fprofiles%2FnaProfile20.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JCA-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JCA_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/landscape/englands/character/areas/humberhead_levels.aspx">"Humberhead Levels Character Area"</a>. Natural England<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Humberhead+Levels+Character+Area&rft.pub=Natural+England&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturalengland.org.uk%2Fourwork%2Flandscape%2Fenglands%2Fcharacter%2Fareas%2Fhumberhead_levels.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.natureonthemap.naturalengland.org.uk/magicmap.aspx">"Nature on the Map"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Natural_England" title="Natural England">Natural England</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nature+on+the+Map&rft.pub=Natural+England&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.natureonthemap.naturalengland.org.uk%2Fmagicmap.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRodgers1978" class="citation book cs1">Rodgers, Peter R. (1978). <i>Geology of the Yorkshire Dales</i>. Clapham, N. Yorkshire: Dalesman Books. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852064829" title="Special:BookSources/0852064829"><bdi>0852064829</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+of+the+Yorkshire+Dales&rft.place=Clapham%2C+N.+Yorkshire&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Dalesman+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0852064829&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeology+of+Yorkshire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgs.ac.uk/magazine/geology/home.html">British Geological Survey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yorksgeolsoc.org.uk">Yorkshire Geological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds School of Earth and Environment</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121223130658/http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/geography/research/groups/esdas">University of Sheffield Earth-Surface Dynamics Group (Dept. of Geography)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cpgs.org.uk/">Craven and Pendle Geological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huddersfieldgeology.org.uk/">Huddersfield Geology Group</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hullgeolsoc.org.uk">Hull Geological Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120410204921/http://www.leedsgeolassoc.freeserve.co.uk/">Leeds Geological Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avm-branding.com/neygt/">North East Yorkshire Geological Trust</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotundamuseum.co.uk/rotunda-museum/support-us/The%20Rotunda%20Geology%20Group">Rotunda Geology Group (Scarborough)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sorby.org.uk/">Sorby Natural History Society (Sheffield) Geology Section</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/groups/regional/yrg">Yorkshire Regional Group of the Geological Society of London</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/region_Europe.html">GeoWhen Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530154329/http://www.dinocoast.org.uk/pdf/forge_valley_geology_trail.pdf">Forge Valley Geological Trail leaflet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.natureonthemap.naturalengland.org.uk/map.aspx?map=geology">Geological Sites – Nature on the Map</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="15px&#124;link=_Yorkshire551" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Yorkshire" title="Template:Yorkshire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Yorkshire" title="Template talk:Yorkshire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Yorkshire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Yorkshire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="15px&#124;link=_Yorkshire551" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Yorkshire_rose.svg/15px-Yorkshire_rose.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Yorkshire_rose.svg/23px-Yorkshire_rose.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Yorkshire_rose.svg/30px-Yorkshire_rose.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="264" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_counties_of_England" title="Ceremonial counties of England">Ceremonial counties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="East Riding of Yorkshire">East Riding of Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yorkshire" title="North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yorkshire" title="South Yorkshire">South Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Yorkshire" title="West Yorkshire">West Yorkshire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Yorkshire" title="History of local government in Yorkshire">Historic divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="East Riding of Yorkshire">East Riding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="North Riding of Yorkshire">North Riding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Riding_of_Yorkshire" title="West Riding of Yorkshire">West Riding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainsty" title="Ainsty">Ainsty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wapentakes_in_Yorkshire" title="List of wapentakes in Yorkshire">Wapentakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Sheriff_of_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="High Sheriff of Yorkshire">High Sheriffs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geology of Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topographical_areas_of_Yorkshire" title="Topographical areas of Yorkshire">Topographical areas of Yorkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Yorkshire" title="List of places in Yorkshire">Cities, towns and villages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yorkshire" title="History of Yorkshire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigantes" title="Brigantes">Brigantia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parisii_(Yorkshire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parisii (Yorkshire)">Parisiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_York" title="History of York">Ebrauc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deira" title="Deira">Deira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">Jórvík</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1931_Dogger_Bank_earthquake" title="1931 Dogger Bank earthquake">Dogger Bank earthquake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture and heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Yorkshire" title="Culture of Yorkshire">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_dialect" title="Yorkshire dialect">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Yorkshire" title="Tourism in Yorkshire">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Ilkla_Moor_Baht_%27at" title="On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at">On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Yorkshire" title="List of people from Yorkshire">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_and_symbols_of_Yorkshire" title="Flags and symbols of Yorkshire">Flags and symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York">White Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorkshire_Day" title="Yorkshire Day">Yorkshire Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God%27s_Own_Country#Yorkshire" title="God's Own Country">God's Own County/Country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Yorkshire" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Yorkshire">WikiProject</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Yorkshire" title="Portal:Yorkshire">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Yorkshire" title="Category:Yorkshire">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geology_of_England54" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology_of_England" title="Template:Geology of England"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology_of_England" title="Template talk:Geology of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology of England"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geology_of_England54" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_England" title="Geology of England">Geology of England</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Counties_of_England" title="Counties of England">Counties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Bedfordshire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Bedfordshire (page does not exist)">Bedfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Berkshire" title="Geology of Berkshire">Berkshire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Buckinghamshire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Buckinghamshire (page does not exist)">Buckinghamshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Cambridgeshire" title="Geology of Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Cheshire" title="Geology of Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Cornwall" title="Geology of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_County_Durham" title="Geology of County Durham">County Durham</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Cumbria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Cumbria (page does not exist)">Cumbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbyshire#Geology" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Devon" class="mw-redirect" title="Geology of Devon">Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Dorset" title="Geology of Dorset">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_East_Sussex" title="Geology of East Sussex">East Sussex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Essex" title="Geology of Essex">Essex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Gloucestershire" title="Geology of Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Greater_Manchester&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Greater Manchester (page does not exist)">Greater Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Hampshire" title="Geology of Hampshire">Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Herefordshire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Herefordshire (page does not exist)">Herefordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Hertfordshire" title="Geology of Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="Geology of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Kent" title="Geology of Kent">Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Lancashire" title="Geology of Lancashire">Lancashire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geology_of_Leicestershire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geology of Leicestershire (page does not exist)">Leicestershire</a></li> <li><a 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